Etymology

Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, including,,,,, and.

In 504, Jijeung of Silla standardized the characters into, which in Modern Korean is pronounced Silla. According to the Samguk sagi, the name of (Silla), consisting of the components sin, as in deokeopilsin and ra, as in mangrasabang is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation.

The modern Seoul is a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods even in official documents, despite the formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean form Syeobeul, meaning "royal capital city," which changed to Syeoul soon after, and finally resulted in Seoul in the Modern Korean language.

The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing as Shiragi in Japanese and as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus, respectively. Koreans are still known as Солонгос (Solongos) in Mongolian, which, according to popular folk etymology, is believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for "rainbow" (солонго solongo). In a paper published in 2023 regarding the etymology of the Mongolian word Solongos "Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin of Solongos have been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "weasel"; (3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonym Solon; (4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes from Jurchen *Solgo(r) ~ Solho which in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골 suɾiskol > 솔골 solkol "Goguryeo"; (later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from the Mongolian word solgoi "left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom of Goryeo (via *Hoɾyo > *Solo(n)-). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis, i.e. that Mongolian Solongos "Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongolian soluγai > solγoi "left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of the Mongols)"."

Silla was also referred to as Gyerim, literally "rooster forest", a name that has its origins in the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of a cockatrice.

History

Founding

During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called the Samhan. Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known as Jinhan. Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan from Gojoseon.

According to Korean records, Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla in 57 BCE, around present-day Gyeongju. Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established the kingdom of "Saro (pronounced si.raʔ at the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla.

In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves having Xiongnu ancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known as Jin Midi in Chinese sources. According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe was originally of Koreanic origin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike, and some researchers insist that the Silla king is descended from Xiongnu. It's more likely that the ruling families were just native Koreanic speakers as the linguistic situation at that time suggests.

The Nihon Shoki and Kojiki also mentions Silla as the place where the Japanese god, Susanoo first descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori". Up until the liberation of Korea in 1945, Meiji era Japanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him, thus finding justification and legitimizing the Japanese occupation of Korea through the use of Nissen dōsoron. According to the Shinsen Shōjiroku, Inahi no Mikoto the brother of the mythological Emperor Jimmu was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found in Samguk sagi claims that a Japanese man named, Hogong helped build the kingdom of Silla.

Early period

In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro, initially founded by Yemaek refugees from Gojoseon. It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from the Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion, while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity and Ye people to the North.

Talhae of Silla (57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law of Namhae of Silla (4 CE–24 CE). According to the Samguk sagi, Seoktalhae was the prince of Yongseongguk (龍成國) or Dapana (多婆那國), located 1,000-ri (里), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became the fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham (吐含山) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong (瓠公), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period, Kim Al-chi, the ancestor of Gyeongju Kim, was adopted by Talhae of Silla.

The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period of Pasa of Silla (80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between the Eumjipbeol and Siljikgok, and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla was handed over to King Suro of Gimhae, who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan (陀鄒干) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and the Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and merged Dabulguk, Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk.

During the Naehae of Silla period (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八國 亂) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" (浦上八國) in the Nakdong River basin attacked the Silla-friendly Ara Gaya, the prince of Ara Gaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Ara Gaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries (浦上八國), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place in Yeomhae, the southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated.

By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of the Korean peninsula. It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than the strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy.

To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking the Mahan confederacy. To the southwest, Byeonhan was being replaced by the Gaya confederacy. In northern Korea, Goguryeo, founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power.

Emergence of a centralized monarchy

Naemul of Silla (356–402) of the Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title of Maripgan (麻立干; 마립간). However, in the Samguk sagi, Naemul of Silla still appears as a title of Isageum (泥師今; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of the Gyeongju Kim period, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of the founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued.

In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations with Goguryeo. Facing pressure from Baekje in the west and Japan in the south, in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with Goguryeo. However, after King Gwanggaeto's unification campaign, Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to Pyongyang in 427, Nulji of Silla was forced to ally with Baekje.

By the time of Beopheung of Silla (514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own Korean era name. Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the Gaya–Silla Wars, annexing Geumgwan Gaya in 532 and conquering Daegaya in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the Nakdong River basin.

Jinheung of Silla (540–576) established a strong military force. Silla helped Baekje drive Goguryeo out of the Han River (Seoul) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established the Hwarang.

The early period ended with the death of Jindeok of Silla and the demise of the "hallowed bone" (; seonggol) rank system.

