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李自成[View] [Edit] [History]ctext:117387
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Read more...: Early years Rise of Li Zicheng and the peasant rebellions Battles of Luoyang, Nanyang and Kaifeng From the Battle of Xiangyang to the creation of the Shun dynasty Battle of Beijing and establishment of the Shun Dynasty Claim to the Mandate of Heaven Battle of Shanhai Pass and end of Shun Dynasty Death Historiography Physical Appearance In popular culture In folklore
Early years
Li Zicheng was born in 1606 as Li Hongji to an impoverished family of farmers in Li Jiqian village, Yan'an prefecture, northeast Shaanxi province. Li Zicheng had a brother who was 20 years his senior and raised Li Zicheng alongside his son and Zicheng』s nephew, Li Guo. While Li Zicheng was literate, the source of his education is disputed. Over the course of his late adolescence and early adulthood, Li worked on a farm, in a wine shop, in a blacksmith's shop, and as a mailman for the state courier system.
According to folklore, in 1630, Li was put on public display in an iron collar and shackles for failing to repay loans to a usurious magistrate. The magistrate, a man by the name of Ai, struck a guard who tried to give Li shade and water. A group of sympathetic peasants freed Li from his shackles, spirited him to a nearby hill, and proclaimed him their leader. Although they were only armed with wooden sticks, Li and his band managed to ambush a group of government soldiers sent to arrest them, and obtained their first real weapons.
Rise of Li Zicheng and the peasant rebellions
By the late Ming Dynasty era, the government had been weakened financially, and struggled to deal with the economic issues, environmental problems, and widespread disease (smallpox and possibly the plague) that afflicted peasant populations. In 1639, an epidemic that would later become known as the Chongzhen Slough hit the Yangzi region and spread across the north. Famine and drought compounded the social discontent caused by the epidemic. Environmental disaster, disease, and the failure of the Chongzhen government to protect its people led to major peasant uprisings across Northern China beginning in 1628, with the Shaanxi province as an epicenter of rebellion. Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong, also from Shaanxi province, were two of the major leaders in the peasant rebellions under the late Ming dynasty.
In 1633, Li joined a rebel army led by Gao Yingxiang, nicknamed "Dashing King.」 He inherited Gao's nickname and command of the rebel army after Gao's death.
Within three years, Li succeeded in rallying more than 30,000 men to form a rebel army. They attacked and killed prominent government officials such as Sun Chuanting in the Henan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi provinces. As Li won more battles and gained more support, his army grew larger. Historians attribute this growth in numbers to Li』s reputation as a Robin Hood style figure who showed compassion to the poor and only attacked Ming officials.
Some battles Li fought in this period
• Battle of Chexiang Pass
• Battle of Fengyang
Battles of Luoyang, Nanyang and Kaifeng
Li advocated the slogan of "dividing land equally and abolishing the grain taxes payment system" which won great support from the peasants. The song of "killing cattle and sheep, preparing tasty wine and opening the city gate to welcome the Dashing King" was widely spread at that time.
The 1642 Kaifeng flood (during the 3rd Battle of Kaifeng), caused by breaches of the Yellow River dikes by both sides, ended the siege of Kaifeng and killed over 300,000 of its 378,000 residents. After the battles of Luoyang and Kaifeng, the Ming government was unable to stop Li's rebellion, as most of its military force was involved in the battle against the Manchus in the north. Li declared himself the King of the Shun dynasty in Xi'an, Shaanxi.
From the Battle of Xiangyang to the creation of the Shun dynasty
In 1642, Li captured Xiangyang and proclaimed himself "King Xinshun".
Battle of Beijing and establishment of the Shun Dynasty
Li Zicheng led one of the major peasant uprisings that the weakened Ming administration struggled to combat. When Li took over the Ming capital it marked the end of the Ming dynasty. In April 1644, Li's rebels sacked the Ming capital of Beijing, and the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide. Li proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Shun dynasty.
