Life and career

Zhang Juzheng was born in Jiangling County, in modern–day Jingzhou, Hubei province, in 1525, and was renowned for his intelligence at an early age, passing the county shengyuan examinations at the age of 12 and enrolling for the provincial juren examinations the next year, where the chief examiner failed him to prevent his becoming complacent. Finally, in 1547, he passed the imperial examination and was appointed as an editor in the Hanlin Academy.

Zhang was embroiled in deep political turmoil from the start of his career, owing to the factionalism prevalent in the Ming bureaucracy at the time. He was one of few officials who had cordial relations with both Yan Song and Xu Jie, the leaders of the respective factions, but eventually assisted Xu in overthrowing Yan Song. Subsequently, under Xu's patronage, Zhang became a Privy Secretary in 1567, outlasting Xu himself and sharing power with his political rival Gao Gong. In 1572, shortly after the accession of the Wanli Emperor, Gao was ejected from office by Zhang and his ally, the eunuch Feng Bao, on charges that he had questioned the ability of the child emperor to rule. This left Zhang as the sole Grand Secretary, in effect controlling the entire Ming bureaucracy during the first ten years of the Wanli era.

As Chief Grand Secretary

Zhang's reforms consisted primarily of fiscal measures in order to address the persistent revenue shortages that plagued the government. At the same time, laws were instituted from 1573 onwards to tighten monitoring and assessment of officials, in an attempt to restore discipline to an increasingly corrupt bureaucracy. Other major measures included the large–scale retrenchment of officials to achieve savings, as well as efforts to reclaim tax–exempt lands and expand the revenue base. In 1580 the single whip law was instituted, commuting all taxes and labour obligations into silver payments, while an empire–wide land survey was also ordered.

In military affairs, Zhang promoted and supported competent generals such as Qi Jiguang in order to strengthen the empire's northern borders.

Zhang also played a very important role as mentor and regent during the early years of the reign of the Wanli Emperor. He strongly influenced and guided the emperor through his teenage years. However, the strict upbringing he imposed on the emperor also aroused resentment, while his attempts to centralise government and improve its finances affected the interests of large sections of the bureaucracy, leading to frequent controversy. One example of this was the death of Zhang's father in 1577; normally this would have obliged Zhang to enter filial mourning and leave his post, but Zhang applied to remain in office, and was retained by the emperor. In the subsequent dispute over the propriety of Zhang's actions, several opposing officials were subjected to punishment by caning, which only increased the impression of Zhang's domineering nature.

Zhang's fiscal policies met with only mixed success, due to the institutional resistance to his reforms. While the fiscal situation of the imperial government was much improved, and the coffers were refilled with silver, most of the reforms he instituted either failed to achieve their aims, such as the empire-wide land survey, or were quickly discarded after his death in 1582. At the same time, his luxurious lifestyle—which included meals with over a hundred dishes, and a palanquin carried by 32 men—exposed him to charges of hypocrisy even as he imposed austerity measures on the rest of the bureaucracy.

After his death, Zhang's political opponents quickly accused him and Feng Bao of several major charges, including corruption, embezzlement, and factionalism. As a result, his family was purged and his wealth and estate confiscated on the Wanli Emperor's orders, while several of his political allies were forced to retire. Zhang's reputation would only be rehabilitated more than half a century later, just before the downfall of the Ming dynasty.

Zhangs commentary on the "Four Books"

In 1573, Zhang presented the Wanli Emperor with a commentary on the Four Books of the Confucian canon, entitled "Colloquial Commentary on the Four Books" ("四书直解", Sì Shū Zhíjie). It was published some time between 1573 and 1584. The book was not destroyed during the posthumous disgrace of Zhang, and even enjoyed a measure of renown among the Chinese literati almost a century later, during the early decades of the Qing dynasty, when several editions of it appeared between 1651 and 1683.