Etymology of title

The royal title Maripgan is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from the Korean root

• mari (마리) from Middle Korean 마리〮 màlí, "head"/ countable of "head / per head" or "hair"

• mang-rip or mang-nip (網笠), "a traditional-style hat made of horsehair"

• mo-rip (毛笠), "a kind of hat worn by servants in the old days"

• mi-rip or mi-reup, meaning "a knack, a trick, the hang of something"

• madi (맏이) or maji (맏히), meaning "the firstborn, the eldest (child of a family); an elder, a senior, a person whose age is greater than someone else's age"

• mat-jip (맛집), meaning "the house in which the head of a household lives, the main house on an estate"

• mŏrŏ or maru (마루), meaning "ridge, peak, crest (of a roof, a mountain, a wave, etc.); zenith, climax, prime; the first, the standard"

• maru (마루) or mallu, meaning "floor"

or from a word related to Middle Korean marh meaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)".

The second element, gan (Hangul: 간), is a likely cognate to han (Hangul: 한) and the word for "big, great" keun, first attested as Late Old Korean 黑根 *hùkú-n. Both carry the meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title of Khan.

Unified Silla

In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with the Chinese Tang dynasty. In 660, under Muyeol of Silla (654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after the Baekje–Tang War. In 668, under King Munmu of Silla (King Muyeol's successor) and General Kim Yu-sin, the Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after the Goguryeo–Tang War. Silla then fought against the Tang dynasty for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as Balhae.

Silla's middle period is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the jingol nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for a brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land (jikjeon, 직전, 職田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or nog-eup, 녹읍, 祿邑).

By the late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by Kim Daegong that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of the office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757.

In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan.

The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of Hyegong of Silla in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of Muyeol of Silla, the architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control.

Thereafter the Silla kingship was fixed in the house of Wonseong of Silla (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage.

Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system.

Decline and fall

The final century and a half of the Silla state was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court.

The tail end of this period, called the Later Three Kingdoms period, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms of Later Baekje and Taebong, which were composed of rebels originating from their respective regions' historical backgrounds. Silla was defeated first by Later Baekje and the era ended with Silla's submission to Goryeo.

Restoration Movements

Despite its destruction and annexation by Goryeo, for nearly three centuries loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. Silla restoration revolts include those led by Yi Ŭimin in 1186 and by Kim Sami in 1193 as well as later revolts in 1202.

Society and politics

From at least the 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the bone rank system. This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage.

Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" (seonggol, 성골, 聖骨) and "true bone" (jingol, 진골, 眞骨). Up until the reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654. The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of a "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually.

The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy. Notably, Silla was unique in having female monarchs. There were, for example, three reigning Sillan female "kings" (yeouang, 여왕), distinct from queens who were merely the consorts of male rulers. Descent also continued to be traced through both paternal and maternal lines throughout the Sillan era, suggesting women enjoyed a relatively high status compared to other contemporary East Asian states.

The "Hwabaek" (화백,和白) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to the throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person (Sangdaedeung) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption of Buddhism as state religion.

Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when the Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy.

Military

The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to the frequency of conflicts between Baekje and Goguryeo as well as Yamato Japan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" or Sodang units. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force.

A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders were Hwarang (equivalent to the Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between the Three Kingdoms of Korea, they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of the Korean peninsula under Unified Silla) and the Silla–Tang Wars, which expelled Tang forces in the other two Korean kingdoms.

Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such as Goguryeo and Baekje, as well as the Tang dynasty during the Silla–Tang War. The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion as part of the Nine Legions and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter the Göktürks cavalries operated by the Tang army during the Silla-Tang War.

In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions, were consisted of Silla, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Mohe people. These nine legions aimed at defending the capital became complete in formation and compilation after Silla unified the Three Kingdoms. Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst the Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after the Fall of Goguryeo.

Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called Sillaseon, which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across the biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to the Shoku Nihon Koki. During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Sideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today's Seocheon County. Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on the Cheonghaejin Garrison.

Culture

A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of Gyeongju National Park. Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju named Hahoe and Yangdong Folk Village were submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and the South Korean government. Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved. Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry.

The massive Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great of Silla is known to produce a distinctive sound. Cheomseongdae near Gyeongju is the oldest extant astronomical observatory in East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632–647).

It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known as hyangga, developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written in Classical Chinese, which includes the hanshi poetry of Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn, as well as the travelogue of Buddhist monk Hyecho.

