Name

The Jin dynasty was officially known as the "Great Jin" at that time. Furthermore, the Jin emperors referred to their state as China, Zhongguo (中国), just as some other non-Han dynasties. Non-Han rulers expanded the definition of "China" to include non-Han peoples in addition to Han people whenever they ruled China. Jin documents indicate that the usage of "China" by dynasties to refer to themselves began earlier than previously thought.

History

Origin

By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times out of expedience. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the attraction of material benefits.

One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the Jurchens were treated to guest prostitutes by their Jurchen hosts. The practice of guest prostitution – giving female companions, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later.

Wanyan Aguda

The Jin dynasty was created in modern Jilin and Heilongjiang by the Jurchen tribal chieftain Aguda in 1115. According to tradition, Aguda was a descendant of Hanpu. Aguda adopted the term for "gold" as the name of his state, itself a translation of "Anchuhu" River, which meant "golden" in Jurchen. This river known as Alachuke in Chinese, was a tributary of the Songhua River east of Harbin. The Jurchens' early rulers were the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, which had held sway over modern north and northeast China and the Mongolian Plateau, for several centuries. In 1121, the Jurchens entered into the Alliance Conducted at Sea with the Han-led Northern Song dynasty and agreed to jointly invade the Liao dynasty. While the Song armies faltered, the Jurchens succeeded in driving the Liao to Central Asia. In 1125, after the death of Aguda, the Jin dynasty broke its alliance with the Song dynasty and invaded north China. When the Song dynasty reclaimed the Han-populated Sixteen Prefectures, they were "fiercely resisted" by the Han Chinese population there who had previously been under Liao rule, while when the Jurchens invaded that area, the Han Chinese did not oppose them at all and handed over the Southern Capital (present-day Beijing, then known as Yanjing) to them. The Jurchens were supported by the anti-Song, Beijing-based noble Han clans. The Han Chinese who worked for the Liao were viewed as hostile enemies by the Song dynasty. Song Han Chinese also defected to the Jin. One crucial mistake that the Song made during this joint attack was the removal of the defensive forest it originally built along the Song-Liao border. Because of the removal of this landscape barrier, in 1126/27, the Jin army marched quickly across the North China Plain to Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng). On 9 January 1127, the Jurchens ransacked Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song dynasty, capturing both Emperor Qinzong and his father, Emperor Huizong, who had abdicated in panic in the face of the Jin invasion. Following the fall of Bianjing, the succeeding Southern Song dynasty continued to fight the Jin dynasty for over a decade, eventually signing the Treaty of Shaoxing in 1141, which called for the cession of all Song territories north of the Huai River to the Jin dynasty and the execution of Song general Yue Fei in return for peace. The peace treaty was formally ratified on 11 October 1142 when a Jin envoy visited the Song court.

Having conquered Kaifeng and occupied North China, the Jin later deliberately chose earth as its dynastic element and yellow as its royal color. According to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing), the earth element follows the fire, the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, this ideological move shows that the Jin regarded the Song reign of China was officially over and themselves as the rightful ruler of China Proper.

Migration south

After taking over Northern China, the Jin dynasty became increasingly sinicised. About three million people, half of them Jurchens, migrated south into northern China over two decades, and this minority governed about 30 million people. The Jurchens were given land grants and organised into hereditary military units: 300 households formed a mouke (company) and 7–10 moukes formed a meng-an (battalion). Many married Han Chinese, although the ban on Jurchen nobles marrying Han Chinese was not lifted until 1191. After Emperor Taizong died in 1135, the next three Jin emperors were grandsons of Aguda by three different princes. Emperor Xizong (r. 1135–1149) studied the classics and wrote Chinese poetry. He adopted Han Chinese cultural traditions, but the Jurchen nobles had the top positions.

Later in life, Emperor Xizong became an alcoholic and executed many officials for criticising him. He also had Jurchen leaders who opposed him murdered, even those in the Wanyan clan. In 1149 he was murdered by a cabal of relatives and nobles, who made his cousin Wanyan Liang the next Jin emperor. Because of the brutality of both his domestic and foreign policy, Wanyan Liang was posthumously demoted from the position of emperor. Consequently, historians have commonly referred to him by the posthumous name "Prince of Hailing".

Rebellions in the north

Having usurped the throne, Wanyan Liang embarked on the program of legitimising his rule as an emperor of China. In 1153, he moved the empire's main capital from Huining Prefecture (south of present-day Harbin) to the former Liao capital, Yanjing (present-day Beijing). Four years later, in 1157, to emphasise the permanence of the move, he razed the nobles' residences in Huining Prefecture. Wanyan Liang also reconstructed the former Song capital, Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng), which had been sacked in 1127, making it the Jin's southern capital.

Wanyan Liang also tried to suppress dissent by killing Jurchen nobles, executing 155 princes. To fulfil his dream of becoming the ruler of all China, Wanyan Liang attacked the Southern Song dynasty in 1161. Meanwhile, two simultaneous rebellions erupted in Shangjing, at the Jurchens' former power base: led by Wanyan Liang's cousin, soon-to-be crowned Wanyan Yong, and the other of Khitan tribesmen. Wanyan Liang had to withdraw Jin troops from southern China to quell the uprisings. The Jin forces were defeated by Song forces in the Battle of Caishi and Battle of Tangdao. With a depleted military force, Wanyan Liang failed to make headway in his attempted invasion of the Southern Song dynasty. Finally he was assassinated by his own generals in December 1161, due to his defeats. His son and heir was also assassinated in the capital.

Although crowned in October, Wanyan Yong (Emperor Shizong) was not officially recognised as emperor until the murder of Wanyan Liang's heir. The Khitan uprising was not suppressed until 1164; their horses were confiscated so that the rebels had to take up farming. Other Khitan and Xi cavalry units had been incorporated into the Jin army. Because these internal uprisings had severely weakened the Jin's capacity to confront the Southern Song militarily, the Jin court under Emperor Shizong began negotiating for peace. The Treaty of Longxing (隆兴和议) was signed in 1164 and ushered in more than 40 years of peace between the two empires.

In the early 1180s, Emperor Shizong instituted a restructuring of 200 meng'an units to remove tax abuses and help Jurchens. Communal farming was encouraged. The Jin Empire prospered and had a large surplus of grain in reserve. Although learned in Chinese classics, Emperor Shizong was also known as a promoter of Jurchen language and culture; during his reign, a number of Chinese classics were translated into Jurchen, the Imperial Jurchen Academy was founded, and the imperial examinations started to be offered in the Jurchen language. Emperor Shizong's reign (1161–1189) was remembered by the posterity as the time of comparative peace and prosperity, and the emperor himself was compared to the mythological rulers Yao and Shun. Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181.

Emperor Shizong's grandson, Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1189–1208), venerated Jurchen values, but he also immersed himself in Han Chinese culture and married an ethnic Han Chinese woman. The Taihe Code of law was promulgated in 1201 and was based mostly on the Tang Code. In 1207, the Southern Song dynasty attempted an invasion, but the Jin forces effectively repulsed them. In the peace agreement, the Song dynasty had to pay higher annual indemnities and behead Han Tuozhou, the leader of the hawkish faction in the Song imperial court.

Fall of Jin

Starting from the early 13th century, the Jin dynasty began to feel the pressure of Mongols from the north. Genghis Khan first led the Mongols into Western Xia territory in 1205 and ravaged it four years later. In 1211 about 50,000 Mongol horsemen invaded the Jin Empire and began absorbing Khitan and Jurchen rebels. The Jin had a large army with 150,000 cavalry but abandoned the "western capital" Datong (see also the Battle of Yehuling). The next year the Mongols went north and looted the Jin "eastern capital", and in 1213 they besieged the "central capital", Zhongdu (present-day Beijing). In 1214 the Jin made a humiliating treaty but retained the capital. That summer, Emperor Xuanzong abandoned the central capital and moved the government to the "southern capital" Kaifeng, making it the official seat of the Jin dynasty's power.

In 1216, a hawkish faction in the Jin imperial court persuaded Emperor Xuanzong to attack the Song dynasty, but in 1219 they were defeated at the same place by the Yangtze River where Wanyan Liang had been defeated in 1161. The Jin dynasty now faced a two front war that they could not afford. Furthermore, Emperor Aizong won a succession struggle against his brother and then quickly ended the war and went back to the capital. He made peace with the Tanguts of Western Xia, who had been allied with the Mongols.

The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.

