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天子者，爵稱也。爵所以稱天子者何？王者父天母地，為天之子也。故《援神契》曰：「天覆地載謂之天子，上法斗極。」《鉤命決》曰：「天子，爵稱也。」帝王之德有優劣，所以俱稱天子者何？以其俱命於天，而王治五千里內也。《》曰：「」何以知帝亦稱天子也，以法天下也？《中候》曰：「天子臣放勳。」《書逸篇》曰：「厥兆天子爵。」何以「言皇」亦稱天子也？以其言天覆地載俱王天下也。故《》曰：「伏羲氏之王天下也。」 |
| | The Son of Heaven is a title of rank. Why is the title "Son of Heaven" used for the Son of Heaven? The sovereign takes heaven as his father and earth as his mother, thus he is called the son of heaven. Therefore, the Yuan Shen Qi says: "He who is sheltered by heaven and borne by earth is called the Son of Heaven; he follows above the North Dipper and the Pole Star." The Gou Ming Jue says: "Son of Heaven is a title of rank." Although the virtue of emperors and sovereigns may vary in quality, why are they all called Son of Heaven? Because they are both mandated by heaven, and their rule extends within a five-thousand-li territory. The Shang Shu says: "The Son of Heaven becomes the father and mother of the people, thus becoming the ruler of all under heaven." Why do we know that emperors are also called Son of Heaven in order to establish law over the world? The Zhong Hou says: "The Son of Heaven appointed Fang Xun as a minister." The Shu Yi Pian says: "Its omen is the title of Son of Heaven." Why is "Yuang Huang" also called the Son of Heaven? Because it signifies that he, like the Son of Heaven, is sheltered by heaven and supported by earth, thus ruling over all under heaven. Therefore, the Yi Jing says: "The reign of Fuxi Shi over all under heaven."
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爵有五等，以法五行也；或三等者，法三光也。或法三光，或法五行何？質家者據天，故法三光；文家者據地，故法五行。《含文嘉》曰：「殷爵三等，周爵五等，各有宜也。」《》曰：「王者之制祿爵凡五等。」謂公、侯、伯、子、男。此周制也。所以名之為公侯者何。公者通公正無私之意也。侯者，候也。候逆順也。《》曰：「王者之後稱公，其餘人皆千乘，像雷震百里所潤同。大國稱侯，小者伯、子、男也。」《》曰：「」伯者百也。子者孳也孳孳無已也。男者，任也。人皆五十里，差次功德，小者不滿為附庸，附庸者，附大國以名通也。百里兩爵、公侯共之，七十里一爵，五十里復兩爵何？公者，加尊二王之後，侯者百里之正爵士，上有可次，下有可第，中央故無二。五十里有兩爵者，所以加勉進人也。小國下爵，猶有尊卑，亦以勸人也。殷爵三等，謂公、侯、伯也，所以合子、男從伯者何？王者受命，改文從質，無虛退人之義，故上就伯也。《》曰：「侯、甸、任、衛，作國伯。」謂殷也。《》曰：「合伯、子、男為一爵。」或曰：合從子，貴中也。以《春秋》名鄭忽，忽者，鄭伯也。此未踰年之君當稱子，嫌為改赴。故名之也。地有三等不變，至爵獨變者何？地比爵為質，故不變。為質故不變，王者有改道之文，無改道之實。家所以令公居百里、侯居七十里何也？封賢極於百里。其政也，不可空退人，示優賢之意，欲褒尊而上之。何以知殷家侯人不過七十里者也？曰：士上有三等，有百里、有七十里，有五十里。其地半者其數倍，制地之理體也，多少不相配。 |
| | There are five ranks of titles, corresponding to the Five Elements; Some have three ranks, corresponding to the Three Lights. It is either modeled after the Three Lights or the Five Elements—why? The scholars of the Zhi School base themselves on heaven, hence they model their system after the Three Lights; The scholars of the Wen School base themselves on earth, hence they model their system after the Five Elements. The Han Wen Jia says: "The Shang Dynasty had three ranks of titles, and the Zhou Dynasty had five ranks; each was appropriate to its own time." The Wang Zhi says: "The system of salaries and titles established by the sovereign consists of five ranks in total." They are Duke, Marquis, Viscount, Earl, and Baron. This is the system of the Zhou Dynasty. Why are they called Duke and Marquis? The term "gong" (Duke) signifies impartiality, fairness, and openness. "Hou" (Marquis) means to watch or await. It refers to observing what is in accordance with or contrary to the Mandate of Heaven. The Chun Qiu Zhuan says: "The descendants of a sovereign are called Gong, while the rest are all lords with a thousand chariots, symbolizing