Early life

Zhu was born to a family of impoverished peasant tenant farmers in Zhongli Village in the Huai River plain, which is in present-day Fengyang, Anhui Province. His father's name was Zhu Shizhen (朱世珍, original name Zhu Wusi 朱五四) and his mother was Chen Erniang. He had seven older siblings, several of whom were "given away" by his parents, as they did not have enough food to support the family. When he was 16, severe drought ruined the harvest where his family lived and famine subsequently killed everyone in his family except for him and one of his brothers. He then buried them by wrapping them in white cloth.

His grandfather, who lived to be 99 years old, served in the Southern Song army and navy, which had fought against the Mongol invasion, and told his grandson tales of it.

Destitute after his family's death, Zhu accepted a suggestion to take up a pledge made by his brother and became a novice monk at the Huangjue Temple, a local Buddhist monastery. However, he was forced to leave the monastery after it ran short of funds.

For the next few years, Zhu led the life of a wandering beggar and personally experienced the hardships of the common people. After about three years, he returned to the monastery and stayed there until he was around 24 years old. He learned to read and write during the time that he spent with the Buddhist monks.

Rise to power

The monastery where Zhu lived was eventually destroyed by an army suppressing a local rebellion. In 1352, Zhu joined one of the many insurgent forces that had risen in rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. He rose rapidly through the ranks and became a commander. His rebel force later joined the Red Turbans (then led by Han Shantong), a millenarian sect related to the White Lotus Society, and one that followed cultural and religious traditions of Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and other religions. Widely seen as a defender of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism among the predominant Han Chinese population in China, Zhu emerged as a leader of the rebels that were struggling to overthrow the Yuan dynasty.

In 1356, Zhu and his army conquered Nanjing, which became his base of operations and the capital of the Ming dynasty during his reign. Zhu's government in Nanjing became famous for good governance, and the city attracted vast numbers of people fleeing from other more lawless regions. It is estimated that Nanjing's population increased tenfold over the next 10 years. In the meantime, the Yuan government had been weakened by internal factions fighting for control, and it made little effort to retake the Yangtze River valley. By 1358, central and Southern China had fallen into the hands of different rebel groups. During that time the Red Turbans also split up. Zhu became the leader of a smaller faction (called "Ming" around 1360), while the larger faction, under Chen Youliang, controlled the center of the Yangtze River valley.

Zhu Yuanzhang was the Duke of Wu, which was nominally under the control of Han Shantong's son Han Lin'er (w:zh:韩林儿), who was enthroned as the Longfeng 龙凤 Emperor of the Great Song dynasty (Red Turban Song dynasty w:zh:宋 (韩林儿)).

Zhu was able to attract many talents into his service. One of them was (朱升), who advised him to "build high walls, stock up rations, and delay claiming kingship" (高筑墙、广积粮、缓称王). Another, Jiao Yu, was an artillery officer, who later compiled a military treatise outlining the various types of gunpowder weapons. Another one, Liu Bowen, became one of Zhu's key advisors, and edited the military-technology treatise titled Huolongjing in later years.

Starting from 1360, Zhu, and Chen Youliang fought a protracted war for supremacy over the former territories controlled by the Red Turbans. The pivotal moment in the war was the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. The battle lasted three days and ended with the defeat and retreat of Chen's larger navy. Chen died a month later in battle. Zhu did not participate personally in any battles after that and remained in Nanjing, where he directed his generals to go on campaigns.

In 1367, Zhu's forces defeated Zhang Shicheng's Kingdom of Dazhou, which was centered in Suzhou and had previously included most of the Yangtze River Delta, and Hangzhou, which was formerly the capital of the Song dynasty. This victory granted Zhu's government authority over the lands north and south of the Yangtze River. The other major warlords surrendered to Zhu and on 20 January 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself Emperor of the Ming dynasty in Nanjing and adopted "Hongwu" (lit. "vastly martial") as his era name.

In 1368, Ming armies headed north to attack territories that were still under Yuan rule. The Mongols gave up their capital, Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), and the rest of northern China in September 1368 and retreated to Mongolia. On 15 October 1371, one of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Shuang, was married to the sister of Köke Temür, a Bayad general of the Yuan dynasty.

In 1371, the Ming dynasty defeated Ming Yuzhen's Xia polity, which ruled Sichuan.

The Ming army captured the last Yuan-controlled province of Yunnan in 1381, and China was unified under Ming rule.

Reign

Under Hongwu's rule, Mongol and other foreign bureaucrats who had dominated the government during the Yuan dynasty along with Northern Chinese officials were replaced by Han Chinese officials. The emperor re-instituted, then abolished, then restored, the Confucian civil service imperial examination system, from which most state officials were selected based on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. The Ming examination curriculum followed that set by the Yuan in 1313: a focus on the Four Books over the Five Classics and the commentaries of Zhu Xi. The Confucian scholar-bureaucrats who had been previously marginalized during the Yuan dynasty were reinstated to their predominant roles in the government.

"Barbarian" (i.e. Mongol-related) elements, including garments and names, were made illegal. There was no clear definition on what was "barbarian", and individual clothing styles and names were banned at the emperor』s will. There were also attacks on palaces and administrative buildings previously used by the rulers of the Yuan dynasty. But many of Taizu's government institutions were actually modeled on those of the Yuan dynasty: community schools required for primary education in every village.

Ming's legal system established by Hongwu contains various methods of execution including flaying, and slow slicing. One of his generals, Chang Yuchun, carried out massacres in Shandong and Hunan provinces to take revenge against people who resisted his army. Over time, Hongwu became increasingly fearful of rebellions and coups, and also ordered the execution of those of his advisors who criticized him. Manicheanism and the White Lotus Sect, which played significant roles during the revolts against the Yuan, were outlawed. He was also said to have ordered the massacre of several thousand people living in Nanjing after having heard one talked about him without respect. In the Hu Weiyong case alone, tens of thousands of officials and their families were executed over sedition, treason, corruption and other charges. According to an anecdote noted by Ming dynasty writers, in 1380, after much killing, a lightning bolt struck his palace and he stopped the massacres for some time, as he was afraid divine forces would punish him. In the 1390s, however, tens of thousands more people were executed due to their association with an alleged plot of rebellion by general Lan Yu.

Land reform

As Hongwu came from a peasant family, he was aware of how peasants used to suffer under the oppression of the scholar-bureaucrats, and the wealthy. Many of the latter, relying on their connections with government officials, encroached unscrupulously on peasants' lands and bribed the officials to transfer the burden of taxation to the poor. To prevent such abuse, he instituted two systems: Yellow Records and Fish Scale Records. They served both to secure the government's income from land taxes and to affirm that peasants would not lose their lands.

However, the reforms did not eliminate the threat of the bureaucrats to peasants. Instead, the expansion of the bureaucrats and their growing prestige translated into more wealth, and tax exemption for those in the government service. The bureaucrats gained new privileges, and some became illegal money-lenders and managers of gambling rings. Using their power, the bureaucrats expanded their estates at the expense of peasants' lands through outright purchase of those lands, and foreclosure on their mortgages whenever they wanted the lands. The peasants often became either tenants, or workers, or sought employment elsewhere.

Since the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1357, great care was taken by Hongwu to distribute land to peasants. One way was by forced migration to less-dense areas. Hongtong County, for example, was the source of many of those migrants due to its particularly dense population. The migrants were gathered under a pagoda tree (洪洞大槐树) and escorted to neighboring provinces. "The great pagoda tree in Hongtong, Shanxi" became a common idiom when referring to one's ancestral home in certain areas of Henan and Hebei. Public works projects, such as the construction of irrigation systems, and dikes, were undertaken in an attempt to help farmers. In addition, Hongwu also reduced the demands for forced labor on the peasantry.

In 1370, Hongwu ordered that some lands in Hunan and Anhui should be given to young farmers who had reached adulthood. The order was intended to prevent landlords from seizing the land, as it also decreed that the titles to the lands were not transferable. During the middle part of his reign, he passed an edict, stating that those who brought fallow land under cultivation could keep it as their property without being taxed. The policy was well received by the people and in 1393, cultivated land rose to 8,804,623 qing and 68 mu, something not achieved during any other Chinese dynasty. Hongwu also instigated the planting of 50 million trees in the vicinity of Nanjing, reconstructing canals, irrigation, and repopulation of the North.

Social policy

Under the Hongwu reign, rural China was reorganized into li (里), communities of 110 households. The position of community chief rotates among the ten most populous households, while the rest were further divided into tithings (jia, 甲). Together, the system was known as lijia. The communities were responsible for collecting tax and drafting labor for the local government. Village elders were also obliged to keep surveillance on the community, report criminal activities, and ensure that the residents are fully committed to agricultural work.

The Yuan dynasty Zhuse Huji (诸色户计) system was continued and the households were categorized into different types. The most basic types, namely civilian households (民户), military households (军户), craftsmen households (匠户) and salt worker households (盐灶户), defined the family's form of corvée labor. Military households, for example, accounted for around one-sixth of the total population at the beginning of Yongle era, and each was required to provide an adult man as soldier, and at least one more person to work in support roles in the military. The military, craftsmen and salt worker households were hereditary, and converting into civilian households was impossible except in a few very rare situations. A family may simultaneously belong in one of the minor categories, e.g. physician households and scholar households, according to their occupation. In addition to the aforementioned "good" households, discriminatory types also existed, such as entertainer households (乐户).

Travelers were required to carry a luyin (路引), a permit issued by the local government, and their neighbors were required to have knowledge of their itinerary. Unauthorized domestic migration was banned, and offenders were exiled. The policy was strictly enforced during the Hongwu era.