Many Han Chinese and Khitans defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin dynasty. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze and Liu Heima (刘黑马), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala (萧札剌) defected and commanded the three tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han tumens and three Khitan tumens, with each tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan generals Shimo Beidi'er (石抹孛迭儿), Tabuyir (塔不已儿), and Xiao Zhongxi (萧重喜; Xiao Zhala's son) commanded the three Khitan tumens and the four Han generals Zhang Rou (张柔), Yan Shi (严实), Shi Tianze and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan.

Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived under Jin rule. Inter-ethnic marriage between Han Chinese and Jurchens became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi (史秉直). Shi Bingzhi married a Jurchen woman (surname Nahe) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Zhang); it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother. Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives. His Jurchen wives' surnames were Monian and Nahe, his Korean wife's surname was Li, and his Han Chinese wife's surname was Shi. Shi Tianze defected to the Mongol forces upon their invasion of the Jin dynasty. His son, Shi Gang, married a Keraite woman; the Keraites were Mongolified Turkic people and considered as part of the "Mongol nation". Shi Tianze, Zhang Rou, Yan Shi and other Han Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new Mongol state.

The Mongols created a "Han Army" (汉军) out of defected Jin troops, and another army out of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附军).

Genghis Khan died in 1227 while his armies were attacking Western Xia. His successor, Ögedei Khan, invaded the Jin dynasty again in 1232 with assistance from the Southern Song dynasty. The Jurchens tried to resist; but when the Mongols besieged Kaifeng in 1233, Emperor Aizong fled south to the city of Caizhou. A Song–Mongol allied army surrounded the capital, and the next year Emperor Aizong committed suicide by hanging himself to avoid being captured in the Mongols besieged Caizhou, ending the Jin dynasty in 1234. The territory of the Jin dynasty was to be divided between the Mongols and the Song dynasty. However, due to lingering territorial disputes, the Song dynasty and the Mongols eventually went to war with one another over these territories.

In Empire of The Steppes, René Grousset reports that the Mongols were always amazed at the valour of the Jurchen warriors, who held out until seven years after the death of Genghis Khan.

Military

Contemporary Chinese writers ascribed Jurchen success in overwhelming the Liao and Northern Song dynasties mainly to their cavalry. Already during Aguda's rebellion against the Liao dynasty, all Jurchen fighters were mounted. It was said that the Jurchen cavalry tactics were a carryover from their hunting skills. Jurchen horsemen were provided with heavy armor; on occasions, they would use a team of horses attached to each other with chains (Guaizi Ma).

As the Liao dynasty fell apart and the Song dynasty retreated beyond the Yangtze, the army of the new Jin dynasty absorbed many soldiers who formerly fought for the Liao or Song dynasties. The new Jin empire adopted many of the Song military's weapons, including various machines for siege warfare and artillery. In fact, the Jin military's use of cannons, grenades, and even rockets to defend besieged Kaifeng against the Mongols in 1233 is considered the first ever battle in human history in which gunpowder was used effectively, even though it failed to prevent the eventual Jin defeat.

On the other hand, the Jin military was not particularly good at naval warfare. Both in 1129–30 and in 1161 Jin forces were defeated by the Southern Song navies when trying to cross the Yangtze River into the core Southern Song territory (see Battle of Tangdao and Battle of Caishi), even though for the latter campaign the Jin had equipped a large navy of their own, using Han Chinese shipbuilders and even Han Chinese captains who had defected from the Southern Song.

In 1130, the Jin army reached Hangzhou and Ningbo in southern China. But heavy Chinese resistance and the geography of the area halted the Jin advance, and they were forced to retreat and withdraw, and they had not been able to escape the Song navy when trying to return until they were directed by a Han Chinese defector who helped them escape in Zhenjiang. Southern China was then cleared of the Jurchen forces.

The Jin military was organised through the meng-an mou-k'o system, which seemed to be similar to the later Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty. Meng-an is from the Mongol word for thousand, mingghan (see Military of the Yuan dynasty) while mou-k'o means clan or tribe. Groups of fifty households known as p'u-li-yen were grouped together as a mou-k'o, while seven to ten mou-k'o formed a meng-an, and several meng-an were grouped into a wanhu, Chinese for Ten Thousand Households. This was not only a military structure but also grouped all Jurchen households for economic and administrative functions. Khitans and Han Chinese soldiers who had defected to the Jin dynasty were also assigned into their own meng-an. All male members of the households were required to serve in the military; the servants of the household would serve as auxiliaries to escort their masters in battle. The numbers of Han Chinese soldiers in the Jin armies seemed to be very significant.

Jin Great Wall

In order to prevent incursion from the Mongols, a large construction program was launched. The records show that two important sections of the Great Wall were completed by the Jurchens.

The Great Wall as constructed by the Jurchens differed from the previous dynasties. Known as the Border Fortress or the Boundary Ditch of the Jin, it was formed by digging ditches within which lengths of wall were built. In some places subsidiary walls and ditches were added for extra strength. The construction was started in about 1123 and completed by about 1198. The two sections attributable to the Jin dynasty are known as the Old Mingchang Walls and New Great Walls, together stretching more than 2,000 kilometres in length.

Government

The government of the Jin dynasty merged Jurchen customs with institutions adopted from the Liao and Song dynasties. The pre-dynastic Jurchen government was based on the quasi-egalitarian tribal council. Jurchen society at the time did not have a strong political hierarchy. The Shuo Fu (说郛) records that the Jurchen tribes were not ruled by central authority and locally elected their chieftains. Tribal customs were retained after Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and formed the Jin dynasty, coexisting alongside more centralised institutions. The Jin dynasty had five capitals, a practice they adopted from the Balhae and the Liao. The Jin had to overcome the difficulties of controlling a multicultural empire composed of territories once ruled by the Liao and Northern Song. The solution of the early Jin government was to establish separate government structures for different ethnic groups.

Culture

Because the Jin had few contacts with its southern neighbor the Song, different cultural developments took place in both states. Within Confucianism, the "Learning of the Way" that developed and became orthodox in Song did not take root in Jin. Jin scholars put more emphasis on the work of northern Song scholar and poet Su Shi (1037–1101) than on Zhu Xi's (1130–1200) scholarship, which constituted the foundation of the Learning of the Way.

A significant branch of Taoism called the Quanzhen School was founded under the Jin by Wang Zhe (1113–1170), a Han Chinese man who founded formal congregations in 1167 and 1168. Wang took the nickname of Wang Chongyang (Wang "Double Yang") and the disciples he took were retrospectively known as the "seven patriarchs of Quanzhen". The flourishing of ci poetry that characterized Jin literature was tightly linked to Quanzhen, as two-thirds of the ci poetry written in Jin times was composed by Quanzhen Taoists.

The Jin state sponsored an edition of the Taoist Canon that is known as the Precious Canon of the Mysterious Metropolis of the Great Jin (Da Jin Xuandu baozang 大金玄都宝藏). Based on a smaller version of the Canon printed by Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1125) of the Song dynasty, it was completed in 1192 under the direction and support of Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1190–1208). In 1188, Zhangzong's grandfather and predecessor Shizong (r. 1161–1189) had ordered the woodblocks for the Song Canon transferred from Kaifeng (the former Northern Song capital that had now become the Jin "Southern Capital") to the Central Capital's "Abbey of Celestial Perpetuity" or Tianchang guan 天长观, on the site of what is now the White Cloud Temple in Beijing. Other Daoist writings were also moved there from another abbey in the Central Capital. Zhangzong instructed the abbey's superintendent Sun Mingdao 孙明道 and two civil officials to prepare a complete Canon for printing. After sending people on a "nationwide search for scriptures" (which yielded 1,074 fascicles of text that was not included in the Huizong edition of the Canon) and securing donations for printing, in 1192 Sun Mingdao proceeded to cut the new woodblocks. The final print consisted of 6,455 fascicles. Though the Jin emperors occasionally offered copies of the Canon as gifts, not a single fragment of it has survived.

A Buddhist Canon or "Tripitaka" was also produced in Shanxi, the same place where an enhanced version of the Jin-sponsored Taoist Canon would be reprinted in 1244. The project was initiated in 1139 by a Buddhist nun named Cui Fazhen, who swore (and allegedly "broke her arm to seal the oath") that she would raise the necessary funds to make a new official edition of the Canon printed by the Northern Song. Completed in 1173, the Jin Tripitaka counted about 7,000 fascicles, "a major achievement in the history of Buddhist private printing." It was further expanded during the Yuan.