Claim to the Mandate of Heaven
Li, as all contenders for the throne were required, claimed to have the Mandate of Heaven bestowed upon him. Firstly, Li hailed from the Shaanxi province of China, which strengthened his legitimacy to the throne versus the foreign Manchus. Li also gained the support of scholar officials which was important in leading over the people of China as a Confucian state. The name of the dynasty is translated to mean "Obedient to Heaven".
Battle of Shanhai Pass and end of Shun Dynasty
Li's army was defeated on 27 May 1644 at the Battle of Shanhai Pass by the combined forces of the defecting Ming general Wu Sangui and Prince Dorgon leading the Manchus. The Ming and Manchu forces captured Beijing on 6 June and Fulin ascended to the throne to establish the Shunzhi reign with the Dorgon prince as regent.
Death
When Wu Sangui and the Dorgon Prince took control of Beijing, Li fled to Xi'an in Shaanxi. It is not exactly known how Li died and there are multiple accounts of his death which vary and some are exaggerated by folklore. Across multiple sources, the year of his death is said to be in 1645. One account states that in the summer of 1645 Li went to raid a village in search of sustenance with his remaining followers and was killed by soldiers guarding the village. Another theory was that Li Zicheng became a monk and died in 1674.
Historiography
Although the success of the Ming-Qing transition was attributed to the weakening of the Ming dynasty (exacerbated by Li Zicheng's rebellion), official historiography during the Qing dynasty regarded Li as an illegitimate usurper and outlaw. This view sought to discourage and demonize notions of rebellion against the Qing government, by propagating that the Manchus put an end to Li's illegitimate rule and restore peace to the empire, thus receiving the Mandate of Heaven to rule China.
Physical Appearance
In the History of Ming, Li Zicheng was described as having high cheekbones, deep-set eyes and a jackal-like voice.
In popular culture
Li appears as a bandit in Baifa Monü Zhuan, a wuxia novel by Liang Yusheng, where the heroine comments he is worthy of being a king.
Li is featured as a character in some of the works of Hong Kong wuxia writer Jin Yong (Louis Cha). Li's rebellion against the Ming dynasty is featured in Sword Stained with Royal Blood and his personality is analysed from the point of view of Yuan Chengzhi, the protagonist. In The Deer and the Cauldron, set in the Qing dynasty during the early reign of the Kangxi Emperor, Li is revealed to have survived and fathered a daughter, A'ke, with Chen Yuanyuan. Li is also briefly mentioned by name in Fox Volant of the Snowy Mountain and The Young Flying Fox.
Li is the main character of the historical epic novel Li Zicheng by Yao Xueyin.
In folklore
There are many stories and folklore attributed to Li Zicheng. One such story claims that when Li Zicheng was young he killed one of his classmates and was promptly disowned by his family and shunned by his community.
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原是陝北驛卒。崇禎帝採信大臣裁撤驛卒的建議,造成失業驛卒武夫起義,李自成參與起義軍。高迎祥被明朝處死後,李自成稱闖王,成為明末民變領袖之一,率起義軍于河南殲滅明軍主力。1644年在西安稱帝建立大順,後進攻明都北京,與崇禎帝談判破裂後,攻入北京城,崇禎自縊,是為甲申之變,至此明朝滅亡。一片石戰役後,李自成退入北京稱帝。