Zhu Yuanzhang passed a law on mandatory hairstyle on 24 September, 1392, mandating that all males grow their hair long and making it illegal for them to shave part of their foreheads while leaving strands of hair which was the Mongol hairstyle. The penalty for both the barber and the person who was shaved and his sons was castration if they cut their hair and their families were to be sent to the borders for exile. This helped eradicated partially shaved Mongol hairstyles and enforced long Han hairstyle.

Military

Hongwu realized that the Mongols still posed a threat to China, even though they had been driven away after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. He decided to reassess the orthodox Confucian view that the military class was inferior to that of the scholar bureaucracy. He kept a powerful army, which in 1384 he reorganized using a model known as the weisuo system (衞所制, literally guard battalion). Each military unit consisted of 5,600 men divided into five battalions and ten companies. By 1393 the total number of weisuo troops had reached 1,200,000. Soldiers were also assigned land on which to grow crops whilst their positions were made hereditary. This type of system can be traced back to the fubing system (府兵制) of the Sui and Tang dynasties.

Training was conducted within local military districts. In times of war, troops were mobilized from all over the empire on the orders of the Ministry of War, and commanders were appointed to lead them to battle. After the war, the army was disbanded into smaller groups and sent back to their respective districts, while the commanders had to return their authority to the state. This system helped to prevent military leaders from having too much power. The military was under the control of a civilian official for large campaigns, instead of a military general.

Nobility

When the Ming dynasty emerged, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's military officers were given noble titles. These privileged the holder with a stipend, but in all other aspects was merely symbolic. Mu Ying's family was among them. Special rules against abuse of power were implemented on the nobles.

Bureaucratic reforms and consolidation of power

Hongwu attempted, and largely succeeded in, the consolidation of control over all aspects of government, so that no other group could gain enough power to overthrow him. He also buttressed the country's defense against the Mongols. He increasingly concentrated power in his own hands. He abolished the Chancellor's post, which had been head of the main central administrative body under past dynasties, by suppressing a plot for which he had blamed his chancellor Hu Weiyong. Many argue that Hongwu, because of his wish to concentrate absolute authority in his own hands, removed the only insurance against incompetent emperors.

However, Hongwu could not govern the sprawling Ming Empire all by himself and had to create the new institution of the "Grand Secretary". This cabinet-like organisation progressively took on the powers of the abolished prime minister, becoming just as powerful in time. Ray Huang argued that Grand-Secretaries, outwardly powerless, could exercise considerable positive influence from behind the throne. Because of their prestige and the public trust which they enjoyed, they could act as intermediaries between the emperor and the ministerial officials, and thus provide a stabilising force in the court.

In Hongwu's elimination of the traditional offices of grand councilor, the primary impetus was Hu Weiyong's alleged attempt to usurp the throne. Hu was the Senior Grand Councilor and a capable administrator; however over the years, the magnitude of his powers, as well as involvement in several political scandals eroded the paranoid emperor's trust in him. Finally, in 1380, Hongwu had Hu and his entire family arrested and executed on charges of treason. Using this as an opportunity to purge his government, the emperor also ordered the execution of countless other officials, as well as their families, for associating with Hu. The purge lasted over a decade and resulted in more than 30,000 executions. In 1390, even Li Shanchang, one of the closest old friends of the emperor, who was rewarded as the biggest contributor to the founding of the Ming Empire, was executed along with over 70 members of his extended family. A year after his death, a deputy in the Board of Works made a submission to the emperor appealing Li's innocence, arguing that since Li was already at the apex of honour, wealth and power, the accusation that he wanted to help someone else usurp the throne was clearly ridiculous. Hongwu was unable to refute the accusations and finally ended the purge shortly afterwards.

Hongwu also noted the destructive role of court eunuchs under the previous dynasties. He drastically reduced their numbers, forbidding them to handle documents, insisting that they remain illiterate, and executing those who commented on state affairs. The emperor had a strong aversion to the eunuchs, epitomized by a tablet in his palace stipulating: "Eunuchs must have nothing to do with the administration". This aversion to eunuchs did not long continue among his successors, as the Hongwu and Jianwen emperors' harsh treatment of eunuchs allowed the Yongle Emperor to employ them as a power base during his coup. In addition to Hongwu's aversion to eunuchs, he never consented to any of his consort kin becoming court officials. This policy was fairly well-maintained by later emperors, and no serious trouble was caused by the empresses or their families.

The Embroidered Uniform Guard or Jinyiwei was transformed into a secret police organization during the Hongwu era. It was given the authority to overrule judicial proceedings in prosecutions with full autonomy in arresting, interrogating and punishing anyone, including nobles and the emperor's relatives. In 1393, Jiang Huan (蒋瓛), the chief of Jinyiwei, accused general Lan Yu of plotting rebellion. 15,000 people was executed in familial extermination during the subsequent purges, according to Hongwu.

Through the repeated purges and the elimination of the historical posts, Hongwu fundamentally altered the centuries-old government structure of China, greatly increasing the emperor's absolutism.

Legal reform

The legal code drawn up in the time of Hongwu was considered one of the great achievements of the era. The History of Ming mentioned that as early as 1364, the monarchy had started to draft a code of laws. This code was known as Da Ming Lü (大明律, "Code of the Great Ming" or "Laws of the Great Ming"). The emperor devoted much time to the project and instructed his ministers that the code should be comprehensive and intelligible, so as not to allow any official to exploit loopholes in the code by deliberately misinterpreting it. The Ming code laid much emphasis on family relations. The code was a great improvement on the code of the Tang dynasty in regards to the treatment of slaves. Under the Tang code, slaves were treated as a species of domestic animal; if they were killed by a free citizen, the law imposed no sanction on the killer. Under the Ming dynasty, the law protected both slaves and free citizens.

Later during his reign, however, the Code of the Great Ming was set aside in favor of the far harsher legal system documented in Da Gao (大诰, "Great Announcements"). Compared to the Da Ming Lü, the penalties for almost all crimes were drastically increased, with more than 1,000 crimes eligible for capital punishment. Much of the Da Gao was dedicated to the government and officials, particularly for anti-corruption. Officials who embezzled more than the equivalent of 60 liang (one liang was around 30 grams) of silver were to be beheaded and then flayed, the skin publicly exhibited. Zhu Yuanzhang granted all people the right to capture officials suspected of crimes and directly send them to the capital, a first in Chinese history. Apart from regulating the government, Da Gao aimed to set limits to various social groups. For example, "idle men" (逸夫) who did not change their lifestyles after the new law came into effect would be executed and their neighbors exiled. Da Gao also included extensive sumptuary laws, down to details such as banning ornaments in heating rooms in the houses of commoners.

Economic reform

Supported by the scholar-bureaucrats, he accepted the Confucian viewpoint that merchants were solely parasitic. He felt that agriculture should be the country's source of wealth and that trade was ignoble. As a result, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike the economic system of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan dynasty and relied on traders and merchants for revenues. Hongwu also supported the creation of self-supporting agricultural communities.

However, his prejudice against merchants did not diminish the numbers of traders. On the contrary, commerce increased significantly during the Hongwu era because of the growth of industry throughout the empire. This growth in trade was due in part to poor soil conditions and the overpopulation of certain areas, which forced many people to leave their homes and seek their fortunes in trade. A book titled Tu Pien Hsin Shu, written during the Ming dynasty, gave a detailed description of the activities of merchants at that time.

Although the Hongwu era saw the reintroduction of paper currency, its development was stifled from the beginning. Not understanding inflation, Hongwu gave out so much paper money as rewards that by 1425, the state was forced to restore copper coins because the paper currency had sunk to only 1/70 of its original value.

Education policy

Hongwu tried to remove Mencius from the Temple of Confucius as certain parts of his work were deemed harmful. These include "the people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain are the next; the sovereign is the lightest" (Mengzi, Jin Xin II), as well as, "when the prince regards the ministers as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy" (Mengzi, Li Lou II). The effort failed due to the objection from important officials, particularly Qian Tang (钱唐), Minister of Justice. Eventually, the emperor organized the compilation of the Mencius Abridged (孟子节文) in which 85 lines were deleted. Apart from those mentioned above, the omitted sentences also included those describing rules of governance, promoting benevolence, and those critical of King Zhou of Shang.

At the Guozijian, law, math, calligraphy, equestrianism, and archery were emphasized by Hongwu in addition to Confucian classics and also required in the Imperial Examinations. Archery and equestrianism were added to the exam by Hongwu in 1370, similarly to how archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the College of War in 1162 by the Song Emperor Xiaozong. The area around the Meridian Gate of Nanjing was used for archery by guards and generals under Hongwu.

A cavalry based army modeled on the Yuan military was implemented by the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors. Hongwu's army and officialdom incorporated Mongols.

Equestrianism and archery were favorite pastimes of He Suonan who served in the Yuan and Ming militaries under Hongwu. Archery towers were built by Zhengtong Emperor at the Forbidden City and archery towers were built on the city walls of Xi'an which had been erected by Hongwu.

Hongwu wrote essays which were posted in every village throughout China warning the people to behave or else face horrifying consequences. The 1380s writings of Hongwu includes the "Great warnings" or "Grand Pronouncements", and the "Ancestral Injunctions". He wrote the Six Maxims (六谕, 圣谕六言) which inspired the Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor.

Around 1384, Hongwu ordered the Chinese translation and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars Mashayihei, a Muslim astronomer, and Wu Bozong, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the Huihui Lifa (Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century,

Religious policy

Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men were required by Ming Code to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming Emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122.

Hongwu ordered the construction of several mosques in Nanjing, Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian provinces, and had inscriptions praising the Islamic prophet Muhammad placed in them. He rebuilt the Jinjue Mosque (literally meaning: Pure Enlightenment Mosque) in Nanjing and large numbers of Hui people moved to the city during his rule.