Buddhism thrived during the Jin, both in its relation with the imperial court and in society in general. Many sutras were also carved on stone tablets. The donors who funded such inscriptions included members of the Jin imperial family, high officials, common people, and Buddhist priests. Some sutras have only survived from these carvings, which are thus highly valuable to the study of Chinese Buddhism. At the same time, the Jin court sold monk certificates for revenue. This practice was initiated in 1162 by Shizong to fund his wars, and stopped three years later when war was over. His successor Zhanzong used the same method to raise military funds in 1197 and one year later to raise money to fight famine in the Western Capital. The same practice was used again in 1207 (to fight the Song and more famine) as well as under the reigns of emperors Weishao (r. 1209–1213) and Xuanzong (r. 1213–1224) to fight the Mongols.

List of emperors

Emperors family tree

历史

兴起与灭辽

金朝是由东北地区的女真族所建立，人民以渔猎为生。唐朝时称为靺鞨，五代时有完颜部等部落，臣属于渤海国。辽朝攻灭渤海国后，收编南方的女真族，称为熟女真，北方则是生女真。辽朝晚期朝政混乱，天祚帝昏庸无能，辽廷不停的索求贡品，并且鱼肉女真百姓。1112年天祚帝赴春州与女真各族的酋长聚会时对完颜阿骨打等酋长不敬，使完颜阿骨打有意反抗辽廷，他随后出兵统一女真族各族。1114年完颜阿骨打向辽宣战，随后在宁江和出河店之战两战击败辽军。阿骨打于隔年一月在「皇帝寨」（即后来的上京会宁府，今黑龙江省哈尔滨市阿城区南之白城）称帝建国，即金太祖，国号大金。辽帝天祚帝至此才重视此事，并且下令亲征，但是辽军被女真军击败，同时辽朝国内发生耶律章奴与高永昌的叛乱。

金太祖建国后以辽五京为目标兵分两路展开金灭辽之战。天祚帝曾尝试册封金太祖为东怀国皇帝试图安抚，但册文不称完颜旻为兄长、国号不称大金，故他不接受册封，继续攻打辽朝。

1116年五月东路军占领东京辽阳府，1120年西路军攻陷上京临潢府，辽失去一半的土地。战事期间北宋陆续派使者马政、赵良嗣与金朝定下海上之盟，联合攻打辽朝。1122年东路军攻下中京大定府，天祚帝逃亡沙漠。同时西路军也攻下西京大同府(今山西省大同市)，耶律大石立耶律淳于燕京(南京析津府)，即北辽。北宋也派童贯等人多次率军北伐辽南京与燕云十六州，但均被辽军击溃。北宋最后请金军攻下辽南京，北辽亡，至此辽五京均攻下。宋金双方经过协商后，金军给予燕云十六州部分城市，并且获得岁币，然而北宋最后只获得金军洗劫后的一堆空城。1123年金太祖去世，其弟完颜吴乞买继位，即金太宗。金太宗继续讨伐大同一带的辽军。1124年正月，金太宗为了联合西夏灭辽，把下寨以北、阴山以南的辽地割给西夏。西夏则改对金朝称藩。1125年辽天祚帝被俘，辽朝亡。而耶律大石率军西行，于西域建立西辽。

然另有一说认为《金史》记载的金朝开国史不真实，阿骨打起兵后可能于1117年或1118年建立了「女真国」，1122年才将国号改为大金。

征宋与和谈

金朝在灭辽朝后，即有意南下灭宋朝。金太宗藉由燕云十六州的平州之变为由宣布毁约，于1125年发动金灭宋之战。他派勃极烈完颜斜也为都元帅，完颜宗望、完颜宗翰兵分河北、山西两路，最后会师北宋首都开封。在宋将李纲死守开封的情况下，双方签下宣和和议。1126年金太宗以宋廷毁约为由，再派完颜宗望、完颜宗翰兵分二路攻破开封，于隔年俘虏宋徽宗、宋钦宗等宋朝皇室北归，史称靖康之祸，北宋灭亡。然而北宋康王赵构因机运逃过，并于宋朝南京归德府（今河南商丘）称帝建国南宋，即宋高宗。金朝为了统治广大新占领的汉地，先后建立张楚与刘齐等傀儡国以统治之，并且多次派完颜宗弼等金将率军南征南逃江南的宋高宗。然而南宋在宋将岳飞、韩世忠与张浚的努力下，屡次使南宋转危为安。最后金朝只好迫使南宋称臣，并且让西夏、高丽等国臣服以称霸东亚。

1135年金太宗去世，由金太祖的孙子完颜亶即位，即金熙宗。当时辅佐金廷的一些功臣被称为衍庆功臣，他们左右朝政，主要分成主战派与主和派。金熙宗于1137年废除刘齐，听从主和派完颜挞懒的建议与宋高宗和投降派秦桧议和，归还河南、陕西地给南宋。这让主战派完颜宗弼不满，他于1140年率军夺回河南、陕西地。隔年还再度南征南宋，但被岳飞与刘锜击败。岳飞于郾城之战后再度逼近汴京，至此完颜宗弼也接受与南宋合谈。金宋两国在岳飞被杀后签订绍兴和议，至此双方边界大致底定。金熙宗自幼受汉文化薰陶，登基后与完颜宗弼推动汉制改革，并且重用汉人。隔年派衍庆功臣的完颜宗磐、完颜宗干和完颜宗翰三人共同总管政府机构，「并领三省事」。金朝官制已经汉化，建立以尚书省为中心的三省制。1150年金熙宗受衍庆功臣与皇后的控制，本人被过度压抑，后期不理朝政，滥杀无辜，最后被右丞相海陵王完颜亮所杀，完颜亮自行称帝，史书称为海陵王。

金废帝完颜亮为了攻伐南宋以统一中国地区，推行许多措施：他将首都迁至燕京，是为中都（今北京市），并且有意南迁汴京（今河南省开封市）；将行政区划重新划分成十四路以便于管理；把驻扎上京会宁府（今黑龙江省哈尔滨市阿城区南之白城）属于金太宗、衍庆功臣的完颜宗干与完颜宗翰管辖下的军队归金廷管制，为金朝的中央集权制打下基础。然而金帝完颜亮对宗室猜忌甚深，金太宗的后代差不多全被完颜亮杀尽；并且耗费钜资，不顾部分大臣的反对，执意南征。1161年5月，金廷遣使赴宋要求重划国界，意在寻衅，南宋也开始积极备战。隔年金帝完颜亮率大军由汴京兵分四路南征。东面军分成海路跟陆路两股，陆路军由金帝完颜亮亲自率领，自宿州（今安徽省宿州市）渡过淮水直攻和州（今安徽省和县），海路水军则直攻临安（今浙江省杭州市）。西路分别自关中、河南攻向四川及湖北一带。金东路军渡淮水，攻陷和州准备渡江。然而东路水军在胶西（今山东省胶州市）被宋将李宝的水军歼灭。同时间西北契丹族叛变，镇守东京辽阳府的葛王完颜雍自立为帝，并移居燕京（今北京市），即金世宗。金帝完颜亮遇到此情形仍然执著渡江，但是先遣部队在采石之战被宋将虞允文击败，船舰也被宋军烧毁。金帝完颜亮意图移师扬州强渡长江，但是部下大力反对，最后发动兵变杀死金废帝完颜亮。宋军趁机收复淮南地区，此后金朝不再企图灭亡宋朝。

世章治世

1161年金世宗举兵后昭告金帝完颜亮罪过，率军统一华北，并不再企图灭亡南宋。然而宋金之间的战争却并未终止，1162年他以南宋不愿称臣为由，派主将仆散忠义进驻汴京、纥石烈志宁镇守前线，准备夺回淮南地区。此时南宋宋孝宗意图收复失地，派主将张浚率领李显忠、邵弘渊率军北伐，史称隆兴北伐。宋军陆续收复淮北各地，但于符离的符离之战被纥石烈志宁击溃而被迫终止。而后南宋主和派抬头，于1164年金军再度南征之际再次求和，两国于年底签定合约，双方平等对待，金朝获得岁币。内政方面，金世宗本身十分朴素，采取中庸稳固的方式管理朝政，提倡儒学；查问细微以激励官吏，严禁贪污；对经济采取务实的态度，并且免除不合理的赋税，若有天灾发生，立即救济赈灾。当时各族人民纷纷起义，他为了维持统治，利用科举、办学等制度，争取汉族贵族支持，又加强猛安、谋克权力，并扩大女真族占有的土地。这些都使金朝的经济、文化都得到了一定程度的恢复和发展，史称大定之治。金世宗除了抵御南宋北伐，还出兵威震慑西夏、高丽，使这两国臣服金朝，被金史称为小尧舜。1189年金世宗死后，由于太子完颜允恭早逝，故立允恭之子完颜璟即位，是为金章宗。