how thunder shakes and moistens within a hundred li equally." The great states were called Hou (Marquis), while the smaller ones were Bo (Viscount), Zi (Earl), and Nan (Baron). The Wang Zhi says: "Dukes and Marquises have square territories of one hundred li, Viscounts seventy li, and Earls and Barons fifty li." "Bo" (Viscount) signifies the number one hundred. "Zi" (Earl) means to multiply or proliferate, signifying ceaseless diligence and effort. "Nan" (Baron) means to bear a responsibility. All people are granted territories of fifty li, but the distribution is based on merit and virtue; those with lesser status may receive less than that and become vassals. A vassal is one who attaches himself to a great state in order to be recognized by name. A territory of one hundred li corresponds to two ranks, shared by Gong and Hou; seventy li corresponds to one rank; why does fifty li also correspond to two ranks? The title of Gong (Duke) is an added mark of respect for the descendants of two former sovereigns; Hou (Marquis) is the proper rank for a lord with a territory of one hundred li. There are higher ranks above and lower ones below, so there is no duplication in the middle. There are two ranks for those with a fifty-li territory in order to encourage and motivate people further. Even the lower ranks of small states still have distinctions of honor and status, also intended to encourage people. The Shang Dynasty had three ranks: Gong (Duke), Hou (Marquis), and Bo (Viscount). Why were Zi (Earl) and Nan (Baron) grouped with Bo? When a sovereign received the Mandate of Heaven, he changed from the Wen system to the Zhi system; there was no meaning in lowering or degrading people without cause, so Zi and Nan were elevated to be included under Bo. The Shang Shu says: "Hou, Dian, Ren, Wei—these were made into the rank of Bo (Viscount)." This refers to the Shang Dynasty. The Chun Qiu Zhuan says: "Bo, Zi, and Nan were combined into a single rank." Some say: They were merged with Zi (Earl) as an expression of honor within the middle ranks. According to the Chun Qiu, Duke Hū is named, and Hū was the Bo (Viscount) of Zheng. This refers to a ruler who had not yet surpassed the mourning period and should have been called Zi, but there was concern that this might imply a change in status. Therefore, he was given his name. The land holdings had three ranks that remained unchanged—why then did the titles alone change? Land is compared to rank as substance, hence it remains unchanged. Because land represents the material essence, it does not change; a sovereign may have the written form of changing ways, but not the actual reality of doing so. Why did the system assign Dukes to rule over one hundred li and Marquises over seventy li? The highest grant for a virtuous person was a territory of one hundred li. Its governance could not allow the arbitrary demotion of people, as it demonstrated respect for virtue and excellence, aiming to honor and elevate them. How do we know that in the Shang Dynasty a Hou (Marquis) did not hold more than seventy li of territory? It is said: Above commoners there were three ranks, one hundred li, seventy li, and fifty li. The territory was halved but the number doubled—this is the principle underlying land distribution; thus, quantity and size were not proportionally matched.