Chinese sources claim that Hongwu had close relations with Muslims and had around ten Muslim generals in his military including Lan Yu, Ding Dexing, Mu Ying, Feng Sheng and Hu Dahai, and that "His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing capitals, and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong." He also personally wrote a 100-word praise (baizizan) on Islam, Allah and the Prophet Muhammad.

During the war fighting the Mongols, the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng was among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies.

Foreign policy

Vietnam

Hongwu was a non-interventionist, refusing to intervene in a Vietnamese invasion of Champa to help the Chams, only rebuking the Vietnamese for their invasion, being opposed to military action abroad. He specifically warned future Emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in military campaigns for glory and conquest. In his 1395 ancestral injunctions, the emperor specifically wrote that China should not attack Champa, Cambodia or Annam (Vietnam). With the exception of his turn against aggressive expansion, much of Taizu's foreign policy and his diplomatic institutions were based on Yuan practice.

"Japanese" pirates

Hongwu sent a message to the Japanese that his army would "capture and exterminate your bandits, head straight for your country, and put your king in bonds". In fact, many of the "dwarf pirates" and "eastern barbarians" raiding his coasts were Chinese, and Hongwu's response was almost entirely passive. The Ashikaga shōgun replied "Your great empire may be able to invade Japan, but our small state is not short of a strategy to defend ourselves." The necessity of protecting his state against the Northern Yuan remnants meant that the most Hongwu was able to accomplish against Japan was a series of "sea ban" measures. Private foreign trade was made punishable by death, with the trader's family and neighbors exiled; ships, docks, and shipyards were destroyed, and ports were sabotaged. The plan was at odds with Chinese tradition and was counterproductive as it tied up resources. 74 coastal garrisons had to be established from Guangzhou to Shandong, though they were often manned by local gangs. Hongwu's measures limited tax receipts, impoverished and provoked both coastal Chinese and Japanese against the Hongwu regime, and actually increased piracy- offering too little as a reward for good behavior and enticement for Japanese authorities to root out their own smugglers and pirates. Regardless of the policy, piracy had dropped to negligible levels by the time of its abolition in 1568.

Nonetheless, the sea ban was added by Hongwu to his Ancestral Injunctions and so continued to be broadly enforced through most of the rest of his dynasty: for the next two centuries, the rich farmland of the south and the military theaters of the north were linked only by the Jinghang Canal.

Despite the deep distrust, in Hongwu's Ancestral Injunctions, he listed Japan along with 14 other countries as "countries against which campaigns shall not be launched", and advised his descendants to maintain peace with them.

Byzantine Empire

The History of Ming, compiled during the early Qing dynasty, describes how Hongwu met with an alleged merchant of Fulin (拂菻; the Byzantine Empire) named "Nieh-ku-lun" (捏古伦). In September 1371, he had the man sent back to his native country with a letter announcing the founding of the Ming dynasty to his ruler (i.e. John V Palaiologos). It is speculated that the merchant was actually a former bishop of Khanbaliq (Beijing) called Nicolaus de Bentra, sent by Pope John XXII to replace Archbishop John of Montecorvino in 1333. The History of Ming goes on to explain that contacts between China and Fu lin ceased after this point, and diplomats of the great western sea (the Mediterranean Sea) did not appear in China again until the 16th century, with the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.

Death

After a 30-year reign, The Hongwu Emperor died on 24 June 1398 at the age of 69. After his death, his physicians were penalized. He was buried at Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum on the Purple Mountain, in the east of Nanjing. The mass sacrifice of concubines after the emperor's death, a practice long disappeared among Chinese dynasties, was revived by Zhu Yuanzhang, probably to clear potential obstacles to the reign of his chosen successor. At least 38 concubines were killed as part of Hongwu's funeral human sacrifice.

Assessment

Historians consider Hongwu as one of the most significant emperors of China. As Patricia Buckley Ebrey puts it, "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." His rise to power was fast despite his having a poor and humble origin. In 11 years, he went from being a penniless monk to the most powerful warlord in China. Five years later, he became emperor of China. Simon Leys described him this way: 'an adventurer from peasant stock, poorly educated, a man of action, a bold and shrewd tactician, a visionary mind, in many respects a creative genius; naturally coarse, cynical, and ruthless, he eventually showed symptoms of paranoia, bordering on psychopathy.'

Family

Zhu Yuanzhang had many Korean women and Mongolian women among his concubines along with his empress Ma and had 16 daughters and 26 sons with all of them.

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Xiaocigao, of the Ma clan (孝慈高皇后 马氏; 1332–1382), personal name Xiuying (秀英)

　• Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen (懿文皇太子 朱标; 10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392), first son

　• Zhu Shuang, Prince Min of Qin (秦愍王 朱樉; 3 December 1356 – 9 April 1395), second son

　• Zhu Gang, Prince Gong of Jin (晋恭王 朱㭎; 18 December 1358 – 30 March 1398), third son

　• Zhu Di, the Yongle Emperor (成祖 朱棣; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), fourth son. According to surviving Ming historical records, Zhu Di's mother was the Hongwu Emperor's primary consort, Empress Ma, the view Zhu Di himself maintained. Some contemporaries maintained, however, that Zhu Di's mother was one of his father's concubines, who might be of Korean origin, and that the official records were changed during his reign to list him as a son of the Empress Ma in order to sanction his succession on the "death" of the Jianwen Emperor.

　• Zhu Su, Prince Ding of Zhou (周定王 朱橚; 8 October 1361 – 2 September 1425), fifth son

　• Princess Ning (宁公主; 1364 – 7 September 1434), second daughter

　　• Married Mei Yin, Duke Rong (梅殷; d. 1405) in 1378, and had issue (two sons)

　• Princess Anqing (安庆公主), fourth daughter

　　• Married Ouyang Lun (欧阳伦; d. 23 July 1397) on 23 December 1381

• Noble Consort Chengmu, of the Sun clan (成穆贵妃 孙氏; 1343–1374)

　• Princess Lin'an (临安公主; 1360 – 17 August 1421), personal name Yufeng (玉凤), first daughter

　　• Married Li Qi (李祺; d. 1402), a son of Li Shanchang, in 1376, and had issue (two sons)

　• Princess Huaiqing (怀庆公主; 1366 – 15 July 1425), sixth daughter

　　• Married Wang Ning, Marquis Yongchun (王宁) on 11 September 1382, and had issue (two sons)

　• Tenth daughter

　• 13th daughter

• Noble Consort, of the Zhao clan (贵妃 赵氏)

　• Zhu Mo, Prince Jian of Shen (沈简王 朱模; 1 September 1380 – 11 June 1431), 21st son

• Consort Ning, of the Guo clan (宁妃 郭氏)

　• Princess Runing (汝宁公主), fifth daughter

　　• Married Lu Xian (陆贤) on 11 June 1382

　• Princess Daming (大名公主; 1368 – 30 March 1426), seventh daughter

　　• Married Li Jian (李坚; d. 1401) on 2 September 1382, and had issue (one son)

　• Zhu Tan, Prince Huang of Lu (鲁荒王 朱檀; 15 March 1370 – 2 January 1390), tenth son

• Consort Zhaojingchong, of the Hu clan (昭敬充妃 胡氏)

　• Zhu Zhen, Prince Zhao of Chu (楚昭王 朱桢; 5 April 1364 – 22 March 1424), sixth son

• Consort Ding, of the Da clan (定妃 达氏; d. 1390)

　• Zhu Fu, Prince Gong of Qi (齐恭王 朱榑; 23 December 1364 – 1428), seventh son

　• Zhu Zi, Prince of Tan (潭王 朱梓; 6 October 1369 – 18 April 1390), eighth son

• Consort An, of the Zheng clan (安妃 郑氏)

　• Princess Fuqing (福清公主; 1370 – 28 February 1417), eighth daughter

　　• Married Zhang Lin (张麟) on 26 April 1385, and had issue (one son)

• Consort Hui, of the Guo clan (惠妃 郭氏)

　• Zhu Chun, Prince Xian of Shu (蜀献王 朱椿; 4 April 1371 – 22 March 1423), 11th son

　• Zhu Gui, Prince Jian of Dai (代简王 朱桂; 25 August 1374 – 29 December 1446), 13th son

　• Princess Yongjia Zhenyi (永嘉贞懿公主; 1376 – 12 October 1455), 12th daughter

　　• Married Guo Zhen (郭镇; 1372–1399) on 23 November 1389, and had issue (one son)

　• Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu (谷王 朱橞; 30 April 1379 – 1428), 19th son

　• Princess Ruyang (汝阳公主), 15th daughter

　　• Married Xie Da (谢达; d. 1404) on 23 August 1394

• Consort Shun, of the Hu clan (顺妃 胡氏)

　• Zhu Bai, Prince Xian of Xiang (湘献王 朱柏; 12 September 1371 – 18 May 1399), 12th son

• Consort Xian, of the Li clan (贤妃 李氏)

　• Zhu Jing, Prince Ding of Tang (唐定王 朱桱; 11 October 1386 – 8 September 1415), 23rd son

• Consort Hui, of the Liu clan (惠妃 刘氏)

　• Zhu Dong, Prince Jing of Ying (郢靖王 朱栋; 21 June 1388 – 14 November 1414), 24th son

• Consort Li, of the Ge clan (丽妃 葛氏)

　• Zhu Yi, Prince Li of Yi (伊厉王 朱㰘; 9 July 1388 – 8 October 1414), 25th son

　• Zhu Nan (朱楠; 4 January 1394 – February 1394), 26th son

• Consort Zhuangjinghui, of the Cui clan (庄靖惠妃 崔氏)

• Consort, of the Han clan (妃 韩氏) (韩妃 (明太祖)). She was an ethnic Korean from Goryeo.