Read more...: 生平 党項後人說 早年 兵變 征戰 稱王稱帝 入京 覆滅 失蹤 出家說 湖北九宮山被殺說 湖南歸隱說 家族成員 其他 影視形象 注釋
生平
党項後人說
《明史》卷三○九《李自成傳》「自成為人高顴深,鴟目曷鼻」(具有党項族人的相貌特徵)。
早年
李自成出生在米脂河西200里懷遠堡李繼遷寨(今橫山縣城關街道柴興梁村)。
李自成先祖由甘肅秦安遷入陝西省米脂縣李家站(西夏李繼遷兵站)居住。其祖父李海因生活所逼,遷至原米脂地長峁村(現屬橫山縣)。人們所說李自成「生在李繼遷寨,長在長峁村」,即指的是這段事。《米脂縣·李自成族裔考》中記載:「自成籍本縣太安里二甲,世居北鄉,距城七十裏海會寺溝之李家站。」
《米脂縣誌》記載:「米脂李姓,分太安里二甲李氏和永和石樓李氏。一支是太安里二甲,李自成家庭屬太安里二甲,明代前由甘肅太安里遷徙來。而另一支李氏是由山西永和石樓縣遷移到米脂的,二支李氏不屬于同宗同室。太安里二甲的李氏,是一大族,遍及米脂城鄉各處。」
李自成家庭屬太安里二甲,明代前由甘肅太安里遷徙來到李家站。而這個李家站正是當年党項拓跋平夏部從甘肅東遷後居住的地方。
李自成出生時,父親夢見一黃衣人進入土窯,故取小名黃娃子。李自成少年喜好槍馬棍棒。其父死後他於明朝負責傳遞朝廷公文的驛站擔任驛卒一職,負責照看馬匹。
兵變
明朝末年的驛站制度有很多弊端,明思宗崇禎年間,給事中劉懋建議之下,全國三分之一的驛站被裁撤,李自成也被裁員,主要是曾經遺失公文,失業回家,並欠了債。同年冬季,李自成因欠舉人艾詔的債,又無力償還,被艾舉人告到米脂縣衙。縣令晏子賓將他「械而遊於市,將置至死」,後由親友救出後,年底,殺死債主艾詔,接著,因妻子韓金兒和村上名叫蓋虎的通姦,李自成又殺了妻子。兩條人命在身,于是就與侄兒李過于崇禎二年(1629年)二月逃到甘州(今甘肅省張掖市甘州區)投軍。當時,楊肇基任甘州總兵,王國任參將。李自成不久便被王國提升為軍中把總。同年在榆中(今甘肅省蘭州榆中縣)因欠餉問題殺死參將王國和當地縣令,發動兵變。
征戰
崇禎二年(1629年),後金第一次入塞,北京震動。李自成起事後轉戰漢中,參加了王左掛的軍隊。1630年王佐挂被朝廷招降,李轉投奔張存孟(不沾泥),為隊長。1631年4月,張存孟在陝北戰敗,也降於官府。十月,洪承疇正式接任三邊總督,逐漸剿滅陝西境內民變。1633年李自成率餘部東渡黃河,在山西投奔了他的舅父「闖王」高迎祥,稱「闖將」。同年,曹文詔率千人關寧鐵騎擊敗山西境內的民變,高迎祥、李自成、張獻忠等均逃到河南被曹文詔、左良玉等多路明軍包圍。
然而次年崇禎七年(1634年)後金軍第二次入塞,曹文詔被調到大同抗金,被圍叛軍從王樸處突圍。是年六月,新任五省總督陳奇瑜乃引軍西向,約會陝西、鄖陽、湖廣、河南四巡撫圍剿漢南民變。高迎祥、張獻忠、羅汝才、李自成等部見明軍雲集,誤走興安(今陝西省石泉以東的漢江流域)車箱峽。峽谷之中為古棧道,四面山勢險峻,易入難出,唯一出口為明軍所截,「馬乏芻多死,弓矢皆脫」,情勢危殆,李自成用顧君恩之計,賄賂陳奇瑜左右人士,向官兵詐降。此時陳奇瑜釋放李自成等人,派五十多名安撫官將叛軍遣送回籍,甫出棧道,自成立刻殺安撫官復叛。
崇禎八年(1635年)洪承疇任五省總督後圍剿民變,叛軍敗退至河南洛陽一帶。高迎祥、張獻忠、老回回、羅汝才、革裡眼、左金王、改世王、射塌天、橫天王、混十萬、過天星、九條龍、順天王等十三家七十二營起義軍在河南滎陽召開滎陽大會,李自成提出「分兵定向、四路攻戰」方略。會後高迎祥、張獻忠、李自成率部攻下南直隸鳳陽,掘明皇室的祖墳,焚毀朱元璋曾經出家的「皇覺寺」,殺宦官六十多人,斬中都守將朱國相。因爭奪鳳陽皇宮的俘虜小太監和鼓吹樂器,李自成與張獻忠結怨,李自成分軍西走甘肅。