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公、卿、大夫者，何謂也？內爵稱也。曰公、卿、大夫何？爵者，盡也，各量其職盡其才也。公之為言公正無私也；卿之為言章，善明理也；大夫之為言大，扶進人者也。故《傳》曰：「進賢達能，謂之大夫也。士者事也，任事之稱也。」故《傳》曰：「古今辯然否，謂之士。」《禮》曰：「四十強而士。」不言「爵為士」。至五十爵為大夫何。何以知士非爵？何以知卿為爵也。以大夫知卿亦爵也。何以知公為爵也？《》曰：「諸侯四佾，諸公六佾。」合而言之，以是知公卿為爵。內爵所以三等何？亦法三光也。所以不變質文何？內者為本，故不改內也。諸侯所以無公爵者，下天子也。故《》曰：「上大夫、下大夫、上士、中士、下士，凡五等。」此謂諸侯臣也。大夫但有上、下何？明卑者多也。爵皆一字也，大夫獨兩字何？《》曰：「大夫無遂事。」以為大夫，職在之適四方，受君之法，施之於民，故獨兩字下之。或曰大夫，爵之下者也。稱大夫，明從大夫以上受下施，皆大自著也。天子之士獨稱元士何？士賤不得體君之尊，故加元以別諸侯之士也。《禮經》曰：「士見大夫。」諸侯之士。《》曰：「王者八十一元士。」天子爵連言天子，諸侯爵不連言王侯何？即言王侯，以王者同稱，為衰弱人替差生篡弒，猶不能為天子也，故連言天子也。或曰：王者天爵，王者不能生諸侯，故不言王侯；諸侯人事自著，故不著也。王者太子亦稱士何？舉從下升，以為人無生得貴者，莫不由士起，是以舜時稱為天子，必先試於士禮。《士冠經》曰：「天子之元子士也。」 |
| | What are "Gong," "Qing," and "Da Fu"? They are titles of internal ranks. It means Gong (Minister), Qing (High Minister), and Da Fu (Great Officer). The term "jue" (title of rank) signifies completeness; it means that each person is measured according to their duties and their talents are fully utilized. "Gong," when spoken, signifies fairness, impartiality, and lack of self-interest; "Qing," when spoken, means to clarify—being good at understanding and elucidating principles; "Da Fu," when spoken, signifies "great"—it refers to one who supports and promotes others. Therefore, the Chuan says: "To recommend virtue and achieve capability is called Da Fu." "Shi" means to serve; it is a title for one who assumes responsibilities. Therefore, the Chuan says: "Those who distinguish between right and wrong in ancient and modern times are called Shi." The Li says: "At forty, one is strong enough to be a Shi." It does not say "the title of Jue is Shi." Why, by the age of fifty, does one receive the title of Da Fu? How do we know that "Shi" is not a rank or title? How do we know that "Qing" is a rank or title? Because the title of Da Fu indicates that Qing is also a rank. Because it is known that Qing and Da Fu are ranks, therefore Gong is also recognized as a rank. The Chun Qiu Zhuan says: "Lords of the fiefdoms have four rows of dancers, while the Gong (Dukes) have six rows." Taken together, this is how we know that Gong and Qing are ranks. Why are there three ranks of internal titles? It is also modeled after the Three Lights. Because it does not change with the alternation between the Zhi and Wen systems. The internal ranks are fundamental, hence they remain unchanged. The feudal lords do not have the rank of Gong (Duke) because they are subordinate to the Son of Heaven. Therefore, the Wang Zhi says: "There are Upper Da Fu, Lower Da Fu, Upper Shi, Middle Shi, and Lower Shi—five ranks in total." This refers to the ministers of the feudal lords. Why are there only Upper and Lower ranks for Da Fu? It signifies that there were more people of lower status. All titles are composed of a single character—why is "Da Fu" uniquely composed of two characters? The Chun Qiu Zhuan says: "A Da Fu has no authority to act independently in military matters." It is because the Da Fu's duty lies in traveling to all directions, receiving the ruler's laws, and implementing them among the people; therefore, it alone is given a two-character title. Some say that Da Fu is the lower rank of titles. The title "Da Fu" indicates that from those above the rank of Da Fu down to its holders, all are distinguished by their