　• Zhu Zhi, Prince Jian of Liao (辽简王 朱植; 24 March 1377 – 4 June 1424) (朱植), 15th son, ancestor of the last Ming Prince to refuse to capitulate to the Qing, Zhu Shugui, Prince Ningjing. Zhu Zhi's heirs used the generation names "Gui, Hao, En, Chong, Zhi, Yun, Reng, Qi, Bao, He, Xian, Shu, Yan, Zun, Ru, Cai, Han, Li, Long, Yu".

　• Princess Hanshan (含山公主; 1381 – 18 October 1462), 14th daughter ((含山公主)

　　• Married Yin Qing (尹清) on 11 September 1394, and had issue (two sons)

• Consort, of the Yu clan (妃 余氏)

　• Zhu Zhan, Prince Jing of Qing (庆靖王 朱㮵; 6 February 1378 – 23 August 1438), 16th son

• Consort, of the Yang clan (妃 杨氏)

　• Zhu Quan, Prince Xian of Ning (宁献王 朱权; 27 May 1378 – 12 October 1448), 17th son

• Consort, of the Zhou clan (妃 周氏)

　• Zhu Pian, Prince Zhuang of Min (岷庄王 朱楩; 9 April 1379 – 10 May 1450), 18th son

　• Zhu Song, Prince Xian of Han (韩宪王 朱松; 20 June 1380 – 19 November 1407), 20th son

• Meiren, of the Zhang clan (美人 张氏), personal name Xuanmiao (玄妙)

　• Princess Baoqing (宝庆公主; 1394–1433), 16th daughter

　　• Married Zhao Hui (赵辉; 1387–1476) in 1413

• Lady, of the Lin clan (林氏)

　• Princess Nankang (南康公主; 1373 – 15 November 1438), personal name Yuhua (玉华), 11th daughter

　　• Married Hu Guan (胡观; d. 1403) in 1387, and had issue (one son)

• Lady, of the Gao clan (郜氏)

　• Zhu Ying, Prince Zhuang of Su (肃庄王 朱楧; 10 October 1376 – 5 January 1420), 14th son

• Unknown

　• Princess Chongning (崇宁公主), third daughter

　　• Married Niu Cheng (牛城) on 21 December 1384

　• Zhu Qi, Prince of Zhao (赵王 朱杞; October 1369 – 16 January 1371), ninth son

　• Princess Shouchun (寿春公主; 1370 – 1 August 1388), ninth daughter

　　• Married Fu Zhong (傅忠; d. 20 December 1394), the first son of Fu Youde, on 9 April 1386, and had issue (one son)

　• Zhu Ying, Prince Hui of An (安惠王 朱楹; 18 October 1383 – 9 October 1417), 22nd son

Ancestry

In popular culture

Novels

• The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber, a 1961–63 wuxia novel by Louis Cha. Zhu Yuanzhang appears as a minor character in the novel. Zhu Yuanzhang has been portrayed by various actors in the films and television series adapted from this novel.

Television series

• Born to be a King (大明群英), a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB and starring Simon Yam as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋), a 1993 Chinese television series produced by Beijing TV and starring Lü Qi as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Empress Ma With Great Feet, a 2002 Chinese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's wife, Empress Ma. Tang Guoqiang starred as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Chuanqi Huangdi Zhu Yuanzhang, a 2006 Chinese television series starring Chen Baoguo as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Founding Emperor of Ming Dynasty (朱元璋), a 2006 Chinese television series directed by Feng Xiaoning and starring Hu Jun as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• The Legendary Liu Bowen, a 2006–2008 Taiwanese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's adviser, Liu Bowen. It was produced by TTV and starred Huo Zhengqi as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Zhenming Tianzi (真命天子), a 2015 Chinese television series produced by Jian Yuanxin and starring Zhang Zhuowen as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Love Through Different Times, a 2002 Chinese television comedy-drama that is considered the first time-travel television series produced in mainland China.

生平

早年经历

元文宗天历元年九月十八日（1328年10月29日）未时，朱元璋出生于濠州钟离县东乡（今安徽省凤阳县小溪河镇燃灯寺村），排行第三。朱元璋先世家沛（今江苏沛县），后徙句容（今江苏省句容市）达百年之久。祖辈生活在古泗州（今江苏省盱眙县）。父亲朱五四（后改为世珍），母亲陈氏为濠州钟离县（今安徽省凤阳县）人。

坊间谣传朱元璋其实是回族人，据白寿彝《中国伊斯兰史纲要》：「父老相传，明太祖原是回回；建文帝的出走，系赴天方朝觐」。但实际上此说只是谣言，没有任何可靠的史料证明朱元璋及其祖先与回族、伊斯兰教有关，反倒是有其祖上信奉道教和佛教的记录。

朱元璋幼时甚贫困，并无法读书，曾为地主放牛。牧童夥伴多人都奉朱为领袖，且日后成朱起义将领多人，至正四年四月（1344年）淮北大旱，引发饥荒，朱元璋初六父崩，初九兄薨，廿二日母崩，与仲兄极力营葬后秋九月入皇觉寺当行童。入寺五十日，因荒年寺租难收，寺主封仓遣散众僧，朱元璋只得离乡为游方僧云游淮西颍州。

起事讨元

元至正八年（1348年），朱元璋游历淮西、汝颍、泗等州完毕，返回皇觉寺并逐渐读书识字。至正十二年（1352年）二月辛丑，身在皇觉寺多年的朱元璋受好友汤和来信劝说，到濠州投靠郭子兴，参加红巾军。由于指挥有方，不久便成为郭子兴身旁一名亲兵并赐名元璋字国瑞，并娶郭子兴养女马氏（即后来的孝慈高皇后马氏）。后来朱元璋见郭子兴与其他濠州红巾军领袖如孙德崖、赵均用不和，屡有冲突，朱元璋不愿涉及濠州内斗，故主动要求返家乡招募新兵，徐达、汤和等朱元璋儿时好友获准随行，不久朱元璋的部队已有结集了数千人。次年，朱元璋部队攻下滁州，成为他首个据点，同时也在攻占滁州期间，李善长加入朱元璋部队，成为他一个重要幕僚。此时，濠州的郭子兴被孙德崖及赵均用迫走，前来滁州投靠朱元璋，由于朱元璋名义上仍是郭子兴部下，朱元璋乃将滁州兵权交予郭子兴。

至正十四年（1354年），张士诚据高邮，自称为诚王，十五年，元朝丞相脱脱率军进攻高邮，分兵攻六合，六合乃滁州屏障，故朱元璋领兵援六合，幸好脱脱被诬陷而被迫交出兵权，元军不战自溃，滁州也转危为安。朱元璋见滁州地小，建议进攻长江北岸的和州。朱元璋攻下和州不久，郭子兴病故，郭子兴次子郭天叙被立为都元帅，朱元璋与郭子兴妻弟张天佑为副元帅，遥奉韩林儿的大宋龙凤政权。同年夏，常遇春、廖永安、俞通海归附朱元璋，使得其军著手渡江攻入采石、太平路，并计划攻取集庆路（今南京市）。此时，元军降将陈野先愿协助红巾军攻集庆，郭天叙与张天佑感军功不及朱元璋，故决定在陈野先引领下，亲自领军攻打集庆。结果红巾军攻集庆时陈野先叛变，郭、张二人被杀，陈野先也死于乱军中。郭天叙与张天佑死后，朱元璋成为都元帅，尽领郭子兴旧部。至正十六年（1356年），朱元璋领军再攻集庆，一举攻陷，改名应天府，作为根据地。至此，朱元璋以应天府为中心，与元朝军队、张士诚、徐寿辉等部形成犬牙交错之势。

一统江南

朱元璋攻占应天后，开始攻占应天周边地区以巩固防务。至正十六年，遣徐达攻占镇江、邓愈克广德，次年，遣耿炳文克长兴，徐达克常州，而朱元璋亲自率众攻取宁国。随后赵继祖克江阴、徐达克常熟。胡大海克徽州、常遇春克池州，缪大亨克扬州。至正十八年，朱元璋亲取婺州。明年，朱元璋陆续攻占浙东馀下各地，常遇春克衢州、胡大海克处州，至此朱元璋部控制江左、浙右各地，向西与陈友谅部相邻。朱元璋攻下浙东后，小明王升朱元璋为仪同三司江南等处行中书省左丞相，同时朱元璋也得浙东名士如朱升、刘基相助，朱元璋采取朱升「高筑墙、广积粮、缓称王」的建议，采取稳健的进攻措施；并且遵照刘基「先汉后周」之策略，著手对江南各势力进行对抗。

至正二十年，陈友谅攻陷太平路，随后弑主徐寿辉、称帝建国，国号汉，之后倾全军攻应天府。朱元璋与刘基设计，先命胡大海进攻信州，断陈友谅后援，再命部下康茂才诈降作陈友谅的内应，引汉军主力进入朱元璋在应天城外龙湾设下的埋伏中，结果汉军被朱元璋军队大败，随后朱元璋攻取太平、安庆、信州等地。。至正二十一年，朱元璋改枢密院为大都督府，重新整理军制。北结察罕帖木儿、密通方国珍，而与正面的陈友谅部进行会战。同年攻克江州、南康、建昌、抚州等地。次年，占领龙兴，改洪都府（今江西南昌）。