崇禎九年(1636年)高迎祥在南直隸被新任五省總督盧象昇擊敗包圍在鄖陽山區。同年四月後金建國改清,六月清軍第三次入塞,盧象昇調任宣大總督抗清。由兵部侍郎王家楨繼任五省總督,高迎祥等突圍。高迎祥從子午谷進攻西安時兵敗被新任陝西巡撫孫傳庭所殺。高迎祥殘部投奔李自成,這時李自成被推為「闖王」,繼續征戰四川、甘肅、陝西一帶。《明史》稱其為「闖賊」。
崇禎十年(1637年),楊嗣昌會兵10萬,增餉280萬,提出「四正六隅,十面張網」策略,限制叛軍的流動性,各個擊破,最後殲滅。此舉在二年內頗見成效。崇禎十一年張獻忠兵敗降明,十一月李自成在渭南潼關南原遭遇洪承疇、孫傳庭的埋伏被擊潰,帶著劉宗敏等殘部17人躲到陝西東南的商洛山中。羅汝才在湖北均縣得到李自成戰敗消息,大為恐懼,率領一丈青、一條龍、「小秦王」王光恩、「過天星」惠登相、「興世王」王國寧、「托天王」常國安、「十反王」楊友賢等八營首領,往武當山太和宮向明太監李繼政投降。熊文燦招羅汝才等至襄陽,大宴於官署,奏授羅汝才為游擊。羅汝才紮營於均縣(今湖北丹江口)、房縣、竹山、竹谿、南漳、保康等地,與農民「錯壤而居」,暗中則和張獻忠來往。此時,明末民變暫時平息。
崇禎十一年(1638年)八月,清兵從青口山(今河北遷安市東北)、牆子嶺(今北京密雲東北)兩路毀牆入關,發動了第四次入關作戰。楊嗣昌為貫徹其「安內方可攘外」的戰略,力主與清議和,但遭到宣大總督、勤王兵總指揮盧象昇等人的激烈反對。崇禎和戰不定,盧象昇在河北巨鹿戰死。清兵撤退後,孫傳庭、洪承疇等人均被調往遼東防範清軍,李自成在山中得以喘息。冬天李駐紮在富水關南的生龍寨,並娶妻生子。十二月,李自成由漢南至穀城與張獻忠、羅汝才秘密見面商討事情。臨別時張獻忠送給李自成騾馬、衣甲等物。
稱王稱帝
崇禎十二年(1639年)張獻忠在谷城(位于湖北襄陽)再次反叛,李自成從商洛山中率數千人馬殺出。崇禎十三年(1640年)河南大旱,李自成趁楊嗣昌的明軍主力在四川追剿張獻忠之際入河南,收留飢民,鄭廉在《豫變紀略》載李自成大賑饑民的盛況:「向之朽貫紅粟,賊乃藉之,以出示開倉而賑饑民。遠近饑民荷鋤而往,應之者如流水,日夜不絕,一呼百萬,而其勢燎原不可撲」。自此李自成軍隊發展到數萬,提出「均田免賦」口號,即民歌之「迎闖王,不納糧」。崇禎十三年(1640年)十二月張獻忠所部逃出四川,偷襲襄陽,殺死襄王朱翊銘,楊嗣昌去世。
崇禎十四年正月二十日(1641年2月27日)攻克洛陽,殺萬曆皇帝的兒子福王朱常洵,從後園弄出幾頭鹿,與福王的肉一起共煮,名為「福祿宴」,與將士們共享,「發藩邸及巨室米數萬石、金錢數十萬賑饑民」。稱「奉天倡義文武大元帥」。
崇禎十四年(1641年)二月初,李自成趁明軍驚魂未定之時,長途奔襲,意圖攻下河南省城開封。開封守將高名衡、陳永福、王燮、黃澍等人竭力抵抗,農民軍受到重創,李自成被箭射傷左目。二月十九日撤兵。是年十二月二十三日,農民軍第二次圍攻開封,再次遇到了頑強抵抗,開封的「巨商巨族,各送餅千百不等」。次年正月十五日,李自成再次撤軍。這一年半之內李自成三圍省城開封,崇禎十五年(1642年)四月李自成第三次包圍開封,使得開封形成了一座孤城。九月十五日黃河決口,十六日洪水首先衝開曹門,然後四門皆被衝開,城中平民遇難者甚眾。日後李自成部先後殺陝西總督傅宗龍、汪喬年,李自成部隊日益壯大。李自成刻苦簡樸,史載「不好酒色,脫粟粗糲,與其下共甘苦」「所為闖王者,躬步拜如常卒,衣帽不異人,故軍中亦無識之者」。與此同時明朝對清朝戰事不利,崇禎十三年清軍圍困錦州,洪承疇增援對峙,十四年洪承疇兵敗松山,據守松山城,並派出副將吳三桂返京求援吳卻未回。崇禎十五年三月,清軍破城,洪承疇降清。11月,清軍第五次入塞,深入山東,掠走36萬人。
崇禎十六年(1643年)正月李自成在襄陽稱「新順王」,招撫流亡的貧苦農民,「給牛種,賑貧困,畜孽生,務農桑」,又「募民墾田,收其籽粒以餉軍」。5月張獻忠克武昌,稱「大西」王。10月,李自成攻破潼關,殺死督師孫傳庭,占領陝西全省。