greatness and authority. Why is a Shi (commoner-official) under the Son of Heaven uniquely called Yuan Shi? A Shi is lowly and cannot embody the dignity of the sovereign, so the term "yuan" (original or fundamental) is added to distinguish the Son of Heaven's Shi from that of the feudal lords. The Li Jing says: "A Shi pays respects to a Da Fu." Ministers of the feudal lords. The Wang Zhi says: "The Son of Heaven has eighty-one Yuan Shi." Why is the title of the Son of Heaven directly associated with the term "Son of Heaven," whereas the titles of feudal lords are not directly linked to the terms "wang" (sovereign) or "hou" (lord)? It is directly called the Son of Heaven because when one speaks of "wang" or "hou," it refers to a title shared by others, and even in times of decline, when usurpers and regicides arose, they could not become true Sons of Heaven. Therefore, only the term "Son of Heaven" is used for the sovereign. Some say: The Son of Heaven holds a heavenly title; since the Son of Heaven cannot produce feudal lords, they are not called "Wang Hou"; The feudal lords establish their own distinctions through their actions and merits, hence no need to specify them further. Why is the crown prince of a sovereign also called Shi? It is to demonstrate the principle of rising from a lower rank, for no one is born into nobility; all must begin as Shi. Therefore, in Shun's time, even one destined to become Son of Heaven had to first be tested through the rites and conduct expected of a Shi. The Shi Guan Jing says: "The Son of Heaven's eldest son is a Shi."
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婦人無爵何？陰卑無外事，是以有「三從」之義：未嫁從父，既嫁從夫，夫死從子。故夫尊於朝，妻榮於室，隨夫之行，故《禮郊特牲》曰：「婦人無爵，坐以夫之齒。」《禮》曰：「生無爵，死無謚。」《春秋》錄夫人皆有謚，夫人何以知非爵也？《》曰：「邦君之妻，君稱之曰夫人，國人稱之曰君夫人。」即令是爵，君稱之與國人稱之不當異也。庶人，稱匹夫者。匹，偶也。與其妻為偶，陰陽相成之義也，一夫一婦成一室。明君人者，不當使男女有過，時無匹偶也。《》曰：「」 |
| | Why do women have no titles of rank? Women are considered inferior and confined to the domestic sphere, hence they follow the principle of "sancong" (three obediences): before marriage, they obey their father; after marriage, they obey their husband; and upon the husband's death, they obey their son. Therefore, when a husband is honored in court, his wife receives honor at home; her status follows that of her husband. Hence the Li Jiao Te Sheng says: "Women have no titles of rank; their position depends on the age and status of their husbands." The Rites say: "In life, they hold no title; in death, they receive no posthumous name." The Chun Qiu records that ladies (fu ren) all have posthumous names; how then can we know they are not considered to hold titles of rank? The Lun Yu says: "The wife of a state ruler is called by the ruler 'Fu Ren,' and by the people of the state 'Jun Fu Ren.'" Even if it were a title, the ruler's designation for her should not differ from that used by the people of the state. Commoners are referred to as "pi fu." "Pi" means a pair. They form a pair with their wives, embodying the principle of yin and yang complementing each other; one man and one woman constitute a household. A wise ruler should ensure that men and women do not act immoderately, so that at all times there are proper pairings. The Lun Yu says: "The righteousness of a common man and woman is called 'pifu pifu zhi wei liang.'"