至正二十三年（1363年），张士诚派部将吕珍围攻退守安丰的小明王韩林儿及丞相刘福通，朱元璋不顾刘基反对，派军北上解安丰之围，结果刘福通战死，韩林儿被朱元璋救出。此后，韩林儿被朱元璋安置在滁州，仍然被奉为皇帝。陈友谅趁朱元璋主力军北上，率六十万水军进攻朱元璋根据地，首先围攻洪都，但朱元璋侄朱文正坚守洪都两个多月，待朱元璋亲率二十万部队驰援，陈友谅大军改往鄱阳湖与朱元璋大军交战，史称「鄱阳湖之战」。陈友谅自恃巨舰出战，采用炮攻，朱元璋险些负伤被擒。随后，朱元璋利用东北风而改用火攻，致使陈友谅部大量受损。之后朱元璋利用鄱阳湖水位降低便于小舟活动，改为分兵水路围攻陈友谅。陈友谅中箭身亡，汉军溃败。随后朱元璋围攻武昌，并尽占湖北各地。次年，朱元璋自立为「吴王」，以李善长为右相国，徐达为左相国，常遇春、俞通海为平章政事，立子朱标为世子。次月再次亲征武昌，陈友谅之子陈理举降。随后吴军相继攻克庐州、吉安、衡州。至正二十五年，吴军继续攻占宝庆、赣州、浦城、襄阳，同年冬，下令讨张士诚。次年，吴军再次攻破湖州、杭州。再一年，徐达克平江，张士诚被俘，至此朱元璋一统江南。至正二十六年（1366年），朱元璋派廖永忠迎接韩林儿至金陵应天府，途中在瓜步渡长江时，韩林儿所乘船只沉没，韩遇难。

南征北伐

至正二十七年（1367年），朱元璋命汤和为征南将军，讨伐割据浙东多年的方国珍。随后制定北伐战略：先攻取山东，其次进攻河南，再次攻占陕西潼关，最后再进军元大都。随后命徐达为征虏大将军，常遇春为副将军，帅师二十五万，由淮河进入，北取中原。并命胡廷瑞为征南将军，何文辉为副将军，进攻福建。同年，方国珍投降，徐达攻破山东济南，胡廷瑞下邵武，汤和、廖永忠由海道攻克福建福州。北伐一直持续到洪武年间，徐达、常遇春随后攻占整个河南、山西，最终直取元大都（今北京）。

建立明朝

至正二十八年正月初四（1368年1月23日），朱元璋在应天府登基即位，建国号大明，年号洪武，是为「明太祖」。以应天为「南京」，开封为「北京」。同年八月初二（9月14日），大将徐达攻克大都，元朝覆亡。由于幼年对于元末吏治痛苦记忆，即位后一方面减轻农民负担，恢复社会的经济生产，改革元朝留下的糟糕吏治，惩治贪污的官吏，社会经济得到恢复和发展，史称洪武之治。明太祖确立了里甲制，配合赋役黄册户籍登记簿册和鱼鳞图册的施行，落实赋税劳役的徵收及地方治安的维持。

太祖平定天下后，大封诸将为公侯，部份追封为王。初封六公，其中以五大将、一大臣为开国元勋。分别为：韩国公李善长、魏国公徐达、郑国公常遇春、曹国公李文忠、宋国公冯胜、卫国公邓愈。而后又追封胡大海为越国公、战死的丁德兴为济国公，汤和为信国公、冯国用封郢国公。次年，明太祖于鸡鸣山立功臣庙，六月初三日庙成，太祖亲定功臣位次，以徐达为首，次常遇春、李文忠、邓愈、汤和、沐英、胡大海、冯国用、赵德胜、耿再成、华高、丁德兴、俞通海、张德胜、吴良、吴祯、曹良臣、康茂才、吴复、茅成、孙兴祖凡二十一人。死者像祀，生者虚位。又以廖永安、俞通海、张德胜、桑世杰、耿再成、胡大海、丁德兴七人配享太庙。此位序屡经删汰，已非洪武二年所定名单位次。

随后，太祖进一步加强中央集权。洪武三年（1370年），杀中书左丞杨宪。洪武四年七月十一（1371年8月21日），傅友德攻克成都，明朝平定四川。洪武五年四月二十三日（1372年5月26日），廖永忠率明军平定广西，洪武五年六月初三（1372年7月3日），傅友德大败元军，明朝平定甘肃。洪武六年（1373年），太祖鉴于开国元勋多倚功犯法，虐暴乡闾，特命工部制造铁榜，铸上申戒公侯的条令，类似战国时代的「铸刑鼎」。洪武八年（1375年），德庆侯廖永忠因僭用龙凤诸不法事，赐死。洪武十二年（1379年），贬右丞相汪广洋于广南，旋赐死。洪武十三年（1380年），胡惟庸案发，左丞相胡惟庸被诛，太祖罢中书省，分中书省之权归于六部，直接归皇帝掌管。洪武十五年（1382年），设立锦衣卫，加强明朝特务统治。1382年1月6日，明军在云南昆明附近大败元朝军队，元梁王自杀，1382年4月7日，蓝玉、沐英攻克大理，段氏投降，明朝平定云南。洪武十八年（1385年），郭桓案发，由于涉案人员甚多，太祖将六部左右侍郎以下官员皆处死，各省官吏死于狱中达数万人以上。

洪武二十三年（1390年），李善长的家奴卢仲谦告发李善长与胡惟庸往来勾结，以「狐疑观望怀两端，大逆不道」见诛，接续又诛杀陆仲亨与唐胜宗、费聚、赵庸三名侯爵，株连被杀的功臣及其家属共计达三万馀人，连「浙东四先生」（刘基、宋濂、章溢、叶琛）亦不能免，并颁布《昭示奸党录》。洪武二十六年（1393年），蓝玉被锦衣卫指挥蒋瓛密告谋反，史称「蓝玉案」。此案牵连到十三侯、二伯，连坐族诛达一万五千人，明朝建国功臣因此案几乎全亡。此时太祖又颁布《逆臣录》，诏示一公、十三侯、二伯。洪武二十七年（1394年），太祖杀江夏侯周德兴以及颖国公傅友德，在捕鱼儿海战役中立功的定远侯王弼亦被赐死。洪武二十八年（1395年），开国六公爵最后一位仅存者冯胜被杀。

在处理内政同时，太祖亦多次筹划北伐蒙古以保障北方边塞的安宁，大胜。并曾成功在甘肃击败王保保（1372年）、在东北逼降纳哈出（1387年）、在蒙古高原几乎活捉元主脱古思帖木儿（1388年）。同时太祖进军辽东，使朝鲜王朝等归顺（1388年）。

驾崩与纪念

洪武三十一年闰五月初十日（1398年6月24日），朱元璋崩于南京皇宫内，享寿七十岁，在位三十一年，与已故的元配妻子孝慈高皇后马氏一起长眠于南京紫金山明孝陵。《明朝小史·卷三》载，责殉诸妃，强迫伺寝宫人尽数殉葬。《彤史拾遗记》记载，太祖以四十六妃陪葬孝陵，其中所殉，惟宫人十数人。公布遗诏：

新任皇帝惠宗遵照遗命。

洪武三十一年六月甲辰，上谥曰「钦明启运俊德成功统天大孝高皇帝」，庙号太祖。永乐元年六月十一日丁巳，增諡「圣神文武钦明启运俊德成功统天大孝高皇帝」。

嘉靖十七年十一月朔，改諡「开天行道肇纪立极大圣至神仁文义武俊德成功高皇帝」。

清康熙帝历次南巡必跪拜孝陵，曾立碑「治隆唐宋」赞誉其功。

中华民国建立初，孙文至孝陵祭告朱元璋。

中华人民共和国南京市、滁州市、武汉市皆存洪武路作为纪念。

治国政策

朱元璋一直以来都是以猛治国，认为「胡元以宽而失，朕收平中国，非猛不可」。恢复经济著眼，历史记载朱元璋是少数极力勤政的皇帝。亦显现在清洗权贵势力、以特务锦衣卫控制政治、又用文字狱及廷杖大臣，以立帝王权威。

政治改革

中央集权

明初沿袭元朝制度，设立中书省，置左、右丞相。甲辰正月，初置左、右相国，其中李善长为右相国，徐达为左相国。洪武元年（1368年），改为左、右丞相。由中书省统六部，但不设置中书令。

洪武十三年（1380年），胡惟庸案之后，太祖罢中书省，分中书省之权归于六部。原中书省官属尽革，惟存中书舍人。至此，秦、汉以降实行一千六百馀年的宰相制度自此废除，相权与君权合而为一，施行军权、行政权、监察权三权分立的国家体制。

由于国家事务繁多，皇帝无法处理，洪武十五年九月罢四辅官，仿宋殿阁制设内阁。内阁只为皇帝的顾问，虽无宰相之名，但有宰相之实。此外他仍沿用元朝制度，在中央设置吏、户、礼、工、刑、兵六部。并设立都给事中六人，分吏、户、礼、工、刑、兵六科，每科一人；此外建立五寺包括大理寺、太常寺、光禄寺、太仆寺、鸿胪寺等五寺制度。此外他还沿袭元的监察制度，设立御史台，有左右御史大夫各一名；不久改为都察院，下设若干监察御史，负责监督各级官吏。除此他还颁布《大明律》等，对官吏管理进行规制。

为了加强对臣民的控制和监视，太祖设置了巡检司和锦衣卫。巡检司主要是负责全国各地的关津要冲的把关盘查，缉捕盗贼，盘诘伪奸；锦衣卫则负责秘密侦察大小官吏活动，随时向皇帝报告不公不法之徒。同时太祖还授予锦衣卫侦察、缉捕、审判、处罚罪犯等一切大权，锦衣卫正式成为直属皇帝的情报机构。