金章宗前期政治汉化甚深，文化十分发达，史称明昌之治。金章宗不单对国内文化发展加以奖励，他本身亦能写得一手好字。然而金章宗过度重视文化发展，宠爱李师儿（后封元妃）以及李氏外戚，任用经童出身的胥持国管理朝政。这两位互相协助，营利干政，使金章宗后期的政风逐渐败坏，而黄河泛滥与改道又使金朝国势开始衰退。此时金朝军事逐渐荒废。金朝「盛平日久，兵日益骄，民日益贫，而奢靡之风日盛」

北方蒙古诸部兴起。金章宗曾派兵至蒙古减丁，并且诱使互相残杀，但成效不大，最后由成吉思汗所统一。南宋权臣韩侂胄见金朝国势衰退，命吴璘之孙吴曦管理蜀地，准备北伐，而金廷也派仆散揆坐镇汴京，抵御宋军。1206年韩侂胄发动开禧北伐，宋军一度收复淮北地区，但是镇守蜀地的吴曦投降金朝。八月仆散揆率军九路南下，年底金兵直逼长江，并且围攻襄阳。隔年吴曦被杀，四川复归南宋，至此双方有意议和。韩侂胄最后在金朝与南宋的要求下被杀，双方于1208年议和，史称嘉定和议。1208年金章宗逝世，由于他的六个儿子都在三岁前夭折，李元妃立金章宗的叔父卫王完颜永济继位，史称卫绍王。

中衰与南迁

金帝完颜永济继位后立即清除李元妃等外戚势力，然而本身昏庸且任用错人，加上金朝国力衰退混乱，面对蒙古入侵时无力反抗。1206年蒙古部成吉思汗（元太祖）统一大漠南北，建立大蒙古国。当时蒙古族对金朝保持严重的敌意，有意脱离金廷控制，而成吉思汗也知道完颜永济是个无能之辈，认为这是攻灭金朝的好时机。成吉思汗先攻打西夏以拆散金夏同盟，避免在伐金时被其牵制。当时西夏向金廷求援，金帝完颜永济以邻国遭攻打为乐而坐视不救，最后西夏向蒙古臣服，并且转为附蒙伐金。消除后顾之忧后，成吉思汗于1210年与金廷断交。隔年发动蒙金战争，于野狐岭战役大破丞相完颜承裕与将领完颜九斤率领的四十万金军，金帝完颜永济将丞相换成擅长谋略的徒单镒。蒙古军随后攻入华北并四处掠夺，最后包围金廷首都中都（今北京市），因中都城坚而撤。1212年成吉思汗再次南征金朝，一度包围金西京大同府。同年契丹人耶律留哥在东北叛金附蒙，并在迪吉脑儿（今辽宁昌图附近）击败金兵，蒙古军再次逼近中都。1213年将领胡沙虎杀金帝完颜永济，胡沙虎拥立金章宗的庶兄完颜珣继位，是为金宣宗。

1213年金宣宗继位之初，胡沙虎执金朝大权。胡沙虎威胁中都守将术虎高琪作战不力，最后反被其所杀。同年秋成吉思汗兵分三路攻金，他派皇子术赤经略山西、皇弟合撒儿往河北，他与幼子拖雷往山东进攻，金廷只有中都、真定、大名等十一城未失。隔年金宣宗求和，献黄金与岐国公主与成吉思汗，蒙金和议达成。在蒙军撤退后，金宣宗不顾徒单镒等反对，与术虎高琪迁都汴京 ，仅派太子镇守中都，引来河北军民不安。1215年蒙古以金帝南迁为由，再度率军攻陷中都，至此占领河北地区。同年十月，蒲鲜万奴在辽东自立，建东真国。此时金朝龙兴之地被蒲鲜万奴与耶律留哥瓜分，山东与河北一带都是民变的红袄军，金廷只能控制河南、淮北与关中一带。当时河患泛滥成灾，黄河自从金室南迁后改道，流向东南。河患的范围非常广泛。

亡国蔡州

金宣宗南迁之后国势益弱，蒙古已经取代金朝称霸东亚，由于成吉思汗与花剌子模发生纠纷而发动西征，他派木华黎统领汉地，封为「太师国王」，持续威胁金朝，金朝至此终于得以喘息。虽然金宣宗想要重振金朝，但无雄才大略，且又猜忌成性，政治上并无起色。1219年太原失守，金廷建立河北九公，封立王福、移剌众家奴、武仙等九人为公，赐号「宣力忠臣」，打算以之坚守国土，但仍然无济于事。金宣宗任用术虎高琪，他苛刻成性，接连南征南宋、西征西夏以扩张领土，并且持续抗击蒙古。此时金朝内政不良，军力已衰，经过多次战争后又使金朝处于四面楚歌的局势。1219年术虎高琪被金宣宗杀死，战事直到金宣宗驾崩以后才平息。1224年金宣宗逝世，由于其长子早逝，故由次子完颜守绪继位，即金哀宗。

金哀宗即位后，鼓励农业生产，与南宋、西夏和好。建立直属中央的忠孝军，任用完颜陈和尚等抗蒙名将，于1228年大昌原之战（今甘肃宁县）击溃蒙古军。而后金军收复了不少土地，让金朝起死回生。然而其盟国西夏因为之前的战争使得国力衰落，最后在1227年被西征回来的蒙古所灭。同年成吉思汗去世，1229年正式由三子窝阔台继任，史称元太宗。此后蒙古再度对付金廷，1230年窝阔台汗发动三路伐金，窝阔台汗率大军渡黄河直攻汴京，斡陈那颜率东路军走济南，四弟拖雷率西路军自汉中借宋道沿汉水攻打汴京。1232年拖雷成功迂回至汴京，金哀宗派完颜合达、移剌浦阿率大军阻击于邓州。此时窝阔台汗率大军渡河，并派速不台攻汴京。而完颜合达急率军北援汴京，与拖雷率领的蒙军于三峰山（今河南禹州市东南）发生三峰山遭遇战，金军精锐溃败，名将张惠、完颜合达、完颜陈和尚与移剌浦阿先后死亡。蒙军围攻汴京，迫使金哀宗求和。而后金廷杀蒙古使者，蒙古再度围攻汴京。金哀宗坚持至年底放弃，南逃归德（今河南商丘市），汴京守将崔立投降。蒙将史天泽一路紧追不舍，金哀宗逃往蔡州，蒙军约宋将孟珙、江海率军与粮食联合围攻。1234年正月蔡州岌岌可危，金哀宗不愿当亡国之君，也自认为肥胖不能骑马难以突围，将皇位传给统帅完颜承麟，史称金末帝。哀宗认为末帝身手矫健有将略，如果侥幸突围，可以延续国祚。蔡州城陷后，金哀宗自杀，金末帝死于乱军中，金朝亡。金亡后，被南宋俘虏不屈近十四年的汉臣毕资伦闻讯投水自尽，少数汉臣以遗老自居，入元不仕，如王若虚、元好问等。

疆域与行政区划

金朝自金太祖立国以来，接连不断对辽朝、宋朝、西夏与高丽发动侵略战争。金太宗时，金朝先后攻灭辽朝与北宋，其疆域东到混同江下游吉里迷、兀的改等族的居住地，直抵日本海；北到蒲与路（今黑龙江克东县）以北三千多里火鲁火疃谋克（今俄罗斯外兴安岭南博罗达河上游一带），西北到河套地区，与蒙古部、塔塔儿部、汪古部等大漠诸部落为邻；西沿泰州附近界壕与西夏毗邻。南部与南宋以秦岭淮河为界，西以大散关与宋为界。金朝疆域可分成三个部分，第一个是原辽朝统治的东北区域与漠南地区，这是金朝龙兴之地，包括女真各部落的住地，还有契丹、奚、渤海以及五国部、吉里迷、兀的改等各族。金朝建国之初，对此一概搬用生女真旧制。如1116年金太祖占有辽东京州县以后，「诏除辽法，省税赋，置猛安谋克一如本朝之制」。即不管是辽籍女真族、汉族、渤海族、契丹族或是奚族，全都以猛安谋克制度（即千夫百夫的制度）划分管理。第二个是辽上京临潢府以南，直到河北、山西等燕云十六州，这里居民主要是汉族，长期以来受异族统治，而金统治下之汉地亦维持汉官制度。史称「太祖入燕，始用辽南、北面官僚制度」，就是指同时奉行女真旧制和汉制的双重体制。第三种情况是原宋朝领地的秦岭、淮河以北之地，主要居民也是汉族，由于新受异族统治，大多不愿受金廷管制。先后设置张楚与刘齐等傀儡政权统治，最后由金廷以汉法直接管理。