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爵人於朝者，示不私人以官，與眾共之義也。封諸侯於廟者，示不自專也，明法度，皆祖之制也，舉事必告焉。《》曰：「爵人於朝，與眾共之也。」《》云：「王命卿士，南仲太祖。」《禮祭統》曰：「古者明君爵有德，必於太祖。君降立於阼階南面向，所命北向，央由君右執策命之。」 |
| | Bestowing titles upon individuals in court demonstrates that official positions are not privately granted, but rather reflect the principle of sharing authority with the people. Bestowing fiefs upon feudal lords in the ancestral temple demonstrates that the sovereign does not act arbitrarily; it clarifies legal standards, which are all established by the ancestors. Any major undertaking must be reported to them. The Wang Zhi says: "Bestowing titles in court is to share it with the people." The Shi Jing says: "The king appointed noble officials; Nan Zhong was enshrined as Taizu." The Li Jai Tong says: "In ancient times, a wise ruler bestowed titles upon virtuous individuals only at the Taizu Temple." The sovereign descends and stands on the southern side of the eastern steps, facing north; the one being appointed faces south, and is led from the sovereign's right side while holding a scroll to bestow the appointment.
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大夫功成未封而死，不得追爵賜之者，以其未當股肱也。《春秋穀梁傳》曰：「追錫死者，非禮也。」《》曰：「葬從死者，祭從生者，所以追孝繼養也。」葬從死者何？子無爵父之義也。《禮中庸》記曰：「父為大夫，子為士，葬以大夫祭以士；子為大夫，父為士，祭以大夫葬以士也。」 |
| | If an official achieves merit but has not yet been enfeoffed when he dies, he cannot be posthumously granted a title or reward, for he had not yet proven himself as a trusted pillar of the state. The Chun Qiu Gu Liang Zhuan says: "To bestow rewards posthumously upon the dead is against ritual propriety." The Wang Zhi says: "Burial follows the customs of the deceased, while sacrifice follows those of the living; this is how filial piety is honored and care for ancestors continued." Why does burial follow the customs of the deceased? It reflects the principle that a son holds no rank higher than his father. The Zhong Yong section of the Rites says: "If a father was a Da Fu and the son is a Shi, he should be buried according to the rites for a Da Fu but honored in sacrifice as a Shi; if the son becomes a Da Fu while the father was only a Shi, he should be sacrificed to according to the rites for a Dafu but buried according to those of a Shi."
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父在稱世子何？繫於君也。父沒稱子某者何？屈於屍柩也。既葬稱小子者，即尊之漸也。踰年稱公者，緣民之心不可一日無君也。緣終始之義，一年不可有二君也。故踰年即位，所以繫民臣之心也。然後爵者，緣孝子之心未忍安吉。故《春秋》：「魯僖公三十三年十二月乙巳，薨于小寢。文公元年春，王正月，公即位。四月丁巳葬我君僖公。」《韓詩內傳》曰：「諸侯世子三年喪畢，上受爵命於天子。」所以名之為世子何？言欲其世世不絕也。何以知天子子亦稱世子也？《》曰：「公會世子於首止。」或曰：天子之子稱太子。《》曰：「太子發升於舟也。」或曰：「諸侯之稱代子。」則傳曰：晉有太子申生，鄭有太子華齊。有太子光。由是觀之，周制太子代子亦不定也。漢制天子稱皇帝。其嫡嗣稱皇太子。諸侯王之嫡稱代子。後代咸因之。世子三年喪畢，必上受爵命於天子何？明爵土者天子之有也，臣無自爵之義。童子當受父爵命，使大夫就其國命之，明王者不與童子為禮也。以《春秋》魯成公幼少，與諸侯會，公不見之，《經》不以為魯恥，明不與童子為禮也。世子上受爵命，衣士服何？謙不敢自專也。故《》曰：「𩎟韐有赩。」世子始行也。 |
| | Why is the heir when the father is still alive called "Shizi"? It signifies his connection to the sovereign. Why, after the father's death, is he referred to as "Zi Mou"? It signifies humility in the presence of his father's corpse and coffin. After burial, he is called "Xiaozi," indicating a gradual elevation of respect. He is referred to as "Gong" after the passing year because the people's hearts cannot endure even one day without a sovereign. It follows the principle of continuity from beginning to end; there must not be two rulers in a single year. Therefore, assuming the throne only after the passing year is done in order to unite the hearts of the people and officials. The posthumous title comes later because a filial son's heart cannot bear to grant honors too soon out of lingering grief. Therefore, the Chun Qiu records: "In the thirteenth year of Duke Xi of Lu's reign, on the Yisi day of the twelfth