镇压贪官

太祖出身贫寒，对政治贪污尤其憎恶，其对贪污腐败官员处以极严厉的处罚。太祖在政期间，大批不法贪官被处死，包括开国将领朱亮祖，女婿驸马都尉欧阳伦，其中甚至因为郭桓案、空印案杀死数万名官员。由于太祖的吏治严厉，在明初相当长一段时间，官员腐败的情况得到有效遏制。然而，随著大明江山逐步稳定，再加上军事和皇室贵族战功大，享有很高的社会特权，不少人迅速腐化变质。。朱元璋开展雷厉风行的肃贪运动，历时之久、措施之严、手段之狠、刑罚之酷、杀人之多，为几千年历史所罕见。尽管朱元璋反贪决心大、力度猛、出奇招，使腐败现象得到一定程度的遏制，也一度取得了「阶段性的成果」，但还是未能达到彻底清除人类贪欲权位腐败的本性。

诛戮权臣

廖永忠和 朱亮祖 先后死于非命。随后太祖以擅权枉法之罪名杀胡惟庸，又杀御史大夫陈宁、御史中丞涂节等人。之后李善长亦被牵连，家属七十馀人被杀，总计株连者达三万馀人。

洪武二十六年（1393年），锦衣卫指挥使奏蓝玉谋反，朱元璋随即派吏部审讯。三日后，朱元璋下令将蓝玉磔于市，灭族。蓝玉下狱后，口供称同景川侯曹震、鹤庆侯张翼、舳舻侯朱寿、定远侯王弼、东莞伯何荣及吏部尚书詹徽、户部侍郎傅友文等谋反，均遭诛连。《逆臣录》记载受此案株连被杀的高官有两万五千人。但纪非录所记载太祖的儿子诸藩王犯有很多暴行，太祖则只是轻微劝戒了事。太祖还通过设立锦衣卫（洪武二十年废除）、诏狱、廷杖等机构或制度，打击功臣、特务监视等一系列方式加强皇权控制。

分封藩王

太祖遵古制，王命法：三十受兵、六十归兵。国有三军，所以诫非常，伐无道，尊宗庙，重社稷，安不忘危。太祖令诸藩镇守天下，又各领兵权，这固然是亲亲之情，信任无以复加，却也未必就没有帝王心术。强藩林立，能做皇帝的却始终只有一个，诸藩势力犬牙交错，必然相互牵制，相互监视，除非朝廷中枢衰弱之极。当中枢真的衰弱至极时，就算没有藩王，也会被权臣取而代之。自三皇五帝，以一介布衣而成天子者，唯汉高祖与太祖，其他帝王，大都是前朝重臣或一方豪强而黄袍加身。所以由自己子孙取代无能之君，也胜过将江山付与外人之手，如此可保朱家数百年江山。

颁布法律

建国伊始，太祖就在《大明律令》的基础上制订颁行《大明律》，紧接著又亲自编定《明大诰》。1397年，太祖下诏正式颁布了《大明律》。《大明律》一共四百六十卷，分吏、户、礼、刑、兵、工六律，简于《唐律》，严于《宋律》。《大明律》规定：「谋反」、「谋大逆」者，不管主犯还是从犯，一律凌迟，祖父，父、子、孙、兄、弟以及同居的人，只要是年满十六岁的都要处决。太祖立法一为治民，二为治吏，尤其是《明大诰》对贪官污吏的处决也十分严厉，可以视为反贪刑事特别法。只要是犯有贪污的官吏，一经查实，一律发配北方荒漠中充军，赃至六十两以上者枭首示众，仍剥皮实草。

太祖十分重视法律宣传，写了大诰三编和大诰武臣，让臣民熟悉法律，不去犯禁。

军事管理

早在朱元璋起兵时，他就多次强调军纪。他认为「攻克城池用武力，平定混乱用仁政」，杀人并非「勇猛」。要求部队不许滥杀无辜，还给予俘虏优待；同时还要求部队爱护百姓，不得随意焚烧抢掠乱杀百姓，他严令：「掠夺老百姓财物者处死，拆毁老百姓住房的处死。」由于朱元璋部队的军纪严明，朱元璋赢得了部属的尊重，也赢得了民众的支持。

明代早期军队的来源，有诸将原有之兵，有元兵及群雄兵归附的，有获罪而谪发的，而最主要的来源则是籍选，是由户籍中抽丁而来。除此之外尚有简拔、投充及收集等方式。洪武十三年（1380年），太祖废除大都督府，并改为中军、左军、右军、前军、后军等五军都督府。洪武十七年（1384年），太祖在全国的各军事要地，设立军卫，由都督府管理。一卫有军队五千六百人，其下依序有千户所、百户所、总旗及小旗等单位，各卫所都隶属于五军都督府，亦隶属于兵部，有事从征调发，无事则还归卫所。军队来源为世袭的军户，由每户派一人为正丁至卫所当兵，军人在卫所中轮流戊守以及屯田，屯田所得以供给军队及将官等所需。五军都督府有统兵权但无调兵权，兵部有调兵权而无统兵权，两者互相制衡，互不统辖，各自与兵部直接联系，最后奏请皇帝裁定，以避免权力过大。

明代军户是世袭制,一旦列入军籍,世代都是军人,朝廷有事要为朝廷作战。军丁一旦逃亡、病故、老疾或被虏,就要按军籍所造之册,到该军丁原籍追补本身或其亲属,以补足原数。

外交局面

元朝初期，元世祖曾经远征日本，导致日本念念不忘，于是终元之世，日本不与中国同好。明朝开国以后，太祖就派使臣持国书去日本、高丽、安南、占城四国，宣告元朝已经灭亡，现在的称霸中国是大明，应奉大明为「正朔」来朝贡。高丽、安南、占城三国太祖使赴明称臣朝贺，惟独日本没有任何反应。令太祖更为恼火的是，不但日本人不来朝称臣，而且「乘中国未定，日本率以零服寇掠沿海」。同时，被太祖消灭的张士诚、方国珍等残部多逃亡海上，占据岛屿，勾结倭寇出没海上掳掠财货，辽宁、山东、福建、浙江、广东，「滨海之地，无岁不受其害」。

后来太祖喝令「日本国王」处理倭寇，结果使者被日本人杀害。消息传回中国后，太祖大为怒火，批日本是「国王无道民为贼」的「跳梁小丑」。面对日本，太祖忍下了恶气，从此以后对日本使者一概驱逐处理，朝贡也一概拒绝接受，与日本不相往来。同时，太祖把朝鲜、日本、大琉球、小琉球、安南、真腊、暹罗、占城、苏门答腊、西洋、爪哇、彭亨、百花、三佛齐、勃泥等15国列为「不征诸夷」，写入《皇明祖训》，告诫子孙这些「蛮夷国家」如果不主动挑衅，就不许征伐。

公元1370年（洪武三年）太祖派遣莱州知府赵秩远赴日本。怀良亲王经过赵秩的阐释明处外交政策打消了顾虑。不久怀良派遣僧人祖来跟随赵秩回明朝向进表笺。公元1371年（洪武四年）太祖派遣僧人祖阐、克勒等八人送日使归国，从此明朝和日本建立了外交关系。

公元1392年（洪武二十五年）七月，高丽大将李成桂发动兵变掌控高丽局势以后遣知密直司事赵胖至明朝礼部上表：「定昌府院君瑶权署国事，及今四年。瑶又昏迷不法，疏斥忠正，昵比谗邪，变乱是非，谋陷勋旧，谄惑佛神，妄兴土木，靡费无度，民不堪苦；子奭痴佁无知，纵于酒色，聚会群小，谋害忠直。又其臣郑梦周等潜成奸计，欲生乱阶，乃将勋臣李成桂、赵浚、郑道传、南訚等谮于权署国事，令有司论劾以致谋害，国人愤怨，共诛梦周。权署国事尚不悛改，又谋杀戮。举国臣民实虑社稷生灵俱被其害，惶惧失措，无可奈何，咸以为若所为难以主斯民奉社稷。洪武二十五年七月十二日，以恭愍王妃安氏之命，退居私第。窃念军国之务不可一日无统，择于宗亲，无有可当舆望者，惟门下侍中李成桂泽被生灵，功在社稷，中外之心夙皆归附。于是一国大小臣僚、闲良、耆老、军民臣等咸愿推戴，令知密直司事赵胖，前赴朝廷奏达，伏启照验，烦为闻奏，俯从舆意，以安一国之民。」太祖通过礼部传达圣旨：「三韩臣民既尊李氏，民无兵祸，人各乐天之乐，乃帝命也。虽然，自今以后慎守封疆，毋生谲诈，福愈增焉。尔礼部以示朕意。」李成桂遣门下侍郎赞成事郑道传赴京谢恩，并献马六十匹。

当年八月，李成桂又遣前密直使赵琳赴京进表：「权知高丽国事臣李成桂言：伏惟小邦自恭愍王无嗣薨逝之后，辛旽子禑冒姓窃位者十有五年矣。迄至戊辰春，妄兴师旅，将犯辽东，以臣为都统使，率兵至鸭绿江。臣窃自念小邦不可以犯上国之境，谕诸将以大义，即与还师，禑乃自知其罪，逊位子昌。昌亦暗弱，难以莅位，国人启奉恭愍王妃安氏之命，以定昌府院君王瑶权署国事。瑶乃昏迷不法，紊乱刑政，狎昵谗佞，贬斥忠良，臣民愤怨，无所控告。恭愍王妃安氏深虑其然，命归私邸。于是一国大小臣僚、闲良、耆老、军民等以为军国之务不可一日无统，推戴臣权知军国事。臣素无才德，辞至再三，而迫于众情，未获逃避，惊惶战栗，不知所措。伏望皇帝陛下以乾坤之量、日月之明，察众志之不可违、微臣之不获已，裁自圣心，以定民志。」朱元璋再通过礼部复旨：「高丽限山隔海，天造东夷，非我中国所治。尔礼部回文书，声教自由，果能顺天意合人心，以妥东夷之民，不生边衅，则使命往来，实彼国之福也。文书到日，国更何号，星驰来报。」