In the assessment of modern scholars (e.g. D.E. Mungello), Zhang's commentary was, in its content and meaning, not that different from the commentary written by Neo–Confucianist Zhu Xi. The Jesuits rejected the Neo–Confucianism but found Zhang's book more consonant with their view of Confucius' teaching. As a result, there are numerous references to Zhang's work in Confucius Sinarum philosophus, the pioneering Latin translation and commentary of the Confucian classics, which had been gradually created by a large group of Jesuits over several decades and published in Paris in 1687.

Literature

Zhang Juzheng (Chang Chü–cheng) is an important character in Ray Huang's 1587, a Year of No Significance, a documentary book on the period.

生平

早年

明嘉靖四年（1525年）五月初五日（端午节）出生在荆州府江陵县（今荆州市）的一位秀才家。张居正自幼聪颖，十二岁投考生员，荆州知府李士翱很赏识他。十三岁考举人时又颇受乡试主考官湖广巡抚顾璘赏识，二人成了忘年交，顾称其为「小友」，盛赞其为「国器」并解犀带相赠；然顾恐其过于顺利得意忘形而终无为，有意磨砺之，强制其落榜。

仕途

嘉靖十九年（1540年），张居正在十六岁时中举。嘉靖二十六年（1547年）中进士，由庶吉士至翰林院编修。世宗后期，居正升任右中允，与时任国子监祭酒的高拱关系良好。而居正亦是当时少数能与两大重臣严嵩与徐阶都能保持良好来往的官员之一。张居正与朝廷中宦官和权臣都有密切关系，这对他后来的仕途与施政都有著很大的影响，但也埋下「祸发身后」的悲剧。

宰辅

穆宗隆庆元年（1567年）居正任吏部左侍郎兼东阁大学士。上《陈六事疏》，声明自己关于改革时政的意见。经历了激烈的内阁斗争后，最终与高拱并为宰辅，为吏部尚书、建极殿大学士。和高拱一起巧妙利用俺答汗孙子来降一事，与鞑靼和解互市，结束了双方多年的战事，是为俺答封贡。在南方，准许广州举办一年两次「交易会」。

改革

神宗万历初年，张居正与宦官冯保合谋逐高拱（关于与冯保合谋逐高拱之事，近代有不少学者提出异议），代为首辅。当时神宗年幼，张居正得到当时摄政的神宗生母李太后的完全信任，一切军政大事均由他主持裁决，前后当国十年，实行了一系列政治经济改革措施，收到一定成效。

万历元年六月（1573），居正实行考成法，加强对官员的考评，他要求全国各个衙门分置账簿，记载一切发文、收文、章程、计划，是为底册。底册一式三份，一份本衙门留存，一份送各科备注，实行一件注销一件，逾期未办理的，该科上奏候旨，一份送内阁考察，作为官员升降任免的依据。此前，内阁无法控制的言官，也归到了内阁的管理。如此一来，月有稽，岁有考，大大提高了各衙门的办事效率；中央到地方的政令畅通；裁减了大量的庸官冗员；有力地整理了全国税捐，数年的积欠得以收缴，国库收入增加。最重要的是内阁通过此举牢牢把握行政、监察大权，其中枢地位日益显著。

万历五年（1577年）张居正父亲去世。按官制应守孝三年，张居正在明神宗的支持下提出夺情（夺去父子之情，戴孝办公），一时间遭到多方面的猛烈攻击。吴中行、赵用贤及员外郎艾穆、主事沈思孝、进士邹元标相继诤之。皆坐廷杖，谪斥有差。其中邹元标一条腿被打断，落了终身残疾。最终，反对意见被强力压制，事态平息，但张也处于与大多数官员为敌的境地，落得贪权不孝的骂名。此后，张居正性格变得偏执，晚年执政风格越发操切。

万历六年（1578年）下令清丈土地，清查大地主隐瞒的庄田，三年后在全国内推行了一条鞭法，改变赋税制度，把条项税役合并，按亩征银，虽然没有彻底贯彻，但纳税土地从四百多万顷回升到七百万顷以上，使政府的财政情况有所改善。