崇禎十七年(1644年)正月初一李自成在西安稱帝,以党項人李繼遷為太祖,建國號「大順」,年號永昌。封三弟李自敬為王(號稱三千歲)、封留守長安的田見秀為澤侯、封袁宗第為綿侯、封李錦為滋侯、封劉宗敏為汝侯、封劉芳亮為左營制將軍、封劉希堯為淮侯、封劉體純為左果毅將軍。11月,張獻忠在成都稱大西皇帝。
大順永昌元年,李自成在西安建立了大順農民政權後,曾創立了一些禮儀制,主要是結合曆代朝廷和自身党項民族的生活禮節,使其禮儀大氣而莊重大方。
李自成修改明朝禮儀制度。《明季北略》:李自成改制度 「明朝制度,任意紛更 又四月初一日,改大明門為大順門,頒發冠服,大僚則加雉尾于冠服,方領,又收各牙牌,自務明光安令成字」《甲申紀事》:「衣服尚藍,故軍中俱穿藍,官帽亦用藍。《定思小紀》「然明代官制大半更革,……服色尚深藍,俱刊定成。」
李自成以李繼遷為太祖,結合西夏國制,制定一系列制度。《爝火錄》:追尊其曾祖以下加謚號,以李繼遷為太祖。設天佑殿大學士,牛金星為之。更六部為六政府,設尚書、侍郎等官。改文選司為文諭院,主事曰從政。改翰林院曰弘文館,裁革詹事府。改中書曰書寫房。國子監設三堂,革去祭酒,以司業為學正,學錄博士為左右。改御史曰直指、給事中曰給諫、通政司曰知政司、尚寶司曰尚契司。大常、鴻臚,俱屬禮政府。太僕寺曰驗馬寺,布政司曰統會可。巡撫曰節度使,按察曰防禦使。府曰尹,州曰牧,縣曰令。守備曰守領,把總曰守旅。改印曰契,一雲大篆曰符、小篆曰契)。公服領尚方,以云為級,一品雲一、九品雲九。大僚冠加雉羽,帶用犀銀黑角三等。
入京
崇禎十七年(1644年)一月李自成率軍五十萬東征北京,二月初二(3月10日),在沙渦口造船三千,渡過黃河,攻下汾州(今汾陽)、陽城(今晉城市陽城縣)、蒲州(今永濟),隔日攻下懷慶(今河南焦作),殺盧江王朱載堙。初五日(3月13日)攻克太原,牛勇,王永魁等督兵五千人出戰盡歿,初八日以守將張雄作內應,炮轟破城,蔡懋德自縊死。在太原休息八天。十六日,克忻州(今山西忻州),官民迎降,代州(今屬忻州)守關總兵周遇吉憑城固守,雙方大戰十餘日,遇吉因兵少食盡,退守寧武關(今山西寧武境)。周遇吉悉力拒守,最後火藥用盡,開門力戰而死,夫人劉氏率婦女二十餘人全被燒死。三月初一日(4月7日)李自成克寧武關,前後死將士七萬餘人,傷亡慘重,《罪惟錄》記「後賊陷京師,多有手足創者,皆經戰寧武者也。」,李自成下令屠城 。當晚,大同總兵姜瓖投降,宣府總兵王承胤降表亦到,又連下居庸關、昌平。三月初八日,兵至陽和。十一日,大順軍開進宣府,「舉城譁然皆喜,結彩焚香以迎」。崇楨急調遼東總兵吳三桂、薊遼總督王永吉、昌平總兵唐通、山東總兵劉澤清入衛京城,並號召在京勛戚官僚捐助餉銀。
三月十五日(4月21日)叛軍抵達居庸關,監軍太監杜之秩、總兵唐通不戰而降,同時,劉芳亮率領南路軍,東出固關後,真定府知府丘茂華、游擊謝素福出降,大學士李建泰在保定投降。三月十六日,李自成部過昌平,抵沙河。十七日進高碑店、西直門,以大砲轟城,入午攻打平則門,彰義門,西直門。三月十七日半夜,守城太監曹化淳率先打開外城西側的廣甯門,叛軍由此進入今復興門南郊一帶(此事存疑,參見曹化淳條目)。三月十八日,李自成派在昌平投降的太監杜勳入城與崇禎帝秘密談判。據《小腆紀年附考》卷四載,李自成提出的條件為:「闖人馬強眾,議割西北一帶分國王並犒賞軍百萬,退守河南……闖既受封,願為朝廷內遏群寇,尤能以勁兵助剿遼藩。但不奉詔與覲耳。」雙方談判破裂。三月十九日清晨,兵部尚書張縉彥主動打開正陽門,迎劉宗敏所部軍,中午,李自成由太監王德化引導,從德勝門入,經承天門步入內殿。此時崇楨帶著太監王承恩上煤山瞭望,又返回乾清宮,大臣皆己逃散,最後崇禎前往景山自縊,史稱甲申之變。李自成下令將崇禎「禮葬」,在東華門外設廠公祭,後移入佛寺。二十七日,葬于田貴妃墓中。