当年十一月，李成桂再遣艺文馆学士韩尚质至明朝上表：「窃念小邦王氏之裔瑶，昏迷不道，自底于亡，一国臣民推戴臣权监国事。惊惶战栗，措躬无地间，钦蒙圣慈许臣权知国事，仍问国号，臣与国人感喜尤切。臣窃思惟，有国立号诚非小臣所敢擅便。谨将「朝鲜」（箕子所建古国名）、「和宁」（李成桂诞生之地）等号闻达天聪，伏望取自圣裁。」太祖再通过礼部复旨：「东夷之号，惟朝鲜之称美，且其来远，可以本其名而祖之。体天牧民，永昌后嗣。」李成桂遣门下侍郎赞成事崔永沚谢恩，又遣政堂文学李恬送明朝颁赐的给前朝的高丽国王之印，并请更己名为「李旦」。

公元1394年（洪武二十七年）帖木儿帝国向明朝贡马，而且致国书。第二年，明朝派遣兵科给事中傅安率领使团往报。但当傅安等抵达帖木儿帝国国都撒马尔罕时，帖木儿打算要向东兴兵，攻打明朝了，于是扣押了傅安等人，而且百般的诱惑傅安等人归顺帖木儿，傅安被扣押十三年，坚贞不屈，维护明朝的尊严。一直到了帖木儿死了以后，他的孙子哈里嗣位，想和明朝和好，于是才放傅安等人回国。傅安回国以后又出使了中亚诸国。

公元1395年（洪武二十八年）十一月，李成桂遣艺文春秋馆太学士郑总赴京请诰命印章：「洪武二十五年七月十五日，差知密直司事赵胖奏达天庭，继差门下评理赵琳奉表陈奏，钦奉圣旨，许允权知国事。准奉礼部来咨内云：『国更何号，星驰来报。准此。』即差知密直司事韩尚质赍擎奏本赴京，钦奉圣旨节该：『东夷之号，惟朝鲜之称美，且其来远矣，可以本其名而祖之。钦此。』除钦遵外，洪武二十六年三月初九日，差门下评理李恬送纳前朝高丽国王金印，又于当年十二月初八日准奉左军都督督府咨，钦奉圣旨内一款节该：『即合正名。今既改号朝鲜，表文仍称权知国事，未审何谋？钦此。』一国臣民战栗惶惧，咸请国王钦遵施行。见今虽称国王名号，窃缘未蒙颁降诰命及朝鲜国印信，一国臣民日夜顒望，仰天吁呼。伏请照验，烦为闻奏，乞赐颁降国王诰命及朝鲜印信施行。」朱元璋通过礼部下旨拒绝：「今朝鲜在当王之国，性相好而来王，顽嚣狡诈，听其自然，其来文关请印信诰命，未可轻与。朝鲜限山隔海，天造地设，东夷之邦也，风殊俗异。朕若赐与印信诰命，令彼臣妾，鬼神监见，无乃贪之甚欤？较之上古圣人，约束一节决不可为。朕数年前曾敕彼仪从本俗，法守旧章，令听其自为声教。喜则来王，怒则绝行，亦听其自然。尔礼部移文李成桂，使知朕意。」

海禁政策

明朝立国后日本因进入南北朝的大分裂时期后出现的、大量外出掠夺的武士阶层为主的倭寇骚扰入侵的恐惧，明政府立国后采取了一系列针对海患的闭关锁国政策：洪武三年（1370），明政府「罢太仓黄渡市舶司」；洪武七年（1374），明政府下令撤销自唐以来即存在的、负责海外贸易的福建泉州、浙江明州、广东广州三市舶司，中国对外贸易遂告断绝；洪武十四年（1381），太祖以倭寇仍不稍敛足迹，又下令禁濒海民私通海外诸国，此后每隔一两年即将该海禁政策再次昭示天下。

整个海禁政策从太祖开始，到了明穆宗在位期间被以「市通则寇转而为商，市禁则商转而为寇」为由实行开关（隆庆开关）；至清初又开始一连串的闭关，清高宗时更推行「一口通商」政策、直至鸦片战争后，通行整个明清二代的海禁政策才被彻底打破。

经济与户籍管理

元末（1341年－1370年），中国发生多次大规模的灾荒饥馑疾病和瘟疫，及连年战争，生产遭到严重破坏，人口大量减少，经济崩溃。大明建立并统一全国后，太祖实行黄老治术休养生息政策，同时主张藏富于民。

农业

发展农业。太祖通令全国，地主不得蓄养奴婢，所养的奴婢一律释放为良民。凡因饥饿而典卖为奴者，由朝廷代为赎身；严格控制寺院的发展，明令各州府县只能有一个大寺院，禁止四十岁以下的妇女当尼姑，严禁寺院收养童僧，二十岁以上的青年如果要是出家，必须得到父母和官方同意，出家后三年内还要赴京考试，不合格者潜发为民。这些政策的实施，使得社会增加了一只庞大的劳动力大军。

全国的农业生产在大规模战争而遭受极大破坏的背景下得到很大程度的恢复，加上太祖在位期间大规模向淮河以北和四川的荒无之地、垦荒填充移民，使人口得以稳定增长。

此外他也实行屯田政策，军屯面积占全国耕地的近十分之一。此外，商屯也相当盛行，政府以买卖食盐的专卖证（称之为盐引）作为交换，利诱商人将粮食运往边疆，以确保边防的粮食需求。明太祖也曾派遣国子监下乡督导水利建设、赈灾，并以减免税赋奖励耕作。这些措施使得过去很多饱受战乱损毁的地区恢复了生气，使明朝的经济得到了快速的恢复。

人口

到洪武二十六年（1393年），全国有6500万人，其中民户占6175万人，军户占325万人。政府实行户口普查，田产普查，编制各种册籍，施行保甲法与关律法，从法律上禁止人民自由行动，强制把人民分为军户（弓兵、校尉、力士）、匠户、民户（马户、陵户、茶户、柴户、阴阳户、医户）、灶户，不允许随便转换工作，匠籍、军籍比一般民户地位低，不得应试，并要世代承袭。若想脱离原户籍极为困难，须经皇帝特旨批准方可。各种活动也要引凭才合法。编成里甲，规定了路引制度，也就是通行证制度。普通百姓只要走出出生地百里之外，就得持有官府开具的通行证，否则就以逃犯论处。

「乡村之人，至老不识城市。」

教育与文化政策

明朝初期实行「科举必由学校」的政策，太祖多次强调：「古昔帝王育人材，正风俗，莫不先于学校。」明代洪武元年（1368年），诏开科举，对制度、文体都有了明确要求。命令刘三吾等人删节《孟子》中民贵君轻的内容，课试不以命题，科举不以取士。遭刑部尚书钱唐冒死反对。洪武年间，太祖共主持举办六次科考，七次发榜，共取一甲21名、二甲223名、三甲686名，合930名，平均每科取士155人，为明朝选拔输送了大量有学识的官员，包括练子宁、黄子澄、解缙等一代名相。洪武三十年科举时，因中进士者均为南方籍。太祖将试官二十馀人指为胡党蓝党凌迟杀害，并自阅试卷，取中六十一人，皆为北方人，并于六月廷试。此外，他并将学校列为「郡邑六事之首」，以官学结合科举制度推行程朱理学，并设立国子监等重要教育机构。由于太祖在位期间实行高压的吏治政策，明初诗文三大家不得善终，以至于「才能之士，数年来幸存者无一二，今所任率迂儒俗使」，后世不乏有学者主张太祖曾实行过一些文字狱。也有学者指出关于朱元璋嗜杀之事例，存有穿凿附会的问题。

社会情况

太祖崇尚简朴，也希望老百姓也勤俭节约。他规定靴子上不能有任何装饰。同时对于全国人民怎么穿衣；每个阶层佩戴什么样的首饰；盖什么样的房子；出行坐什么样的车子以及人们的行动举止也是朱元璋关注的焦点，因而制定了一系列规章制度，包括了生活的方方面面，其细致入微，可谓空前绝后。「洪武二十二年三月二十五日奉圣旨：「在京但有军官军人学唱的，割了舌头；下棋打双陆的，断手；蹴圆的，卸脚；作买卖的，发边远充军。」府军卫千户虞让男虞端故违吹箫唱曲，将上唇连鼻尖割了。又龙江卫指挥伏顒与本卫小旗姚晏保蹴圆，卸了右脚，全家发赴云南。又二十五年九月十九日，礼部榜文一款：「内使剃一搭头，官民之家儿童剃留一搭头者，阉割，全家发边远充军。剃头之人，不分老幼罪同。」」（《客座赘语》卷十）

太祖对天下老年人施以尊重，颁布《存恤高年诏》。洪武二十年，太祖怕有关部门执行不力，就又叮嘱礼部尚书，要以皇帝的名义再次重申一下这项政策。在朝廷的要求和带动下，各地形成了尊老养老的风气，赡养老人的要求也渗透到各地家法族规之中。

对于社会的救济朱元璋也十分重视，洪武时期，荒政则受到朝廷高度重视。朝廷除了拨付救灾济贫款项，还侧重加强民众抗灾自救能力。面对天灾侵袭，朱元璋积极作为，既树立了朝廷的负责任形象，又增强了政府的凝聚力，赢得了民心。救灾济贫实为获取民心、形成治世的重要前提，为「洪武之治」的出现夯实了经济社会基础。

为了贬抑商人，太祖他特意规定，农民可以穿绸、纱、绢、布四种衣料。而商人却只能穿绢、布两种料子的衣服。商人考学、当官，都会受到种种刁难和限制。

宗教管理

太祖建立明朝前后，十分重视宗教问题，通过协调儒释道三者的关系，既稳定了局面，又争取了人心，为巩固明朝政权奠定了思想和群众基础。通过有效的宗教管理措施，把宗教的发展始终控制在适合自己的政治需要范围内，并利用宗教教化番荑，不断扩大自己的势力范围，为明政权创造了良好的国际环境。