万历七年（1579年）神宗因夜与宦官张鲸游玩时行为不检，遭到李太后训斥，张居正为皇帝写了罪己诏，由此埋下日后的祸根。一次神宗在读《论语》时，误将「色勃如也」之「勃」字读作「背」音，张居正厉声纠正：「当作勃字！」声音太大，吓得神宗惊惶失措，在朝的大臣无不大惊。沈德符在《万历野获编》中说：「（张居正辅政）宫府一体，百辟从风，相权之重，本朝罕俪，部臣拱手受成，比于威君严父，又有加焉。」晚年张居正的权势之大，连皇帝都有所忌惮，其父病逝，他奉旨归葬，坐著32人抬的豪华大轿，内附有厕所与简易浴盆，吃饭时菜肴过百品，「居正犹以为无下箸处。」。通州县知县张伦拍足张老太太马屁，老太太对张居正说：「一路烦热，到了通州一憩，才有如游清凉国。」张居正提拔张伦为户部员外郎。对于晚年的生活有人指责其骄奢、专权，两个儿子分别中状元、榜眼，为世人非议。

自王守仁创立阳明学，经数十年发展，阳明学左派的泰州学派宣扬人性解放，如何心隐、李卓吾等，何心隐就因此被张居正收狱，拷打而死。（李卓吾认为并非张居正授意，而是当地官吏为讨好张居正而为。）明士大夫素有议政传统，但张居正禁止批评时政。张居正学通阳明学右派与朱子学，为顾及统治阶级利益，下令禁毁各名山书院。

万历八年（1580年）十月，下令吏部遍查两京衙门，「有冗滥者裁之」。万历九年（1581年）正月裁两京户部侍郎以下156个职位，同年裁撤郧阳巡抚、顺天巡抚、湖广总兵等地方大员职位。文武官员从12万馀人降到9.8万人以下。他清查地主隐瞒的田地，推行「一条鞭法」，改变赋税制度，使明朝政府的财政状况有所改善；用名将戚继光、李成梁等练兵，加强华北、边镇防务。

万历十年六月二十日（1582年7月9日）张居正病逝，享年五十七岁。赠上柱国，谥文忠，在过世前十天，神宗加封为「太师」，为有明一代唯一生前受封此职大臣。正史认为张居正死因是痔疮。现代有医师认为其死时症状类似于直肠癌。其他关于诸如纵欲身亡的传言，没有其他佐证，只见于野史。但所谓正史也只不过是官方立场的史书，其可信度并不一定高于私史，故而此事真相仍未可知。

身后

张居正死后不久，是年十二月壬辰（初八日）江西道御史李植上疏弹劾冯保十二大罪状。明神宗览奏之后大喜说：「吾待此疏久矣！」查抄冯保家产，并将冯保发配南京孝陵种菜。梁梦龙、曾省吾、王篆一概勒令致仕。这时候，宦官张诚及江西道御史李植、云南道御史羊可立、山东道监察御史江东之等纷起攻讦张居正与冯保「交结恣横」、「宝藏逾天府」，陕西道御史杨四知因上疏劾张居正「贪滥僭奢，招权树党」，神宗诏令「姑贷不究，以全终始。」万历十一年（1583年）正月，南京刑科给事中阮子孝又上疏弹劾张居正「各子滥登科第，乞行罢斥」。这时张四维上疏代辩，说「居正诸子所习举业，委俱可进。惟其两科连中三人，又皆占居高第，故为士论所嫉，谤议失实」。神宗批文：「都教革了职为民」。羊可立弹劾张构陷辽王朱宪，同时辽妃上书为辽王辩冤，并说辽王府家产无数，全入张家。