金朝的行政区域采用路（府）、州、县三级管理，路为一级行政区，共有十四个路与五京，合计十九。路有都总管府，以及都转运司、按察、盐使等三司的监司官，五京府有五京留守，而后与府伊所掌的府合一。路府则成平行机构，下辖州、县二级。金朝的州分为三类：节度州设节度使，防御州设防御使，刺史州设刺史；县则以县令掌治，分成七等。此外尚有部落之官，千夫长的猛安，百夫长的谋克，合称猛安谋克；属于边戍之官的乣详稳，部落墟砦之首领的移里菫。

金朝采行五京制，共有中都大兴府、上京会宁府、南京开封府、北京大定府、东京辽阳府和西京大同府，其中后三个陪都就在辽的中京大定府、东京辽阳府和西京大同府的原址。金朝原都上京，1151年4月金废帝完颜亮颁布诏书扩建辽燕京为中都，于1153年迁都中都，至此中都在很长的时间为金朝首都。1214年金宣宗受蒙古帝国掠夺与威胁，宣布南迁汴京。1232年三峰山之战金军战败，蒙军围攻汴京后，金哀宗先奔归德（今河南商丘），最后逃到蔡州（今河南汝南）。

政治体制

金朝初期全面采用辽朝的北南面官制，奉行女真旧制与汉地汉制等两元制度。自金熙宗推行天眷新制后逐步弃用女真制，逐渐采用宋朝制度。政治体制的一元化，是金朝强大的一个重要原因。

金朝建立之初，金太祖废除部落联盟时的「国相」制，采用小组化的勃极烈制度，长官均称「勃极烈」。其中都勃极烈即皇帝、谙班勃极烈为皇储、国论勃极烈为国相、阿买勃极烈为国相助手、昊勃极烈为第二助手，形成皇帝和少数大臣共议国事的勃极烈制度。而后又有忽鲁勃极烈（第三助手），到1132年金太宗分忽鲁勃极烈为左勃极烈与右勃极烈，形成皇帝、皇储与国相五人小组。

随著金朝不断向南延伸，促使金廷改采用三省制的唐制。1123年至1138年间，金太宗在占领燕云十六州与攻灭北宋后，推行汉官制度，与女真旧制形成两元制度。金初的所谓「南面官」，亦即设于营州广宁（今河北省昌黎县）的汉地枢密院，最后迁至燕京。与此相对的「北面官」，主要指当时实行于朝廷之内的勃极烈制度。1135年金熙宗继位后废除勃极烈制度以巩固皇权，全面使用宋朝、辽朝官制。他建立以尚书省为中心的三省制，以三师（太师、太傅、太保）以及三公（太尉、司徒、司空）共领三省事，地方分路、府、州、县。1138年改燕京尚书省为行台尚书省，成为中央尚书省的派出机构，结束双元制度并存的局面，这些与三省制都是汉制改革的结果，史称天眷新制。金帝完颜亮时废除中书省、门下省，行政机关缩编成尚书省。

金朝制度在金世宗之后大体同宋朝制度。尚书省中，尚书令为虚设，实际上由左右丞相与平章政事掌握行政权，左右丞与参知政事为副相，其下有左右两司郎中，分掌六部。军事机构由都元帅府改为枢密院。设置盐铁部、度支部、户部等三司理财、御史台掌纠察、谏院及审官院，其他有国史院、宣徽院、宏文院与集贤院等机关，太常、大里寺，六监、司农司、大宗正等皆依宋朝制度。

金朝灭亡的原因是史学家争论的课题，有一部份学者认为金亡是因为汉化太彻底，也有人认为金亡是因为汉化不够彻底。例如刘祁在《归潜志·辨亡》认为金朝「分别蕃汉人，且不变家政，不得士大夫之心，此其所以不能长久」。儒士郝经因此要求忽必烈以金朝为榜样，力行汉法。许衡在至元二年（1265年）向忽必烈奏上的《时务五事》：「自古立国，皆有规模。……考之前代，北方之有中夏者，必行汉法，乃可长久。故后魏、辽、金历年最多，他不能者，皆乱亡相继，史册具载，昭然可考。」，同样认为「必行汉法，乃可长久」。

外交

女真族原臣服辽朝。辽朝晚期因受女真族建立的金朝入侵，加上朝廷内部分裂与内斗，使辽朝有意与北宋和谈。但是北宋已经与金朝建立海上之盟而共同伐辽，所以拒绝和谈，最后辽朝亡于金朝。金灭辽后，又南征灭北宋，在靖康之祸后宋朝与金已成为死敌，双方多次发生战争。金廷为了统治广大的汉地而建先后建立张楚与刘齐等傀儡国，但因基础不稳与未能有效攻灭宋高宗建立的南宋而废除。经过金灭宋之战、完颜宗弼南征江南、金帝完颜亮的采石之战等战争，金朝都未能彻底灭亡宋朝；而南宋经过岳飞北伐、隆兴北伐、开禧北伐也未能击败逐渐稳固中原的金朝，这些都使得金廷的方针逐渐采取以战逼和的方式以获取更多利益，双方先后签署宣和和议、绍兴和议、嘉定和议等协定。这个均势直到大蒙古国崛起后才被破坏，南宋在金朝衰退后不愿称臣纳贡，双方再度交恶。

漠北地区原为金朝的附属地区，当地主要有乃蛮、克烈、蔑儿乞、泰赤乌、塔塔儿、蒙古与札达兰等部落，此外还有其他部落。金朝为了稳固漠北地区，采取联合部落去压制想要崛起的部落，并且多次派兵减丁、掠夺，这使得部分漠北部落敌视金朝。随著金朝的衰落，漠北部落最后于1204年由蒙古部的成吉思汗所统一，两年后建国于漠北，国号大蒙古国。他为了报仇而不再臣服金廷，在降伏金廷盟国西夏后入侵金朝，成为金廷一大外患。

西夏在辽朝后期与其友好，在金灭辽后因金太宗同意裂地赠与西夏，使西夏转向支持金朝。金廷稳固中原后切断西夏与宋朝的关系，使得西夏对中原的贸易完全掌控在金朝手上，这使双方的关系处于明和暗离的状态。蒙古崛起后为了切断西夏与金朝的盟约，多次攻打西夏。而金帝完颜永济对此表示以邻国遭攻打为乐而坐视不救，导致西夏向蒙古臣服，转而攻打金朝。这个状态直到夏献宗继位后才转为连金抗蒙，不过两国已无力抗蒙。

蒙古在攻陷金中都、迫使金廷南迁后，有意采取连宋灭金的方针，并有意借道南宋的方式，迂回攻打金朝后背。金宣宗为了弥补失去河北的损失，多次对南宋、西夏发生战争，最后虽然互相和解，但三国彼此元气大伤。西夏最后于1227年亡于蒙古，金朝也难逃灭国的命运。1230年窝阔台汗发动三路伐金，派拖雷经宋道迂回攻打金南都开封。在金哀宗南逃蔡州后，蒙古邀请南宋率军夹攻，宋廷为了报靖康之耻也愿意派兵运粮助战，最后金廷亡于蒙宋夹攻之中。

金朝对高丽王朝关系的方面，在建立金朝之前有部分女真族向高丽朝贡，被称为东北女真。金太祖统一了女真诸部后入侵高丽。此时高丽肃宗率领的高丽军难以抵抗金军，最后在尹瓘的说服下让女真军撤退。尹瓘重建高丽军，并在1107年成功抵御女真入侵，并在国界修建九城。1115年金立国后不久灭了辽朝与北宋，切断高丽与宋朝的关系，孤立了高丽。金朝与吐蕃诸部亦有一定交流。1168年八月，宋、金同时遣使到越南李朝，而李朝的态度则是礼待双方来使，然而不令相见。