month, he passed away in his private chamber." The first year of Duke Wen of Lu's reign, spring, the first month of the king's calendar: the duke assumed the throne. On the Dingsi day of the fourth month, our late Duke Xi was buried. The Han Shi Nei Zhuan says: "After completing the three-year mourning period, a feudal lord's heir receives his title and appointment from the Son of Heaven." Why is he called Shizi? It signifies the desire for his lineage to continue unbroken from generation to generation. How do we know that the Son of Heaven's son is also called Shizi? The Chun Qiu Zhuan says: "The duke met with Shizi at Shouzhi." Some say: The Son of Heaven's son is called Tai Zi. The Shang Shu says: "Tai Zi Fa ascended the boat." Some say: The heir of a feudal lord is called Dai Zi. The Zhuan says: Jin had Tai Zi Shen Sheng, and Zheng had Tai Zi Hua Qi. There was Tai Zi Guang. From this we see that in the Zhou system, the terms Tai Zi and Dai Zi were not used with fixed distinctions. The Han dynasty system designated the Son of Heaven as Huangdi (emperor). His legitimate heir is called Huang Tai Zi. The legitimate heir of a feudal king is called Dai Zi. Later generations all followed this practice. Why, after completing the three-year mourning period for a Shizi, must one necessarily receive their title and appointment from the Son of Heaven? It signifies that titles and fiefs belong to the Son of Heaven; subjects have no right to confer ranks upon themselves. A child should receive his father's title and appointment; thus, a Da Fu is sent to the child's state to bestow it. This demonstrates that the Son of Heaven does not personally perform rites with a minor. In the Chun Qiu, Duke Cheng of Lu was young when he met with feudal lords, yet the duke did not personally appear; the Jing does not consider this a disgrace for Lu, clearly indicating that rites are not performed with minors. Why, when receiving his title and appointment from the Son of heaven, must a Shizi wear the attire of a Shi? It is an expression of humility, showing that he does not dare to assume authority for himself. Therefore, the Shi Jing says: "The cuige is resplendent with red." It refers to the Shizi's first official act.
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天子大斂之後稱王者，明士不可一日無君也。故《》曰：「」此斂之後也。何以知王從死後加王也？以尚書言迎子劉。不言迎王。王者既殯而即繼體之位何？緣民臣之心不可一日無君，故先君不可得見則後君繼體矣。《》曰：「再拜興對，乃受銅。」明為繼體君也。緣始終之義，一年不可有二君也。故《》曰：「王釋冕喪服。」吉冕受銅稱王，以接諸侯，明己繼體為君也。釋冕藏銅，反喪，明未稱王以統事也。不曠年無君，故逾年乃即位改元，名元年，年以紀事，君名其事矣，而未發號令也。何以言踰年即位謂改元位？《》曰：「以諸侯踰年即位，亦知，天子踰年即位也。」《春秋》曰：「」改元位也。王者改元年，即事天地；諸侯改元，即事社稷。《》曰：「夫喪三年不祭，唯祭天地社稷，為越紼而行事。」《》曰「天子三年然後稱王」者，謂稱王統事發號令也。《》曰「高宗諒陰三年」是也。《》曰：「君薨，百官總己聽於塚宰三年。」緣孝子之心，則三年不當也，故三年除喪，乃即位統事。即位踐阼為主，南面朝臣下稱王，以發號令也。故天子、諸侯凡三年即位，終始之義乃備，所以諒陰三年，卒孝子之道。故《》曰：「古之人皆然，君薨，百官總己聽於冢宰三年。」所以聽於塚宰三年者何？以為塚宰職在制國之用，是以由之也，故《》曰：「大冢宰制國用。」所以名之為塚宰何？塚者，大也；宰者，制也；大制事也。故《王度記》曰：「天子塚宰一人，爵祿如天子之大夫。」或曰塚宰視卿，《》所云也。 |
| | After the Son of Heaven passes away and before the new ruler is established, he is referred to as "Wang" (sovereign), signifying that the people cannot for a single day be without a leader. Therefore, the Shang Shu says: "The Wang wore the ma mian and fu chang." This refers to the period after mourning. How do we know that "Wang" is added posthumously? Because the Shang Shu mentions "Ying Zi Liu." It does not say "welcoming the Wang." Why, after a sovereign has been buried in the temporary funerary chamber (bin), is the successor immediately installed? It follows the principle that the hearts of the people and ministers cannot endure even a single day without a ruler; therefore, when the previous sovereign can no longer be seen, the successor assumes his position. The Shang Shu says: "He bowed twice and rose to respond, then