Muslim traders brought the name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through the Silk Road. Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, including ibn Khurdadhbih, al-Masudi, Dimashiki, Al-Nuwayri, and al-Maqrizi, left records about Silla.

The current descendants to the Silla dynasty fall under the Park name. Family records since the last ruler have been provided, but these records have yet to be fully verified.

Native ethnic religion/Shamanism/Animism

The ancient indigenous native religion of Korea presented one of the most important aspects in early Korean society and involved the very lives of its people as well of its culture. One of the key features is the belief in the spirits of nature, that inhabit all the things in existence. Its presence is seen in Korean culture itself and could be considered inseparable from it, from cultural and national festivals such as Seollal and Chuseok, to many practices within Korean Buddhism that originate from it.

The ethnic religion of Silla was a key element within the Silla state and constituted the State religion around which many of the national rites, festivals and ceremonies revolved around. The ruler of Silla was simultaneously its religious head and one of the most revered figures in the nation, having a near deity/saint like status due to their descendance from the spirits of the skies. The title of the second ruler of Silla, Nurye "Yuri" Isageum, called Chachaung was one of the high shamans of the state for example.

The ruler also performed the national ceremonies to support the nation in upcoming times together with his sister serving as a high ranking shamaness figure only second to the ruler himself. Silla's unique exceptionalist nationalism focused on the struggle for survival against the much more powerful neighbours of Goguryeo and Baekje.

The Hwarang order had its origin in Silla's native religion as well, where the youth would strive to fight for their country and monarch. They would embark on nationalistic pilgrimages to seek out the spirits, who would grant them powers to vanquish their enemies. The Hwarang segi is one of the manuscripts that give insight into their lives and practices.

Springs and Mountains are some of the sources, where the spirits of life originate from, who sometimes take on the form of animals and girls.

When Silla adopted Buddhism, the previous ethnic religion was syncretized with the new faith and largely became synonymous to it. Buddhist deities are often treated the same way deities from the native religion are. Buddhism subsequently also found its way into native folk beliefs.

Shamanism remained important well into the Goryeo period, with a nativist uprising nominally led by a Buddhist court monk named Myocheong occurring in the 12th century.

The national festivals of Goryeo, Palgwanhoe and Yeondeunghoe, while they were Buddhist festivals were originally native shamanistic ones.

During Joseon shamans were still reached out to by the common folk, who for example often went to them to decide the names of their kids.

Buddhism

Centuries after Buddhism emerged in India, the strand called Mahayana Buddhism spread out of Central Asia, modern-day Afghanistan, and arrived in Silla the very last out of Goguryeo and Baekje due to its geographic isolation. In Korea, it was adopted as the state religion of 3 constituent polities of the Three Kingdoms Period, first by Goguryeo in 372 CE, by Silla in 528 CE, and by Baekje in 552 CE. Buddhism was introduced much more reluctantly compared to the two others to Silla in 528. Silla had been exposed to the religion for over a century during which the faith had certainly made inroads into the native populace and mixed with the native Shamanist and Animist folk religion to form the Korean specific form of Buddhism. The Buddhist monk Ado introduced Silla to Buddhism when he arrived to proselytize in the mid 5th century. The Samguk yusa and Samguk sagi following 3 monks among the first to bring Buddhist teaching, or Dharma, to Korea: Malananta (late 4th century) – an Indian Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to King Baekje of Baekje in the southern Korean peninsula in 384, Sundo – a Chinese Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea in 372, and Ado – a Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea. However, according to legend, the Silla monarchy was convinced to adopt the faith only by the martyrdom of the Silla general Ichadon, who was executed for his Buddhist faith by the Silla monarch in 527 only to have his blood flow the color of milk.

The importance of Buddhism in Silla society of the late early period is difficult to exaggerate. From King Beopheung and for the following six reigns Silla kings adopted Buddhist names and came to portray themselves as Buddhist–kings.

By the time of the 7th century, Buddhism in Korea reached its golden age with the advent of prominent, elite scholar-monks such as Wonhyo, Uisang, and Jajang that influenced East Asian philosophy and played pivotal roles in laying key ideas within East Asian Buddhism like Essence-Function. With the support of the government, massive temples like the Temple of the Golden Dragon, Temple of the Buddhist Realms and hermitages like Seokguram were built across the nation. Buddhist ideals and practices permeated the people's daily lives regardless of class and the court, as well as the government, actively promoted Buddhism as a symbol of patriotism in times of invasions. The main assessment is that relics and temple ruins related to Silla found today were ahead of their time and surpassed those of Goryeo and Joseon in terms of size and extravagancy. Many Sillan monks who were part of the elite caste chose to expand their experience and knowledge by studying abroad in Tang China or travelling far west to India. Hyecho, known for his travelogue "An Account of Travel to the Five Indian Kingdoms", was one of the many Korean monks that ventured to territories west to China yet to be visited by Koreans at that time.