崇禎十七年(1644年)4月26日,李自成兵敗山海關,率殘軍退回北京,下令殺吳三桂全家三十餘口。崇禎十七年(1644年)4月29日,在牛金星等的策劃下,李自成在明宮武英殿即皇帝位。李自成入住紫禁城,封宮女竇美儀為妃。大順軍入燕京之初,兵不滿二萬,李自成下令:「敢有傷人及掠人財物婦女者殺無赦!」京城秩序尚好,店舖營業如常,「有二賊掠緞鋪,立剮于棋盤街。民間大喜,安堵如故」。但從二十七日起,叛軍開始拷掠明官,四處抄家,規定助餉額為「中堂十萬,部院京堂錦衣七萬或五萬三萬,道科吏部五萬三萬,翰林三萬二萬一萬,部屬而下則各以千計」,劉宗敏製作了五千具夾棍,「木皆生棱,用釘相連,以夾人無不骨碎。」城中恐怖氣氛逐漸凝重,人心惶惶,「凡拷夾百官,大抵家資萬金者,過逼二三萬,數稍不滿,再行嚴比,夾打炮烙,備極慘毒,不死不休」,「牽魏藻德、方岳貢、丘瑜、陳演、李遇知等,勛戚冉興讓、張國紀、徐允楨、張世澤等八百人追贓助餉。」談遷《棗林雜俎》稱死者有1600餘人。李自成手下士卒搶掠,臣將驕奢,「殺人無虛日,大抵兵丁掠搶民財者也」。大順軍於佔領區皆設官治事,首為追餉,例如在城固縣,「賊索餉,加以炮烙」;在汾陽,「搜括富室,桁夾助餉」;在絳州,「士大夫慘加三木,多遭酷拷死」;在宣化,「權將軍檄徵紳弁大姓,貫以五木,備極慘毒,酷索金錢」。四月十四日,西長安街出現告示:「明朝天數未盡,人思效忠,定于本月二十日立東宮為皇帝,改元義興元年。」十三日,由李自成親率十萬大軍奔赴山海關征討吳三桂,留守北京者為劉芳亮與李岩。
據說李自成入燕京後,從宮中搜出內帑「銀三千七百萬錠,金一千萬錠」,「舊有鎮庫金積年不用者三千七百萬錠,錠皆五百(一說五十)兩,鐫有永樂字」。時人許重熙在《明季甲乙兩年匯略》借談遷之口謂曰:「損其奇零,即可代兩年加派,乃今日考成,明日搜括,海內騷然,而扃鑰如故,豈先帝未睹遺籍耶?不勝追慨矣。」但可信度並不高。計六奇認為:「予謂果有如此多金,須騾馬一千八百五十萬方可載之,即循環交負,亦非計月可畢,則知斯言未可信。」照前列說法,內帑中的銀兩總數就有185億兩(或者是18.5億兩;3700萬錠,一錠五百或者是五十兩)。但依據梁方仲估計,1390年至1486年,中國內地白銀總產量只有三千萬兩上下。明亡前,雖有大量西班牙銀元與其他外籍銀元流入,但也只有四千五百萬兩。亦有人估計明末時,全國流通的銀兩總數不可能超過7.5億兩。
覆滅
四月二十一日,李自成率兵六萬,與駐守山海關將領吳三桂進行一片石戰役。戰至四月二十二日,吳軍漸漸不支。吳三桂乃降於清朝攝政王多爾袞,兩軍聯手擊潰李自成,主將劉宗敏受傷,急令撤退。二十六日(5月31日)李自成逃到京城,僅三萬餘人,怒殺吳三桂家大小34口。二十九日(6月3日)李自成在北京武英殿再行登基禮,以李繼遷為太祖,追尊七代考妣皆為帝後;立妻高氏為皇后,使牛金星代行郊天禮。次日逃往西安,由山西、河南兩路撤退。臨行前火燒紫禁城和北京的部分建築。多爾袞命吳三桂不得入京城,直接追擊李自成軍,在保定以南的望都一戰,大順軍一度重創清軍,五月初二日在定州清水河(今河北省定州市),李自成再次大敗,大將谷可成陣亡。五月初三日(6月7日)多爾袞軍入主北京城,立即派出兩路大軍,一路由多鐸率領南下攻打南明,一路由阿濟格率領攻打李自成軍。阿濟格和吳三桂部從保德州渡河,突破叛軍的北部防線,經綏德、延安,直逼西安,七月李自成軍渡黃河敗歸西安,不久,棄西安,經藍田,商州,走武關。由於南明弘光帝朝廷的建立和大順軍的節節敗退,很多投降李自成的原明朝將領復投南明或清朝,李自成於是疑心日盛,終於妄殺李岩等人,致使人心離散。