received the bronze." This indicates that he was the successor sovereign. It follows the principle of beginning and end; there cannot be two rulers in a single year. Therefore, the Shang Shu says: "The Wang removed his mourning cap and funeral attire." He donned ceremonial robes, received the bronze, was called Wang, and met with feudal lords to signify that he had succeeded as sovereign. He removed his ceremonial cap, stored away the bronze, resumed mourning attire, indicating that before assuming the title of Wang, he did not yet govern affairs. To avoid a year without a ruler, therefore, the successor does not assume the throne and change the era name until after the passing year. The first year is named accordingly; years are used to record events, and though the sovereign names these events, he has not yet issued decrees or commands. Why does assuming the throne after the passing year mean changing the era name? The Chun Qiu Zhuan says: "Since feudal lords assume their positions only after the passing year, we also know that the Son of Heaven assumes his throne only after the passing year." The Chun Qiu says: "In the first year, spring, the king's first month: the duke assumed his position." This signifies changing the era name and assuming the throne. The Son of Heaven changes the era name to mark his assumption of office before the heavens and earth; feudal lords change their era names to signify their assumption of responsibility over the ancestral shrine and state. The Wang Zhi says: "During a three-year mourning period for one's husband, no sacrifices are made except to Heaven and Earth, and the ancestral shrine and state; this is done in order to carry out duties despite the mourning." The Chun Qiu Zhuan says, "Three years must pass before the Son of Heaven is called Wang," meaning that it is only after this period that he assumes authority and begins issuing decrees. The Shang Shu says, "Gao Zong observed mourning in seclusion for three years," which is an example of this practice. The Lun Yu says: "When a ruler passes away, all officials assume their duties and report to the Grand Minister for three years." Out of filial piety, a son should not act immediately; therefore, only after completing the three-year mourning period does he assume the throne and take charge of state affairs. Upon ascending the throne and taking his place on the eastern steps as sovereign, he faces south to receive court officials, is addressed as Wang, and begins issuing decrees and commands. Therefore, both the Son of Heaven and feudal lords wait three years before assuming their positions; only then is the principle of continuity from beginning to the end fully observed. This is why a three-year period of mourning in seclusion is practiced, completing the path of filial piety. Therefore, the Lun Yu says: "In ancient times, this was always the case; when a ruler passed away, all officials assumed their duties and reported to the Grand Minister for three years." Why is it that for three years they report to the Grand Minister? It is because the Grand Minister's duty lies in managing the state's resources, so affairs are entrusted to him. Hence, the Wang Zhi says: "The Grand Minister administers the state's expenditures." Why is he called the Grand Minister? Zhang means "great"; zai means "to regulate"; it signifies the great regulation of affairs. Therefore, the Wang Du Ji says: "The Son of Heaven has one Grand Minister, whose rank and emoluments are equal to those of a high minister (da fu) under the Son of Heaven." Some say that the Grand Minister ranks as an qing, which is what the Zhou Guan states.
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