Silla's strong Buddhist nature is also reflected by the thousands of remnant Buddhist stone figures and carvings, mostly importantly on Namsan. The international influence of the Tang dynasty on these figures and carvings can be witnessed in the hallmarks of a round full form, a stern expression of the face, and drapery that clings to the body, but stylistic elements of native Korean culture can still be identified.

Foreign relations

Korea's and Iran's long-running relationship started with cultural exchanges dating back to the Three Kingdoms of Korea era, more than 1600 years ago by the way of the Silk Road. A dark blue glass was found in the Cheonmachong Tomb, one of Silla's royal tombs unearthed in Gyeongju. An exotic golden sword was found in Gyerim-ro, a street also located in Gyeongju. These are all relics that are presumed to be sent to Silla from ancient Iran or Persia through the Silk Road. Other items uncovered during the excavation include a silver bowl engraved with an image of the Persian goddess Anahita; a golden dagger from Persia; clay busts; and figurines portraying Middle Eastern merchants.

It was only during the Goryeo dynasty during Hyeonjeong's reign when trade with Persia was officially recorded in Korean history. But in academic circles, it is presumed that both countries had active cultural exchanges during the 7th century Silla era which means the relationship between Korea and Iran began more than 1,500 years ago. "In a history book written by the Persian scholar Khurdadbid, it states that Silla is located at the eastern end of China and reads 'In this beautiful country Silla, there is much gold, majestic cities and hardworking people. Their culture is comparable with Persia'. Samguk Sagi— the official chronicle of the Three Kingdoms era, compiled in 1145—contains further descriptions of commercial items sold by Middle Eastern merchants and widely used in Silla society. The influence of Iranian culture was profoundly felt in other ways as well, most notably in the fields of music, visual arts, and literature. The popularity of Iranian designs in Korea can be seen in the widespread use of pearl-studded roundels and symmetrical, zoomorphic patterns.

An ancient Persian epic poem, the Kushnameh, contains detailed descriptions of Silla. Former South Korean president Park Geun-hye said during a festival celebrating Iran and Korea's 1,500 years of shared cultural ties, "The Kushnameh, that tells of a Persian prince who went to Silla in the seventh century and got married with a Korean princess, thus forming a royal marriage."

Silla also traded indirectly with the Roman Empire through the Silk Road. Many Roman relics were excavated from the royal tombs of Silla, and it is presumed that Roman glass was a particularly popular luxury product among the high-ranking class. The Silla tombs where Roman glass has been proven to have been excavated include Geumnyeong Tomb, Cheonma Tomb, Hwangnamdae Tomb, and Nambun Tomb No. 98.

Silla was also a place of interest by the Japanese as the Nihon Shoki and the Kojiki both claim that the Japanese god, Susanoo (brother of Amaterasu) first emerged from the kingdom of Silla after being banished from the heavens, but soon left the peninsula for the Japanese archipelago after being dissatisfied with the land. He was also used as a means of spreading propaganda through Nissen dōsoron that Susanoo once reigned over Silla and that the modern Koreans are his descendants (in turn the Japanese), ultimately using him to justify the Japanese occupation of Korea.

Gallery

References

• Silla (Wikipedia)

國號

由于新羅的國號並非漢語，故在早期存在不同的漢字標記，如徐羅伐、徐耶伐、徐那伐、新羅、斯羅、薛羅等，其中僅見于中國史料的是斯盧、新盧，僅見于日本史料中是新良、志羅紀。據《三國史記》記載，「新羅」一詞出現于公元307年。從史料年代來看，實際上最早出現于公元414年的《好太王碑》中。公元503年，智証王以「新者德業日新，羅者網羅四方」之意，正式確定國名的漢字標記為「新羅」。

