Early life

A native of modern-day Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, he was part of the powerful Dou clan which dominated court politics during his tenure. However, his father Dou Xun fell into disgrace and died in 70 AD, leaving Dou Xian an orphan. His fortunes were greatly enhanced, though, when his two sisters entered the imperial harem in 77. In the following year, the older of these two sisters became Empress Zhangde, the wife of Emperor Zhang of Han, and lasted briefly as empress dowager and regent during the early reign of Emperor He of Han. The biography of Dou Xian can be found in Chapter LIII of the Hou Hanshu.

Campaigns against the Xiongnu

In 89 AD, Dou Xian led a Han expedition against the Northern Xiongnu. The army advanced from Jilu, Manyi, and Guyang in three great columns. In the summer of 89, the forces—comprising a total of 40,000 troops—assembled at Zhuoye Mountain. Near the end of the campaign, Dou's forces chased the Northern Chanyu into the Altai Mountains, killing 13,000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200,000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes. A light cavalry of 2000 was sent towards the Xiongnu at Hami, capturing the region from them. Dou Xian marched with his troops in a triumphal progress to the heartland of the Northern Xiongnu's territory and engraved an inscription commemorating the victory on Mount Yanran, before returning to Han. The Han victory in the campaign of 89 AD resulted in the destruction of the Xiongnu state.

In 90 AD, Dou Xian had encamped at Wuwei. He sent Deputy Colonel Yan Pan with 2000 light cavalry to strike down the final Xiongnu defenses in the Western Regions, capturing Yiwu and receiving the surrender of Jushi. Major Liang Feng was dispatched to capture the Northern Chanyu, which he did, but he was forced to leave him behind as Dou Xian had already broken camp and returned to China. In the tenth month of 90 AD, Dou Xian sent Liang Feng and Ban Gu to help the Northern Chanyu make preparations for his planned travel as he wished to submit to the Han court in person the following month.

However, this never came to be as Dou Xian dispatched General Geng Kui and Shizi of the Southern Xiongnu with 8000 light cavalry to attack the Northern Chanyu, encamped at Heyun (河云), in 90 AD. Once the Han forces arrived at Zhuoye Mountains, they left their heavy equipment behind to launch a swift pincer movement towards Heyun. Geng Kui attacked from the east via the Khangai Mountains and Ganwei River (甘微河), while Shizi attacked from the west via the Western Lake (西海). The Northern Chanyu—said to be greatly shocked by this—launched a counterattack, but he was forced to flee as he left his family and seal behind. The Han killed 8000 men and captured several thousands. In 91 AD, General Geng Kui and Major Ren Shang with a light cavalry of 800 advanced further via the Juyan Gol (Juyansai) into the Altai Mountains, where the Northern Chanyu had encamped. At the Battle of Altai Mountains, they massacred 5000 Xiongnu men and pursued the Northern Chanyu until he escaped to an unknown place. By 91 AD, the last remnants of the Northern Xiongnu had migrated west towards the Ili River valley.

Downfall

In 92, the Dous suddenly fell from grace as the result of a coup d'état. The details are unclear now, but it appeared that Emperor He, perhaps encouraged by his brother Prince Qing (whose mother had died at the Dous' hand and whose status as crown prince had been stripped away by their machinations) and the eunuch Zheng Zhong (郑众), made sudden orders to the imperial guards to have them arrest Dou Xian's associates and execute them. He sent Dou Xian and his brothers back to their marches, but eventually ordered them to commit suicide, with the exception of Dou Gui. Empress Dowager Dou remained empress dowager, but lost all power.

Inscription of Yanran

The Inscription of Yanran, composed by Ban Gu and engraved on Mount Yanran to commemorate Dou Xian's victory again the Xiongnu, was recorded in the 5th-century Book of Later Han. The expression "to carve a stone on Yanran" (勒石燕然) entered the Chinese language as a synonym for achieving a decisive victory. In 2016, a researchers team of Mongolian national university expedition rediscovered the inscription in the Inil (Delgerkhangai) Mountains in southern Mongolia". The 220 legible characters of the inscription, out of a total of 260, are identical to the text recorded in the Book of the Later Han.

生平

建初二年（77年），汉章帝立窦宪之妹为皇后。窦宪、窦笃兄弟亲幸，「赏赐累积，宠贵日盛，自王、主及阴、马诸家，莫不畏惮」。永元元年（89年）窦宪派遣刺客刺杀太后幸臣刘畅，嫁祸利侯刘刚，后因事泄获罪，被囚于宫内。窦宪恐惧，请求出击北匈奴以赎死。

伐北匈奴

逢南匈奴单于请兵北伐，乃拜窦宪为车骑将军。夏六月，窦宪以执金吾耿秉为副手，各领四千骑，合南匈奴、乌桓、羌胡兵三万馀出征。窦宪出鸡鹿塞（内蒙古磴口县西北七十公里），度辽将军邓鸿出稠阳塞（今固阳），南单于出满夷谷，三军在涿邪山会师，大败北匈奴于稽洛山（今蒙古国额布根山），窦宪、耿秉乘胜追击，至达和渠北醍海（屠申海），杀一万三千多人，俘虏无数。后登燕然山（今蒙古国杭爱山）。在燕然山刻石记功，命班固撰其辞曰：「铄王师兮徵荒裔，剿凶虐兮截海外，敻其邈兮亘地界，封神丘兮建隆嵑，熙帝载兮振万世。」史称燕然勒石。

九月庚申日，朝廷拜车骑将军窦宪为大将军，位高三公，以中郎将刘尚为车骑将军。燕然山大捷，使窦宪坚定了消灭北匈奴的决心。

二年后，永元三年（91年）二月，大将军窦宪派遣左校尉耿夔领兵出居延塞，出塞五千里进攻金微山（今阿尔泰山），大破北匈奴单于主力，斩名王以下五千馀人，俘虏北单于皇太后，北单于仓皇逃窜不知所终。

涉嫌谋逆

窦宪既破匈奴，权震朝廷，遂阴图篡汉。汉和帝知其阴谋，与中常侍郑众计杀窦宪。

永元四年（92年）夏四月丙辰日，大将军窦宪返回京师。六月，和帝以窦宪谋逆，下令逮捕其党羽，谒者仆射没收大将军印绶，改封为冠军侯，遣窦宪和窦笃、窦景、窦瓌都回封地。窦宪、窦笃、窦景到封地后，都被迫令自杀。当时正在编撰《汉书》的史家班固亦受窦宪牵连，死于狱中。

家庭

评价

范晔的后汉书对窦宪有较高的评价，认为他的功绩是超过了卫青霍去病。「卫青、霍去病资强汉之众，连年以事匈奴，国耗太半矣，而猾虏未之胜，所世犹传其良将，岂非以身名自终邪！窦宪率羌胡边杂之师，一举而空朔庭，至乃追奔稽落之表，饮马比鞮之曲，铭石负鼎，荐告清庙。列其功庸，兼茂于前多矣，而后世莫称者，章末衅以降其实也。是以下流，君子所甚恶焉。夫二三子是之不过房幄之间，非复搜扬仄陋，选举而登也。当青病奴仆之时，窦将军念咎之日，乃庸力之不暇，思鸣之无晨，何意裂膏腴，享崇号乎？东方朔称「用之则为虎，不用则为鼠」，信矣。以此言之，士有怀琬琰以就煨尘者，亦何可支哉！」