順治元年(1644年)十二月,清軍出擊潼關,李自成軍列陣迎戰,清軍因主力及大砲尚未到達,堅守不戰。順治二年(1645年)清軍以紅夷大炮攻破潼關,李自成採取避戰的作戰方式,經鄧州、襄陽,入湖北,「聲言欲取南京,水陸並進」,試圖與武昌的明朝總兵左良玉聯合抗清,左良玉東進南京去南明朝廷「清君側」征討馬士英病死途中。四月李自成入武昌,但被清軍一擊即潰。五月在江西再敗,後在湖北通山縣南九宮山,帶著少數人馬的李自成與忠於明朝的農民程九伯肉搏,一度坐在後者身上,但李的刀被血漬和泥水黏在刀鞘裡,程的夥伴就用鏟子攻擊李自成的頭致死,屍首不知何處。《綏寇紀略》則記載李自成在通城縣九宮山上的元帝廟內,被鄉民用鋤頭打死。自成戰死後,叛軍悲怒交集,立即掃蕩九宮山區,對當地民眾予以報複性打擊。。然而,《明史》卻記載,李自成死於湖北通城(不同於通山)。大順軍餘部稱李自成為先帝,其妻高氏為太后,李過推舉李自成三弟李自敬為首領。
失蹤
出家說
另說李自成兵敗後脫逃,在湖南省石門縣夾山寺削髮為僧,名奉天玉和尚,至康熙十三年(1674年)圓寂于該寺。又說李自成隱居到甘肅蘭州青城。何璘《書李自成傳後》曾記載:「李自成實竄澧州。因旁詢故老,聞自成由公安(今湖北省公安縣)奔澧(今湖南省澧縣),其下多散亡,至清化驛(今澧縣境),隨十餘騎走牯牛壩(今臨澧縣境),複棄騎去,獨竄石門夾山寺為僧,今其墳尚在雲。」《湖南通志》載,何璘號十樵,系宛平舉人。在乾隆十一年(1746)調任澧州知州,因修澧志,得九溪衛教授孫某所告,謂石門夾山寺已故和尚奉天玉即李自成,經過一番實地考察和考証,撰寫《書李自成傳後》一篇,以糾正《明史》李傳所記。根據湖南常德人周新國、周波所著《武陵藏珍-沅澧流域歷史文化圖說》一書及書中收集到的流散在澧水流域的文物說明,何璘所記「李自成禪隱夾山寺」應是可信的。1981年考古工作者在石門夾山風景區夾山寺清理了奉天玉大和尚墓,經專家考証奉天玉大和尚即為李自成,並在墓葬的基礎上修建了一座陵園。1993年10月28日全國李自成學術研討會在石門召開,
但後來也有文章指稱,1979年後通山與石門兩地相互爭奪李自成安葬地,是經濟利益所致,其論據也是以此為目的編造而成。另有一說是奉天玉和尚比較可能是李自成的弟弟李自敬。
湖北九宮山被殺說
湖北省東南的通城縣和通山縣各有一座九宮山。《明史》、《乾隆御批綱鑑》、《綏寇紀略》皆記載李自成死於通城縣。1955年,通城縣重修李自成墓,郭沫若題寫墓碑。通山縣一名教師引當地程氏族譜,得出李自成死于通山縣九宮山的說法。此說,得到郭沫若在內的眾多學者支持。郭沫若聲明註銷原題詞,遷移墓碑。在通山縣九宮山牛跡嶺的一處清代無名墓葬,被認為是李自成墓或李自成部將墓地。1988年,列為第三批全國重點文物保護單位。
湖南歸隱說
《明季北略》持此說法。丁玲自稱李自成後人,也持此說法。
家族成員
妻妾
• 韓金兒:李自成第一任妻子,因與蓋虎通姦而被李自成所殺。
• 邢秀娘:李自成第二任妻子,負責管理李自成軍軍用物資,後與高傑私通降明。
• 高桂英:李自成第三任妻子,李自成稱帝後立為皇后。
• 竇美儀:原明朝宮女,李自成入住紫禁城後納為妃。
兄弟
• 李自敬,李自成三弟,李自成死後繼位,在荊州之戰為清軍所破,降清之後遇害。
侄子
• 李過,大順制將軍、都督。
其他
• 1944年3月,郭沫若在重慶撰文發表《甲申三百年祭》,揭露明末統治的黑暗,討論李自成進北京之後的驕傲腐化,和吳三桂的抉擇。國民黨認為此文用明朝影射當時國民黨的腐化;共產黨將此文用于整風運動,提醒黨員不要重蹈李自成的覆轍。
• 姚雪垠著長篇歷史小說《李自成》共五卷,其中第二卷於1982年獲第一屆茅盾文學獎。
影視形象
注釋
Text | Count |
---|---|
南明野史 | 5 |
清史稿 | 230 |
清史紀事本末 | 45 |
明史 | 351 |
永歷實錄 | 3 |
清稗類鈔 | 3 |
四庫全書總目提要 | 14 |
蜀碧 | 5 |
明史紀事本末 | 230 |
甲申傳信錄 | 13 |
小腆紀年 | 2 |
明季實錄 | 3 |
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