于是万历皇帝下令籍其家，一些老弱妇孺因为来不及退出被封闭于张府，饿死十七口，其中有三名婴儿。共查抄张家在京庄房值价一万六百七十两，原住宅内抄没金二千四百馀两，银十万七千七百馀两，金器三千七百一十馀两，金首饰九百馀两，银器五千二百馀两，银首饰一万馀两，玉带一十六条，蟒衣纱罗珍珠玛瑙宝石玳瑁等无算，居正子张嗣修等则抄没银十二万共装一百扛押解真定府，张敬修招银五万馀两。长子张敬修不堪严刑逼供之重负，在写下一份「丘侍郎、任巡按，活阎王！你也有父母妻子之念……何忍陷人如此酷烈」「有便，告知山西蒲州相公张凤盘，今张家事已完结矣，愿他辅佐圣明天子于亿万年也！」血书之后自缢身亡；二子张嗣修投井自杀未遂，又绝食未果，后发配边疆。三子张懋修后戍烟瘴地而死。

潘季驯上疏皇帝说，「治居正狱太急」，「至于奄奄待毙之老母，茕茕无倚之诸孤，行道之人皆为怜悯。」皇帝看了不高兴。后被御史李植劾以党庇张居正，落职为民。

在「夺情」事件中得罪张居正而受到排挤的于慎行曾给办案的邱橓写信：「当其柄政，举朝争颂其功而不敢言其过，今日既败，举朝争索其罪而不敢言其功，皆非情实也。」

蓟州总兵戚继光调任广东任总兵，不久去世。内阁大学士许国连上三疏求去，说：「昔日颠倒是非在小人，今乃在君子（言官），党同伐异，罔上行私。」

皇帝迫于物议，恩准给张家留空宅一所，田十顷养张老太太赵氏，馀子皆充军。一年后赵氏在悲伤中死去。李植以及江东之、羊可立三人，以「尽忠言事，揭发大奸有功」，分别晋升为太仆寺少卿、光禄寺少卿和尚宝司少卿。

平反

终万历一朝，没人敢再提及张居正。至天启年间，在都御史邹元标等的倡议下，逐步平反昭雪，恢复名誉。值得一提的是，邹元标在万历五年反对张居正，被廷杖打断一腿。天启二年（1622年）下诏复其官职。崇祯时「抚髀思江陵，而后知得庸相百，不若得救时相一也」，为张居正彻底平反。识者感慨其「功在社稷，过在身家」。张居正故宅有题诗云：「恩怨尽时方论定，封疆危日见才难。」

著作

张居正著有《张太岳集》、《书经直解》等，后世则把他所有的著作编入《张文忠公全集》。

经济思想

张居正提出了「厚农而资商」，「厚商而利农」的经济观点。他与工部派来的榷税使周汉浦探讨「始所建榷及后稍异」的原因，进一步阐明道理，畅言：「古之为国者，使商通有无，农力本穑，商不得通有无以利农，则农病；农不得力本穑以资商，则商病。故商农之势，常若权衡。然至于病，通无以济也。」

家庭

依照荆州张居正故居族谱记载，张居正共有六子一女。

• 长子：张敬修，妻高氏，有子张重辉及三女，有孙张同敞。

• 次子：张嗣修，妻贺氏，有子张重光。

• 三子：张懋修，妻高氏，有子张重登、张重元及二女。

• 四子：张简修，妻简氏，有子张重润，张重允。

• 五子：张允修，妻李氏，子女不详，有孙张同奎。

• 六子：张静修，族谱中未记载其婚配子女。妻李氏，李幼滋之女。

• 女：张氏，夫为刘一儒之子刘戡之。

评价

正面

• 《明史》盛赞张居正为政期间「海内殷阜，纪纲法度莫不修明。功在社稷，日久论定，人益追思」。

• 《明熹宗悊皇帝实录卷之二十二》明熹宗：「旧辅张居正夺情专权，致招物议，但当皇祖冲年辅政十载，天下乂安，任怨任劳，功不可泯。」

• 明末文人谈迁曾说：「海瑞评价张工于谋国，拙于谋身」，但海瑞全集中没有这些内容。

• 林潞《江陵救时之相论》赞许：「江陵官翰苑日，即已志在公辅，户口厄塞，山川形势，人民强弱，一一条列，一旦柄国，辅十龄天子，措意边防，绸缪牖户。故能奠安中夏，垂及十年，至江陵殁，盖犹享其馀威，以固吾圉者，又十年也。」