军事制度

金军大体可分为本族军、其他族军、州郡兵和属国军。前二者为主力，后二者为辅翼。最初，奴隶主、封建主都应从军。领有汉地后，主要实行徵兵制，签发汉族和其他少数民族为兵，称为「签军」，到后期也行「募兵制」。金朝统治中原后，还仿汉制，实行发军俸、补助等措施。对年老退役的军官，曾设「给赏」之例。对投降的宋军，常保留原建制，仍用汉人降将统领。金军亦以骑兵为主，步兵次之。骑兵一兵多马，惯于披挂重甲。各部族兵增多后，步兵数量大增。水军规模也较大，但战斗力较弱。除冷兵器外，还使用火炮﹑铁火炮﹑飞火枪等火器作战。后来蒙古南侵之时，金军就以火器抗蒙。1232年金将赤盏合喜驻守汴京，「其守城之具有火炮名震天雷者，铁礶盛药，以火点之，炮起火发，其声如雷，闻百里外，所爇围半亩之上，火点著甲铁皆透」。

军事机关原设有都统，后改为元帅府、枢密院等，协助皇帝统辖全军。战时，皇帝指定亲王领兵出征，称都元帅、左右副元帅等临时职位。边防军事机构有招讨司、统军司等。金朝军队采用结合社会与军事制度的猛安谋克制度，也就是百夫千夫长的制度。早在女真族时期，所有成年男子都是战士，平时从事生产，战争时参加战斗，兵器、粮食自几自足。分置人民约一千户为猛安、约一百户为谋克，谋克相当于百夫长，猛安相当于千夫长。万户府下辖诸猛安，猛安下辖谋克，谋克之下还有五十、十、伍等组织。兵员配置大多是一正一副，战时副军可以递补正军。兵为世袭制，兵员可以子弟替代，但不能以奴充任。

完颜阿骨打起兵反辽朝时，以三百口为一「谋克」，十谋克为一「猛安」。约二千五百人的兵力，仅用了十二年的时间，就将辽朝、北宋两邦彻底征服。后来猛安谋克既是军事长官，又是行政长官。随著金朝不断南移，猛安谋克制度与奴隶制互相适应的制度逐渐遭到破坏，「舍戎狄鞍马之长，而从事中州浮靡之习」。女真人的日趋文弱化就是一个相当普遍的现象。金世宗时，阿鲁罕任陕西路统军使，「陕西军籍有阙，旧例用子弟补充，而材多不堪用，阿鲁罕于阿里喜、旗鼓手内选补」。史旭有诗：「郎君坐马臂雕弧，手捻一双金仆姑。毕竟太平何处用，只堪妆点早行图。」，已知「国朝兵不可用，是则诗人之忧思深矣。」。1168年朝廷从猛安谋克中遴选侍卫亲军，而「其中多不能弓矢」。最后当蒙古突骑兴起后，金军在野狐岭战役等大型战役中惨败，最后南迁汴京。然而在金哀宗时期所建立的忠孝军，对蒙古军仍有一定威胁。

人口

1141年绍兴议和后，自从靖康之难开始减少的人口总量得到一定程度的恢复增长。到1207年金章宗泰和七年间达到53,532,151人，被称为人口之极盛。而当时金与南宋、西夏等人口总数据估计达到一亿三千六百万人，中国人口从1083年的一亿增加到1120年的一亿三千二百四十万。金朝的四次准确的人口统计，每户平均人口都在6人以上，金朝的户规模较大，和很多贵族以及猛安谋克户们使用大量奴仆有一定关系。

随著金朝内地经济的发展，不仅需要更多的土地耕作，也更需要民户当劳力。金太祖与金太宗为统治中原，将百万以上的女真人徙置于黄河下游人口稠密地方，是以牺牲汉人利益的办法去救济女真人。在把女真族迁往新占领地区的同时，也还继续地把契丹族、汉族迁到金朝的内地。金军在灭辽的作战中，曾经掳回大批的契丹族、汉族作奴隶。后来金太祖下诏，禁止对已经投降的百姓掳掠，禁止权势之家买贫民为奴，又规定卖身为奴者，可以用劳力相等的人赎身。但实际上，这种赎身的可能性是很少的。被迫迁徙的汉族居民，不能不大批地沦为奴隶。金廷对降附区的人民，采用强迫迁徙的办法迁到内地。如山西州县的居民，被大批迁到金上京以至浑河路。上京地区的居民又被迁到宁江州。平州的人民在反抗后被镇压，随后与润州、隰州、来州及迁州等四州人民被迁到东都渖阳。这些居民艰苦不能自存，被迫卖身作奴隶，导致汉人刻骨的痛恨。女真族抢占汉族最富庶的耕地，为了增加日益增大的生活和军事开支，又不断加重汉族的赋役。女真人与汉人的矛盾恰如史籍所言：「盗贼满野，向之倚国威以重者，人视之以为血仇骨怨，必报而后已」。

女真男人的发型是「留颅后发」，还绑个辫子，所以被南人称为索虏。在《北风扬沙录》与南宋的游记，也有金人留辫的说法，在金太宗天会七年还强制胡服留辫。这样剃发留辫的习俗为后来的满清所继承。金代皇帝也可掌掴大臣」。

经济

金朝各地区的经济发展存在很大差异。金朝建立之初，女真族尚处于渔猎农耕的混合制度，而它所控制的汉地，农业经济早已高度发展。从金熙宗到金章宗的半个多世纪里，北方社会经济有一定程度的恢复和发展。东北地区社会经济比辽时有了较大的发展，如冶铁业有明显进步。在金世宗与金章宗期间，原来使用奴隶生产的猛安谋克户也逐渐转化成地主。这个转化主要有受田、赋税、区别平民和奴隶等，女真贵族藉此扩大土地占有范围。

农业与畜牧业

金朝把发展农业作为军事扩张的基础，视其龙兴之地东北地区为粮仓，将中原地区的生产工具和耕作技术都逐渐传播到当时落后的今东北地区。由于铁制农业生产工具的广泛使用，促进农业生产的发展，农作物品种也日益增多。金初，不种谷麦，只种稷子春粮。以后农作物品种日益增多，农作物有小麦、粟、黍、稗、麻、菽类等；蔬菜类有葱、蒜、韭、葵、芥及瓜等。金廷又鼓励垦荒，例如规定开垦荒地或黄河滩地可以减免租税，所以开垦农田面积有所增加。

金朝的土地制度给予女真族很大的优惠，这是汉族、契丹族与渤海族所没有的。女真族的土地制度是一种称为「牛具税地」的制度，继承氏族制度的遗风。占地多少是以耒牛、人口为依据的，拥有众多人口和耒牛的女真贵族自然就可以广占田土。到金世宗大定年间，人、牛、地比例不符的情形已很普遍。

金熙宗时期开始实行的「计口授田」的制度。早在金朝统治广大的华北地区后，有计画的将大量的猛安谋克分散各地以镇压汉族，被称为屯田军。金廷对内迁的屯田军户，都按照户口给以官田，即所谓「计口授田」。当官田不敷分配时也会大量抢占民田。屯田军户分得土地以后，大多让租给汉族耕种或是强迫汉族无偿耕种。由于剥削严重，无人愿意耕种，土地逐渐荒废。金世宗时再派官吏到各地去「拘刷良田」，兼并土地为官田。

由于女真族属于东北民族，其畜牧业也十分发达。金帝完颜亮时原有九个群牧所。在南征时，徵调战马达56万多匹，然而因战事大半损失，到金世宗初年仅剩下四个。金世宗开始复苏畜牧业，当时在抚州、临潢府、泰州等地设立七个群牧所。1168年起，下令保护马、牛，禁止宰杀，禁止商贾和舟车使用马匹。又规定对群牧官、群牧人等，按牲畜滋息损耗给予赏罚。经常派出官员核实牲畜数字，发现短缺就处分官吏，由放牧人赔偿。对一般民户饲养的牲畜，登记数额，按贫富造簿籍，有战事，就按籍徵调，避免徵调时出现贫富不均的现象。对各部族的羊和马，规定制度，禁止官府随意强取。