而關于「新羅」一詞的語源，學界也是眾說紛紜。有觀點認為是「新國」之意，有觀點認為是「東方（或東土、東國）」之意，有觀點認為是「首邑」、「上邑」之意，還有觀點認為是「金鐵之地」之意。還有學者考証，徐羅†sara、薛羅†särra是新羅的早期稱謂，在古韓語中意為「東土」（「伐」為「原野」之意，徐羅伐即「東土之原」），顯示新羅發祥于閼川以東。隨著新羅疆域的擴大，徐羅、薛羅不適合作為國號，取而代之的是斯盧、斯羅†sira或新盧、新羅†sirra，在古韓語中意為「新土（新國）」。

新羅還有一個別稱為「雞林」，據《三國史記》記載，該稱呼源于金氏始祖金閼智被發現于雞鳴之林。後來唐朝在新羅設置雞林州都督府，作為對新羅進行羈縻統治的機構。統一新羅時期，新羅有時會在國號前添加唐朝，如「有唐新羅國」、「大唐新羅國」等。。

歷史

建國

新羅始于辰韓十二部落之斯盧。斯盧位于金城（今慶州），由六個氏族村落組成。相傳有一神馬在斯盧留下一瓢形大卵，有一男嬰從卵中破殼而出。斯盧人將男嬰奉為神，在其10歲多（公元前57年）的時候，將其推舉為王，是為新羅始祖樸赫居世居西幹。公元前53年正月，有一條龍在閼英井出現，在其右腋下生出了一名女嬰。目睹女嬰誕生的老婦人收養了她並為她命名為閼英。閼英長大後，樸赫居世居西幹聽說她的姿容和德行不凡，納她為妃。閼英夫人以賢行而聞名，輔助赫居世居西幹被時人奉為「二聖」。

儒理尼師今（24-57年）時期，斯盧的六個氏族村落被改編成六個行政區域，賜以李、崔、孫、鄭、裴、薛六姓，並設立十七等官位。儒理尼師今傳位于其女婿賢明之人昔脫解（脫解尼師今）。新羅王位開始在樸、昔兩家族間繼承。傳說，儒理尼師今夜聞城西樹林有公雞鳴叫。次日派人前去查看，見「有金色小櫃挂樹枝，白雞鳴于其下」，金櫃內有一男孩。儒理尼師今收養了金櫃內的男孩，給他取名金閼智，是為新羅金氏始祖。261年，沾解尼師今去世後無子，助賁尼師今的女婿金閼智後裔味鄒尼師今繼位。王位從此開始在樸、昔、金三大家族間繼承。

中央集權的建立

奈勿尼師今（356-402年）繼位後，將君主稱呼由「尼師今」改為「麻立幹」（意為分水嶺），並開始採取措施鞏固金氏家族對王權的控制。新羅王位從此由金氏家族獨占。402年，奈勿尼師今去世，其子訥祇麻立幹年幼，新羅人擁實聖麻立幹即位。實聖怨恨奈勿將他在年幼時送到高句麗為人質，417年將奈勿之子訥祇送到高句麗為人質，並試圖讓高句麗人將其殺害。但高句麗人並沒殺他。訥祇後回國弒王即位。君主世襲制度在新羅得到正式確立。

智証王（500-514年）即位後，新羅于503年去除了「麻立幹」的君主稱呼，並確立國號為「新羅」。505年，新羅開始實行州、郡、縣三級行政區劃。州長官軍主、郡長官太守和縣長官縣令由國王選派。于山國亦在智証王統治期間(512年)併入新羅。514年智証王在洛東江西岸的咸安郡設置「小京」，加強對新羅南部地區的控制。

法興王（514-540年）統治期間，新羅建立起骨品制和以其為基礎的官制（十七官等制和百官公服制）。十七官等制將官吏職位分為17等級。只有具有相應骨品級別身份的人才能擔任相應的官職。不同等級的官職有不同的服飾、車馬、房屋等，即百官公服制。法興王在位期間，新羅設立起國家重大政策決策機構「和白會」。523年，新羅吞併金官伽倻，版圖擴展到洛東江下游地區。536年，新羅開始使用「建元」獨立年號紀元。

中興期

真興王 （540-576年）統治期間，新羅國力得到很大提高，吞併整個洛東江流域和整個漢江流域，東北邊境擴展到今咸鏡南道的利原、端川一帶。新羅奪下肥沃的漢江平原後，不僅在人口和物資方面得到增強，也同時控制了朝鮮半島與唐朝經貿文化往來的門戶漢江口，為新羅日後國力的興盛提供了外部橋梁。