• 李卓吾因好友何心隐死于非命，对张一向有偏见，在张居正死后也感慨的说出一些良心话：「江陵（指张居正）宰相之杰也，故有身死之辱。」

• 陈治纪引罗中丞语：「居正受遗辅政，肩劳任怨，日久论定，人益追思。」

• 邹元标说：「江陵功在社稷，过在身家，国尔之议，死而后已。谓之社稷臣，奚愧焉！」

• 梁启超于1908年写作《中国六大政治家》，将张居正与管仲、商鞅、诸葛亮、李德裕、王安石同列。

• 黄仁宇在《万历十五年》中，肯定张居正，但仍称他「自信过度，不能谦虚谨慎，不肯对事实做必要的让步」。

• 黎东方称张居正为明朝唯一的大政治家，也是汉朝以来少有的，诸葛亮和王安石勉强可以和他相比。

• 有人认为张居正并非收入与官职不相称（而张居正抄家所得亦不一定为实），因其最后十年兼领从一品少师、从一品太子太师、正二品吏部尚书、正五品中极殿大学士等三、四项俸饷，即便扣掉折色、宝钞部份，十年所得总合也大于他身后被抄家的金银数量。

正负相掺

• 《明神宗实录》说张居正：「性沉深机警，多智数。……及赞政，毅然有独任之志。受顾命于主少国疑之际，遂居首辅，手揽大政，劝上力守（行）祖宗法度，上亦悉心听纳。十年内海寓（内）肃清，四夷讋服，太仓粟可支数年，冏寺积金至四百馀万，成君德，抑近幸，严考成，综（核）名实，清邮传，核地亩，询经济之才也。……惜其偏衷多忌，小器易盈，钳制言官，倚信佞，方其怙宠夺情时，本根已断矣。威权震主，祸萌骖乘。何怪乎身死未几，而戮辱随之。」其中「威权震主，祸萌骖乘」可以道出为何张在身后即招致灭族之祸。张居正本人经常对下属说：「我非相，乃摄也。」（我不只是宰相，我是摄政）

• 《第六十一卷江陵柄政》谷应泰：「 予以居正救时似姚崇，褊礉则似赵普，专政似霍光，刚鸷则类安石。假令天假之年，长辔获骋，则吏道杂而多端，治术疵而不醇。斯岂贞观之房、杜，而元佑之司马乎？」

负面

• 王世贞「心服江陵之功」，但在《嘉靖以来首辅传》批评他：「器满而骄，群小激之，虎负不可下，鱼烂不复顾」，「没身之后，名秽家灭」。

• 万斯同说张居正「虽曰瑕不掩瑜，而瑕实甚矣」，「挟宫闱之势，以骄蹇无礼于其主」。

• 黄季刚讲学时，说张居正为人险恶，压迫皇帝，又藉势藉端诬害大臣，凡是不从己者非死即贬，众人恨之而无如何，故其身死之后，家破人亡，固得其宜也。

• 龚鹏程认为张「刚騺忮、玩弄权术、排挤异己是张居正的致命伤。这是他性格上的弱点，故人人都承认他的政绩，却人人不喜欢他」。

• 张岱认为张居正「居正之包藏祸心，倾危同列，真狗彘不食其馀矣」，但也说「厥罪虽彰，功亦不泯焉然」「居正救时似姚崇，褊礉则似赵普，专政似霍光，刚鸷则类安石」，并猜想「假令天假之年，长辔获骋，则吏道杂而多端，治术疵而不醇。」

文化

• 朱东润著有人物传记《张居正大传》，本书大量引用张居正生前的书信往来，全书有五分之二是古文

• 熊召政著有历史小说《张居正》

• 黄仁宇之万历十五年中有部分篇幅提及张居正之施政方针和评价

相关影视作品

 电视剧

• 《大明王朝1566》（2007年），由郭东文饰演张居正，中国中央电视台。

• 《万历首辅张居正》（2010年），由唐国强饰演张居正，中国中央电视台。