手工业

金朝手工业生产如陶瓷、矿冶、铸造、造纸、印刷等，历经战乱与复苏都有发展。女真族在建国前盛行炼铁。金朝建立后冶铁业在北方地区继续发展，著名的产铁地区有云内州、真定府、汝州鲁山、宝丰、邓州南阳等，云内州盛产一种叫做青镔铁的铁器。另外在东北地区，也开始开采煤矿。铁制工具已广泛使用。在东北广大地区内，都发现了金朝的铁器。其中有大量铁制农具，种类繁多，结构复杂，形制与中原地区相似或一致，这表明已改变了粗放的农业经营方式。1961年至1962年，在黑龙江省阿城县五道岭发现金朝中期铁矿井10馀处，炼铁遗址50馀处。矿井最深达40馀米，有采矿、选矿等不同作业区。根据开采规模估计，从这些矿井中已采出四五十万吨铁矿石。

陶瓷业因为有辽朝、宋朝的基础也比较发达。金熙宗时，原来的北方名窑如陕西耀州窑、河南均窑、河北定州窑与磁州窑也陆续恢复生产，临汝等新兴窑址，工艺各具特色。金银业和玉器业也相当发达，近年有许多珍贵的文物出土。商业活动逐渐活跃，东北地区的金朝遗址和墓葬中，发现大量宋朝铜钱，可见与南方贸易的密切。山西稷山的竹纸和平阳的麻纸，闻名一时。刻书蔚然成风气，其雕板技术，可与南宋比美，当时雕版印刷业的中心在平阳。

商业

由于生产经济的恢复和发展，促使商业日益繁盛。金朝建国初年，各地的商业发展处于极不平衡的状态。当时女真的龙兴之地东北地区还是「无市井，买卖不用钱，惟以物相贸易」，而金中都与开封府都是兴盛的商业城市。金朝建立不少的「榷场」，与西夏和南宋进行贸易。不过宋金之间由于时战时和，榷场的贸易受到一定的影响。金朝主要向南宋输出皮革、人参、纺织品等商品，南宋向金朝输入茶、药材、丝织品等。会宁府、金中都、开封府与济南府都是当时较大的商业中心。

金中都（今北京市）在金帝完颜亮正隆间成为国都后，水陆交通发达，人口迅速增加，已经是一座贸易发达的商业重镇，其中城北三市是商业的中心。金世宗时，开封府的相国寺仍旧每月逢三、八日开寺，商贩集中在此贸易，宣德楼门下「浮屋」中买卖者甚众。1152年，共有二十三万五千多户。以后到金章宗泰和时，又增加到一百七十四万多口。

金朝币制，钱、钞、银三种并行。金朝早期使用旧有的宋、辽钱币，直到金、宋间第二次议和后，战争暂告结束。1158年金帝完颜亮首次铸行正隆通宝小平钱。1204年金章宗铸泰和通宝真书钱。1213年金帝完颜永济铸至宁元宝钱。金宣宗南迁后也铸行货币。金朝灭掉北宋以后，曾扶植刘齐立国，所铸钱币却清秀娟美，比一般北宋钱精整。

文化

金朝文化在发展中已达到很高水平，它「一变五代、辽季衰陋之俗」，「大定以后，其文笔雄健，直继北宋诸贤」。在某些方面亦非宋朝可比，启后世文化发展之先声。金廷推行汉化政策，从「借才异代」走向「国朝文派」，逐渐形成了不同于宋朝的独特气派、风貌，但其剽悍勇猛的崇武精神随著金朝政权的稳固而逐渐消失，最后终至亡国。元朝时，亡金故老喜言「金以儒亡」，此说未必正确，但金人全盘汉化则是不争的事实。刘祁说：「南渡后，诸女真世袭猛安、谋克往往好文学，喜与士大夫游。」金熙宗以后的帝王都具有相当高的汉文化素养。元代有一说：「帝王知音者五人：唐玄宗、后唐庄宗、南唐后主、宋徽宗、金章宗」。金朝中期以降，女真人改汉姓、著汉服的现象越来越普遍，朝廷屡禁不止。虽然金世宗一向反对女真人全盘汉化，积极倡导学习女真字、女真语，但仍挽不回女真汉化的速度。接受汉文化最快、汉化程度最深的首先是女真上层贵族社会，郝经谓金朝「粲粲一代之典与唐、汉比隆，讵元魏、高齐之得厕其列也」。赵翼亦称「金源一代文物，上掩辽而下轶元」。金代文化艺术继辽、北宋之后而不断发展，超过了辽，在北宋之后与南宋平行，构成当时中国文化发展的南北两大支。在中国文化艺术发展史中起著「上掩辽而下轶元」的作用。

思想

金朝以儒家为统治人民的基本思想，而道家、佛教与法家亦较广泛流传和应用。金朝思想家讨论批判两宋理学与经义学，让理学再度于北方兴起，发扬中华思想。在学术思想方面，赵秉文被称为「儒之正理之主」，他批评汉以来的传注之学，充分肯定周濂溪、二程（程颢、程颐）建立的北宋理学。并且将佛教、道家与理学思想融合一体，以卫道统名于金。王若虚批评传注之学，其弊不可胜言，肯定北宋理学」。然而他也批评北宋理学，并曾下功夫对两宋理学注释加以评论和褒贬，但未自成一家之言。李纯甫著有《中庸集解》、《鸣道集解》，其思想先是由儒教转向道教、最后转向佛教，「号中国心学，西方文教」。他说：「学至于佛则无所学」，以为宋伊川诸儒「皆窃吾佛书」。为了达到以佛为主的儒、道、佛三教合一，大胆地向两宋理学开战。

在政治思想方面，赵秉文认为王室与列国、华与夷、中国与四境的关系都是可变的；认为有公天下之心的都称「汉」，认为社稷与民相比，民贵而社稷轻，反对唐开元末期「祸始于妃后，成于宦竖，终于藩镇」的提法，认为祸害的根源在「明皇」。王若虚认为统一中国要讲「曲直之理」。他认为欧阳修不讲曲直的统一，是「曲媚本朝，妄饰主阙」。他认为国之存亡可付之天数，但不能以守忠节犯食人之罪，并且赞许司马光对传统正闰观的批评，「正闰之说，吾从司马公」。

金朝如同宋朝一样，尊崇儒学与孔子。早在金军进军曲阜时，金兵意图摧毁孔子墓，即被完颜宗翰制止。自金熙宗时开始尊孔，在金上京立孔庙，又封孔子后裔为衍圣公。虽然金废帝完颜亮轻视儒学，到金世宗与金章宗时又大力尊孔崇儒，修孔庙与庙学，并且推崇《尚书》、《孟子》。

文学与文字

金朝初期的文学比较朴陋，文学家大多是韩昉等辽人与宋人。直到蔡圭出现，才被称为金朝文学正传之宗，其他尚有党怀英，其他还有赵渢、王庭筠、王寂、刘从益等。金章宗时期有名的文学家有赵秉文、杨云翼、李纯甫与元好问等，女真人中有名的有金帝完颜亮与金章宗。金帝完颜亮南下侵宋时，在扬州赋诗，有句云：「提兵百万西湖侧，立马吴山第一峰。」海陵王立志灭宋统一，作诗言志，笔力雄健，气象恢宏。金章宗酷爱诗词，制作甚多，但意境只在宫中生活，近似宫体诗。在金章宗的倡导下，女真贵族官员也多学作汉诗。豫王完颜允成的诗歌，编为《乐善老人集》行世。下至猛安、谋克，也努力学诗。如猛安术虎玹、谋克乌林答爽都和汉人士大夫交游，刻意学诗。金朝有名的文人为王若虚与元好问。王若虚著有《滹南遗老集》，擅长诗文与经史考证，初步建立了文法学和修辞学，其论史则攻击宋祁，论诗文则尊苏轼而抑黄庭坚，是金朝具有权威的评论家，后来潘升霄的《金石文例》即受其影响。元好问是金朝文学集大成者，著有《遗山文集》。他的《论诗绝句》30首，重在衡量作家，开后来论诗的一个重要派别。元好问的《中州集》是以诗存史，他把各地区、各族的诗人均视为中州人物，这是统一的包括各族在内的中华思想的具体反映。

杂剧与戏曲在金朝得到相当的发展，已盛行以杂剧的形式作戏。金代院本的发展，为后来元曲的杂剧打下了基础。金章宗时期的董解元的《西厢记诸宫调》，是中国古典戏剧中一部带典范性的划时代杰作。他是根据唐朝元稹《莺莺传》改写，但是在思想还是艺术方面都突破传统思想的束缚，被称为「古今传奇鼻祖」、「北曲之祖」。