真興王在位期間，新羅建立起「六停」軍隊，每州設有一停，由真骨將軍統領。此外，新羅還發展了獨具特色的花郎組織。551年，新羅與百濟趁高句麗內亂聯合出兵奪回475年被高句麗長壽王攻占的原百濟國都所在的漢江流域。新羅得到漢江上游十郡。此後，新羅又發兵攻占百濟奪回的漢江下游六郡，使其疆土擴展到整個漢江流域。原本同盟關係的百濟與新羅也因此結仇。

在東北方面，新羅在真興王統治期間疆土擴展到咸興平原。561-568年，真興王對該地區進行了巡視，並立有四塊「巡境碑」，分別位于今慶尚南道昌寧、首爾北漢山、咸鏡南道黃草嶺和摩雲嶺。

統一三國

660年，新羅聯合唐滅亡百濟，668年又滅高句麗。此後，唐在高句麗故地設九都督並在平壤設安東都護府管轄朝鮮半島，引發唐羅戰爭。戰爭斷斷續續持續了7年。唐最終將安東都護府從平壤遷往遼東（今遼陽）。新羅完全控制大同江至元山灣以南的地域，朝鮮半島大部分地區形成統一國家。

新羅統一三國後，從各方面加強其中央集權統治。執行國王指令的執事部和掌管官吏選拔、任免的位和部被擴充，而原來由六部門閥貴族控制的國家權力機構和白會則被改編成沒有實權的諮詢機構。統一新羅還先後設立或擴充了掌管監察的司政府（659年）、掌管司法的左右理方府（667年）、掌管官吏俸祿的左司祿府（677年）、右司祿府（681年）、掌管土木的例作府（686年）等中央機關以加強其中央集權。為加強對門閥貴族的控制，統一新羅採取了遷豪，淡化京位與外位區別，通過「讀書三品科」選拔官吏等措施。神文王五年（685），統一新羅「完備九州」，將全國分成九個州和五個小京，以加強對地方的管理。

在經濟方面，新羅在獲得了大量原高句麗和百濟的土地後，進行了新的土地丈量和戶籍登記，並以此為基礎推行「丁田制」。神文王7年（687），開始實行根據官吏職位的高低授予地區收租權的祿邑制。由于地方貴族與中央集權的經濟利益矛盾，祿邑制在僅實施兩年後就被祿俸制所取代。景德王十六年（757），統一新羅又由祿俸制改回祿邑制。

文武王至景德王統治期間的約百年時間裡，統一新羅出現了社會經濟繁榮發展的「聖代」景象。據《三國史記》記載，統一新羅一度出現「家給人足，民間安堵，域內無虞，倉廩積于丘山」的富庶。國都慶州「長三千七十五步，廣三千一十八步，三十五里，六部」。《三國遺事》卷一載：「新羅全盛之時，京中十七萬八千九百三十六戶，一千三百六十坊，五十萬里，三十五金入宅。... ...城中無一草屋，接角連牆，歌吹滿路，晝夜不絕」。慶州城在其鼎盛時期是個擁有百萬人口的中世紀大都會，為當時世界第四大城市（僅次于長安、羅馬和君士坦丁堡）。

衰落與滅亡

765年年幼的惠恭王即位後，「太后臨朝，政條不理，盜賊蜂起」，768年又出現全國範圍的真骨貴族奪權叛亂。統一新羅從此開始走向衰退。780年，惠恭王被叛軍所殺，妥協派宣德王即位，封叛亂共謀者金敬信為和白會長官上大。785年宣德王去世後，金敬信擊敗對手金周元奪取王位，是為元聖王。822年，金周元之子金憲昌在熊川州割據成立「長安國」，年號「慶雲」。多處地方貴族勢力紛紛響應。但叛亂被鎮壓，但統一新羅內訌仍然不斷。

真聖女王統治時期，「諸州郡不輸貢賦，府庫虛空，國用窮乏」。真聖女王派官吏到各地「督促」租稅，引發全國大規模農民起義。各地貴族也紛紛割據。900年，甄萱在百濟故地建後百濟。901年，弓裔在高句麗故地建後高句麗。朝鮮半島出現後三國鼎立局面。918年，王建起兵反弓裔，建立高麗。935年，新羅向高麗投降。次年，高麗滅後百濟。朝鮮半島再次形成統一國家。