女真文和汉文是金朝通行的官方文字，其中女真文是根据汉字改制的契丹字拼写女真语言而制成的。女真族原采用契丹字，随著金朝的建立，完颜希尹奉金太祖之令，参考汉文与契丹文创造女真文，并且在1191年八月颁行。1165年徒单子温参考契丹字译本，译成《贞观政要》、《白氏策林》等书。金世宗时，朝廷设立译经所，翻译汉文经史为女真文，而后又陆续翻多多本汉文书籍。金世宗对宰相们说：「朕之所以命令翻译五经，是要女真人知道仁义道德所在」。然而当时女真字与汉字对译，都要先译成契丹字，然后再转译。金章宗时，专设弘文院译写儒学经书，命学官讲解。1191年罢废契丹字，规定今后女真字直译为汉字。但随著汉语的通用，女真贵族多已识读汉字。汉字书籍在女真族中广泛流行。

宗教

金朝宗教大都主张顺从和忍耐，主要和北方汉族与异族统治者有关。无论是金代的佛教还是道教，都主张以本教义为主的佛、道、儒的三者合一，如在佛教的理论发展中有很高造诣的万松行秀和李纯甫。全真教创始人王喆，凡立会也必以三教名之，完颜璹的《全真教祖碑》：「足见其冲虚明妙，寂静圆融，不独居一教也。」王喆从三教合一的主张出发，劝人们诵《道德清静经》、《般若心经》及《孝经》等道、佛、儒三家经典。

佛教早在女真族时期即有流传，金朝灭辽朝及北宋后，又受中原佛教的影响，对佛教的信仰更加发展。佛教如华严、禅、净、密教、戒律各宗都有相当的发展。其中禅宗尤为盛行，这可说完全受了北宋佛教的影响，对金代的社会经济、政治、文化和习俗都有重要影响。。女真族占领中原后，道询继承净如在灵岩寺弘法，著有《示众广语》、《游方勘辨》、《颂古唱赞》诸篇。汴梁则有佛日大弘法化，传法弟子圆性于大定间应请主持燕京潭柘山寺，大力复兴禅学，著有语录三编行世。万松行秀尤为金代著名禅师。传曹洞青源一系之禅，嗣法磁州大明寺雪岩满禅师，虽治禅学，而平时恒以《华严》为业。他曾在从容庵评唱天童的《颂古百则》，撰《从容录》，为禅学名著。他兼有融贯三教的思想，常劝当时重臣耶律楚材以儒治国，以佛治心，极得楚材的称颂，说他「得曹洞的血脉，具云门的善巧，备临济的机锋」，一时传为佳评。

道教到金朝出现全真教、大道教和太一教等三大新兴道派。全真教创始人是王喆，于1167年创建全真教，后由他的七位弟子轮流接任。全真教除了继承了中国传统道教思想以外，更将符录、丹药等思想以外的内容重新整理，为今时今日的道教奠下了根基。大道教创始人是金初刘德仁，于1142年开始传道。主张「守气养神」，提倡自食其力，少思寡欲，不谈飞升炼化，长生不老，并且把儒家思想纳入自己的体系。此外，大道教有出家制度。太一教始祖萧抱珍，于1138年创建。以符籙道法为主，也有守柔弱的内炼之法。尊奉太一。太一教模仿天师道的秘传原则，每代掌教人必须改姓「萧」。其立教宗旨是「度群生于苦厄」，尊重人伦。

女真人信仰萨满教，它是一种包括自然崇拜、图腾、万物有灵、祖先崇拜、巫术等信仰在内的原始宗教。萨满是沟通人与神之间的中介，在重大典礼、事件和节日的祭祀时都有巫师参加，或由他们司仪。消灾治病、为人求生子女、诅咒他人遭灾致祸等，几乎都成为萨满的活动内容。

艺术

金代艺术的发展，也在各方面取得很高成就。金章宗设书画院，收集民间和南宋收藏的名画，王庭筠与秘书郎张汝方鉴定金朝所收藏书画550卷，并分别定出品第。1127年金兵攻破北宋京城汴梁，就掠夺宋廷藏画、俘掳画工北去。金代宫廷讲求书画名迹的收藏，以所获北宋和内府藏画为基础，复从民间徵集加以充实。金朝绘画在汉文化影响下，比辽朝绘画更为隆盛，特别是金世宗至金章宗时期，绘画活动益趋活跃。金章宗善诗文书法，又爱好绘画，他在政府秘书监下设书画局，将藏画加以鉴定，又效宋徽宗书体在名作上题签钤印。金朝还在少府监下设图画署，「掌图画镂金匠」，当时有名的画有虞仲文《飞骏图》、王庭筠《枯木》、张圭《神龟图》、赵霖所绘《昭陵六骏图卷》等，其中以张瑀《文姬归汉图》为最佳。金帝完颜亮能画竹，完颜允恭画獐鹿人物，王庭筠善山水墨竹，王邦基善画人物，徐荣之善画花鸟，杜锜画鞍马。武元直、李山与王庭筠等山水竹石画作，比起同时南宋院画家的作品，似乎更显出「文人」的品味。

金代书法家学自北宋书法，金章宗学宋徽宗的瘦金体，很有成就。王竞擅长草隶，尤工大字，两都宫殿榜题都是竞所书。党怀英擅长篆籀，为学者所宗。赵渢擅长正、行、草书，亦工小篆，正书体兼颜、苏，书画雄秀，当在石曼卿上；行草书备诸家体，时人以渢配党怀英小篆，号「党、赵」。吴激得其岳父米芾笔意，王庭筠在当时学米诸人中，造诣最深，其书法为元初巙子山诸人所不及。任询具有多方面的才艺，书法为当时第一，《中州集》称他：「画高于书，书高于诗，诗高于文。」。

金代初年，女真族的乐器只有鼓、笛两种，歌咏只有「鹧鸪」一曲，「高下长短，鹧鸪二声而已」。进入宋境后，金军掠取宋朝教坊的乐工、乐器、乐书，汉族的音乐融入女真族的音乐之中。金世宗设宴招待南宋与西夏使者，乐人学宋朝，但服装不同。金朝舞蹈源自先人靺鞨的靺鞨乐，立国后基本上直接吸受自北宋舞蹈，同时也发扬女真族的乐舞文化。在戏曲方面，北宋流行的诸宫调到金朝成为主要的说唱品种。当时只有董解元的《西厢记诸宫调》和《刘知远》流传至今，其中《西厢记诸宫调》的出现，有著元曲初步形成的意义。

科技

金朝的科学技术也有很大的发展。医学方面产生许多学派，不同创新的理论与争鸣对元朝医学与后世的医学有较大的影响；北方农业技术在比较落后的基础上有迅速的发展；数学方面在金元之际发展出天元术；天文历算方面修正大明历使其精确；此外，建筑方面也有很大的发展，兴建卢沟桥、金中都、山西大同华严寺等建筑。

从靖康之变后到蒙古时期，由于频繁的战争和暴政，加上频繁的自然灾害，导致人民生活贫苦，疾病流行，使得医学十分活跃，被称为新学肇兴。金朝时期发展出刘完素的火热说、张从正的攻邪说与李东垣的脾胃说。由于实践的丰富，不少医家深入研究古代的医学经典，结合各自的临床经验，自成一说，来解释前人的理论，逐渐形成了不同的流派。刘完素开创了河间学派、张元素开创了易水学派，张元素的弟子李东垣又自创了脾胃学说，这三家与元朝朱震亨的养阴说合称金元四大家，对中医理论的发展产生重要的影响。

金朝吸收北宋的农业技术，使得东北金上京一带的农业产量得以提升。现今考古学家还在今东北地区挖掘许多金代使用的犁铧、瓠种等铁制农具。当时金朝与西夏等地区有名的农书有《务本新书》、《士农必用》等农书，可惜现已失传。当时养殖蚕桑与园艺的技术也十分发达，例如利用「牛粪覆棚」将西瓜种植于较寒冷的东北地区。

当时数学最重要的进展是天元术的发展，天元术即是古代中国建立高次方程的方法，其中「天元」相当于现在的未知数。1248年金元时期的数学家李冶在其著作《测圆海镜》、《益古演段》中，系统地介绍了用天元术建立二次方程。金廷学习北宋建立司天监以观测天文，当时的数学也十分发达，使得金朝士人热中编写历书。金廷于1137年颁布杨级编写的《大明历》（与祖冲之的《大明历》不同）。而后赵知微于1180年修编成较精确的《重修大明历》，其精确度超过宋朝优越的历法《纪元历》。同时间耶律履也编出《乙未历》，然而精确度不如《重修大明历》。

君主年表