文化

佛教

訥祇麻立幹時期，佛教經高句麗傳入新羅。佛教起初在新羅並不被接受。528年，異次頓為助法興王弘法殉教後，佛教開始在新羅得到接受。534年，新羅開始興建首座佛寺大王興輪寺。真興王在位時期，新羅建立起僧官制度。549年，梁武帝遣使為大王興輪寺送來佛舍利。553年，新羅建造護國寺也是新羅最大的佛寺皇龍寺。

7世紀中葉的統一新羅佛教形成了戒律宗、涅槃宗、法性宗、華嚴宗、法相宗五個教派。9世紀後期又出現了禪宗九派（九山）。統一新羅佛教因此有「五派九山」的說法。統一新羅有很多僧人赴唐學習，其中新羅王子金喬覺在九華山圓寂化身為金地藏。據《大唐西域求法高僧傳》記載，有9位新羅僧人經由唐朝西行求法。其中慧超留有《往五天竺國傳》。此外，新羅亦有無赴唐經歷但名聲遠播中原的名僧元曉。

儒學

儒家思想傳入新羅的具體時間不詳。從智証王以儒家《書》、《詩》之「德業日新」，「網羅四方」改國號「新羅」，可見當時儒家思想就已傳入新羅。統一新羅神文王二年（682），新羅設立了專門研究儒家思想的國學，景德王六年（747）設各專業博士、助教，招收貴族子弟進行9年制的儒學教育。元聖王四年（788），新羅開設讀書三品科，將教育與科舉結合起來。此乃朝鮮科舉制度的萌芽。此外，統一新羅亦有大量留學生赴唐學習儒學。較為著名的有強首、薛聰、金大問、崔致遠等。

文學

詩歌

隨著漢字的引入和鄉札的發明。新羅本土詩歌鄉歌得以興起。三國時期，鄉歌的創作在新羅是最活躍的。但在文獻中流傳下來的僅有《彗星歌》和《運泥謠》兩首。統一新羅時期，鄉歌得到了長足的發展。據《三國史記》記載，真聖女王曾命角幹魏弘和大矩和尚修撰鄉歌集《三代目》。該書雖已失傳，但可見當時鄉歌在朝鮮半島已經非常盛行。現存的統一新羅鄉歌有《三國遺事》保存的11首。

許多新羅漢詩被《全唐詩》收錄，包括真德女王送給唐高宗的五言排律《太平頌》，新羅王子金地藏的《送童子下山》等。統一新羅文學巨匠崔致遠的詩歌有《桂苑筆耕集》中的60首、《東文選》的30首和分散在《全唐詩》以及其它文獻的10餘首 。現存保留下來最早的統一新羅漢文詩是8世紀上半葉新羅僧人慧超《往五天竺國傳》殘本中的五首。

散文

新羅時期出現了金大問、強首、薛聰、崔致遠等散文家，留有《花王戒》、《往五天竺國傳》、真興王巡狩四碑碑誌等散文名篇。崔致遠是新羅散文大家。他在唐的16年間創作了萬餘篇作品，其中大部分都是散文和應用文（詩歌只有300多首）。他的散文集《桂苑筆耕集》收錄的大多數是駢體四儷六的行政公文，但他的散文內容豐富，體裁多樣，具有很高的藝術成就。他所撰寫的《檄黃巢書》，條理清晰，措辭犀利。據《孤雲先生遺事》記載，黃巢在讀到「不惟天下之人皆思顯戮，抑亦地中之鬼已議陰誅」時，不覺從床上掉了下來。

史傳和傳奇文學

統一新羅時期史傳文學和傳奇文學興盛。金大問是史傳文學作家的代表，著有《高僧傳》、《花郎世記》、《樂本》、《漢山記》等作品。統一新羅時期史傳文學的代表作是《金庾信行錄》。據《三國史記》記載，此書由金庾信玄孫新羅執事郎金長清所作，共十卷，是對金庾信一生的記錄，其中有很多神異成分。

現存的統一新羅傳奇文學有《新羅殊異傳》中的《金現感虎》、《崔致遠傳》、《寶開祈禱》3篇。其中《崔致遠傳》採用的是唐傳奇文體，文末帶長詩《雙女墳》。大部分的唐傳奇作品文末的長詩都已失傳。《崔致遠傳》是《長恨歌傳》外，又一篇完整的唐傳奇文體作品。其文末的《雙女墳》是典型的長篇樂府歌行，為朝鮮文學史上的第一首長篇敘事詩。

藝術

音樂

新羅設有掌管音樂事務的專門機構「音樂署」，有卿2人，大師2人，師4人。據《三國史記》的記載，新羅有「三竹、三弦、拍板、大鼓」等樂器。其中三竹指的是新羅獨特的大琴、中琴和小琴；三弦指伽倻琴、玄琴和琵琶。

繪畫

現存早期新羅的繪畫主要是慶州市天馬塚和98號古墓出土的天馬圖、騎馬人圖和瑞鳥圖等。隨著佛教的興盛，佛教繪畫在統一新羅時期開始興起。統一新羅設有專門掌管繪畫的機構「彩典」，出現了率居、金忠義等畫家。據說皇龍寺內的古松壁畫，芬皇寺內的觀音菩薩像和晉州斷俗寺維摩像都是出于率居之手。《三國史記》為其立傳，是朝鮮正史中唯一的一位畫家。金忠義是位曾在唐朝學藝的新羅畫家，曾任管理唐宮廷工藝品的少府監。唐朝畫家張彥遠曾評價他的畫技「巧絕過人，跡皆精妙」。統一新羅還有伏麻呂、飯萬呂等赴日的畫家。不過統一新羅畫家的作品都已失傳。

陶瓷

新羅陶器是種燒成溫度在1000℃以上的硬質灰陶，結構緻密，強度大，近似炻器。早期新羅陶器主要採用泥條盤築法進行成型，4世紀中葉開始使用輪製成型方法。新羅陶器不施釉，而是通過高溫將胎土中的二氧化硅玻化，在陶器表面形成與釉一樣的光滑效果。新羅陶器器型多為高足杯、長頸壺、器台等，大部分器皿無紋。由于厚葬的習俗，新羅出土陶器中有很多車型、舟型、人偶等異形陶器。

統一新羅陶器多施黃色和綠色釉。佛教的盛行使統一新羅的骨壺比三國時期更加華麗、精緻。受唐三彩的影響，統一新羅時期出現了名為「新羅三彩」的三彩釉陶。9世紀後期，新羅開始從中國江浙地區輸入青瓷、黑瓷和白瓷等瓷器，以及制瓷技術。朝鮮陶瓷從此進入瓷器時代。統一新羅是世界上最早從中國引進製瓷技術的國家。

科技

天文

新羅設有研究天文氣象和制定曆書的天文博士和司天博士。《三國史記》有關日蝕、彗星等天文氣象的記載多達四百餘條。新羅善德女王時期用于觀測天象的瞻星台是目前世界現存最早的天文台。

醫學

統一新羅于717年開設藥殿，指定專門的醫博士教授醫學，主要科目是其從唐引入的《本草》、《甲乙》、《素問》、《針經》、《脈經》、《明堂》、《難經》等醫學理論。三國時期留學印度的僧人回到統一新羅後，對統一新羅的佛教醫學產生了一定的影響。從印度歸來的僧人以及唐沿海新羅坊從事貿易的商人還將產于阿拉伯、東羅馬帝國等地的藥材引入朝鮮半島。三國時期曾出現的救療制度在統一新羅時期得到進一步的完善。

與此同時，從統一新羅傳入中國的醫方、藥物也明顯增多，比如高句麗的《老師方》被載入《外台秘要》，記載新羅僧人用威靈仙治癒足痺的《威靈仙傳》，來華新羅僧人帶來的《新羅法師方》等。其中，威靈仙的藥效很快被中國醫家認可並迅速推廣，並被載入《本草》。據《三國史記》記載，662-929年中國使節先後約9次來朝鮮輸入人參、牛黃、松子等藥材。唐本草學著作中記載有人參、藍騰根、大葉藻、昆布、白附子、土瓜、薄荷、荊芥、菊、海石榴、海紅花、茄子、石發、海松子、桃、榛子、海狗脊、威靈仙、羊脂等原產于新羅的藥材。

統一新羅時期的醫書主要有《濟眾立效方》、《新羅法士方》、《新羅法士流觀秘密要術方》和《新羅法師秘密方》四部。不過這四部書都已失佚，只有《新羅法士方》二首，《新羅法士流觀秘密要術方》和《新羅法師秘密方》各一首保存在日本《醫心方》中。據《三國遺事》記載，新羅曾進行過尸體解剖：「其骷髏周三尺三寸，身骨長九尺七寸，齒凝如一，骨節皆連鎖，所謂天下無敵力士之骨。」

注釋

參考資料

• 新罗 (維基百科)