洪武元年（1368年），朱元璋登基以后，为了巩固自己的统治，他在严厉禁止、镇压白莲教等民间秘密宗教的同时，即大力提倡尊朱崇儒，确立儒家思想、并大搞神道设教，扶植佛教和道教。洪武年间，朱元璋不仅耗费大量财力和物力，修缮灵谷寺、天界寺、天禧寺、能仁寺、鸡鸣寺、栖霞寺等许多佛教寺院，还修复、重建朝天宫等一批道教宫观，「凡道家所号天帝之宫，靡不崇饰」。（注：《金陵玄观志》卷1，商辂：《奉敕重建朝天宫》。） 他还拨给寺观、宫观大量田土、芦荡，免除其税粮和差役，并多次召集名僧举办法会，自己亲戴皮弁，腰插玉圭，率领群臣顶礼膜拜，或徵召道士，举办斋醮祈雨，自己「设槁席露坐，昼曝于日中，顷刻不移，夜卧于地，衣不解带」，（注：《明太祖实录》卷53，洪武三年六月戊午。）可谓虔诚至极。他还多次召见名僧、道士，赐坐讲论，有些应对称旨的僧人甚至擢为大官，充当心腹耳目。朱元璋还应僧、道之请，设立善世院、玄教院，后改为僧录司、道录司，以名僧、道徒总领全国的佛教、道教事务。为了扩大佛、道的影响，朱元璋又命四方名僧点校《大藏经》（即《洪武南藏》），令宗泐、如玘等僧人重新笺释《般若心经》、《金刚经》和《楞伽经》，亲自为《心经》作序；并仿效唐宋君主，亲为《道德经》作注，撰成《御注道德经》二卷，还撰写了《周颠仙人传》，广行刊布。 明朝官方还多次组织刊刻卷帙浩大的佛藏和道藏。佛藏除《洪武南藏》外，还有《永乐南藏》、《永乐北藏》、《万历续北藏》以及藏文的《大藏经》，道藏则有《正统道藏》和《万历续道藏》。

在政治上，太祖推重儒释道三教并举的政策。他说：「尝闻天下无二道，圣人无两心。三教之立，虽持身荣俭之不同，其所济给之理一。」他极为重视佛教的辅政作用，将佛教事务视为朝中大事，对佛教制度、僧寺清规多方整饬，期望以此整顿僧团，去淤除垢，「振扬佛法以善世」。

洪武六年（1373年），太祖下诏对出家的僧尼免费发放度牒，才使得唐朝年间流传下来使的「度牒银」制度全部废除。

整顿僧团秩序，防止僧俗混淆，洪武二十四年，朱元璋还制定颁布了影响深广的《申明佛教榜册》，要求各地僧司查验清理天下僧寺，欲还俗者听其还俗，使出家僧人恪受戒律清规，禅、讲、瑜伽，各归本宗。

太祖亲自制定的「御制至圣百字赞」以及明皇室关于修建清真寺和保护清真寺宗教职业人员的谕旨，在一定程度上肯定了回族的宗教生活。

生殉制度

殉葬制度，在西汉初以后，逐渐在中原政权消失。朱元璋二子秦王对人民暴行(见御制纪非录)被宫人杀死，即连坐迫秦王诸妃自杀。明朝时期明孝陵以四十六妃陪葬，其中有太祖死时杀死殉葬十几名侍寝宫人，这一制度沿袭至成祖、仁宗、宣宗、代宗。而「节烈从殉」的风气，并向下广为延伸至宗室公侯、官宦之家、以至民间，直至近百年之后其五世孙英宗死前指出殉葬非古礼，仁者所不忍，才禁殉葬于遗诏，永著为典。按朱元璋创立的制度，嫔妃殉葬由皇帝亲临作别。正统初，明英宗目睹皇父嫔妃殉葬，受很大刺激。天顺年间下诏废止。杀死从殉妇女的方法为将她们缢死，或勒死，或灌以水银毒死。这些生殉的妇女被称为「朝天女」，她们的家属称为「朝天女户」，并给予一定待遇。关于朝天女记载主要依赖朝鲜的第一手资料《李朝实录金黑口述》。宝庆公主生母张玄妙，以其女幼，得免殉葬。

评价

• 《明清史事沉思录》中记载，「传谓男子宫刑，妇人幽闭，皆不知幽闭之义。今得之，乃是于牝（阴户）去其筋，如制马、豕之类，使欲火消减。国初常用此，而女往往多死，故不可行也。」对这种灭绝人性的手术，这本书的作者王春瑜评论道：「将人等同畜生处置，始作俑者其无后乎！」

• 明孝陵康熙题碑：「治隆唐宋」。

• 清朝官修正史《明史》张廷玉等对明太祖朱元璋最终能够成就帝业的评价是：「帝天授智勇，统一方夏，纬武经文，为汉、唐、宋诸君所未及。当其肇造之初，能沉几观变，次第经略，绰有成算。尝与诸臣论取天下之略，曰：『朕遭时丧乱，初起乡土，本图自全。及渡江以来，观群雄所为，徒为生民之患，而张士诚、陈友谅尤为巨蠹。士诚恃富，友谅恃强，朕独无所恃。惟不嗜杀人，布信义，行节俭，与卿等同心共济。初与二寇相持，士诚尤逼近。或谓宜先击之。朕以友谅志骄，士诚器小，志骄则好生事，器小则无远图，故先攻友谅。鄱阳之役，士诚卒不能出姑苏一步以为之援。向使先攻士诚，浙西负固坚守，友谅必空国而来，吾腹背受敌矣。二寇既除，北定中原，所以先山东、次河洛，止潼关之兵不遽取秦、陇者，盖扩廓帖木儿、李思齐、张思道皆百战之馀，未肯遽下，急之则并力一隅，猝未易定，故出其不意，反旆而北。燕都既举，然后西征。张、李望绝势穷，不战而克，然扩廓犹力抗不屈。向令未下燕都，骤与角力，胜负未可知也。』帝之雄才大略，料敌制胜，率类此。故能戡定祸乱，以有天下。语云『天道后起者胜』，岂偶然哉。」 清朝官修正史《明史》张廷玉等对明太祖朱元璋一生事业的评价是：「赞曰：太祖以聪明神武之资，抱济世安民之志，乘时应运，豪杰景从，戡乱摧强，十五载而成帝业。崛起布衣，奄奠海宇，西汉以后所未有也。惩元政废弛，治尚严峻。而能礼致耆儒，考礼定乐，昭揭经义，尊崇正学，加恩胜国，澄清吏治，修人纪，崇凤都，正后宫名义，内治肃清，禁宦竖不得干政，五府六部官职相维，置卫屯田，兵食俱足。武定祸乱，文致太平，太祖实身兼之。至于雅尚志节，听蔡子英北归。晚岁忧民益切，尝以一岁开支河暨塘堰数万以利农桑、备旱潦。用此子孙承业二百馀年，士重名义，闾阎充实。至今苗裔蒙泽，尚如东楼、白马，世承先祀，有以哉。」

• 毛泽东在1964年3月24日，在一次听取汇报时的插话中对明太祖朱元璋、汉高祖刘邦、元太祖成吉思汗的治国能力评价如下：「可不要看不起老粗。」「知识分子是比较最没有知识的，历史上当皇帝的，有许多是知识分子，是没有出息的：隋炀帝，就是一个会做文章、诗词的人；陈后主、李后主，都是能诗善赋的人；宋徽宗，既能写诗又能绘画。一些老粗能办大事：成吉思汗，是不识字的老粗；刘邦，也不认识几个字，是老粗；朱元璋也不识字，是个放牛的。」 毛泽东对明太祖朱元璋的军事才能评价如下：「自古能君无出李世民之右者，其次则朱元璋耳。」

• 赵翼曾说：「藉诸功臣以取天下，及天下既定，即尽取天下之人而杀之，其残忍实千古所未有。盖雄猜好杀，本其天性。」「盖明祖之性，实帝王，豪杰，盗贼兼而且也。」

• 商传评价朱元璋：「朱元璋出身于一个贫苦家庭，从社会最底层的放牛娃、四处讨饭的小和尚，全靠自己的奋斗成了一个统一王朝的开国皇帝。这是中国历史上，乃至世界历史上绝无仅有的事情。另外，朱元璋当上皇帝后，也没有停止步伐，他在位三十多年，成功地建立一个强大统一的明帝国」。

• 廖燕：「明太祖以制义取士，与秦焚书之术无异，特明巧而秦拙耳，其欲愚天下之心一也。」

• 冯桂芬《校邠庐抗议.改科举议》记饶廷襄曰：「明祖以时文取士，其事为孔、孟明理载道之事，其术为唐宗『英雄入毂』之术，其心为始皇焚书坑儒之心。」

• 顾炎武《日知录》卷一六《拟题》：「八股之害，等于焚书，而败坏人心，有甚于咸阳之郊所坑者但四百六十馀人也。」

• 黄仁宇：明朝采取严格的中央集权，施政方针不著眼于提倡扶助先进的经济，以增益全国财富，而是保护落后的经济，以均衡的姿态维持王朝的安全。这种情形，在世界史中实属罕见，在中国历史中也以明代为甚，而其始作俑者厥为明太祖朱元璋。

• 鲁迅《二心集》：二十多年前，都说朱元璋(明太祖)是民族的革命者，其实是并不然的，他做了皇帝以后，称蒙古朝为『大元』，杀汉人比蒙古人还利害。奴才做了主人，是决不肯废去『老爷』的称呼的，他的摆架子，恐怕比他的主人还十足，还可笑。

• 钱穆：明太祖革命，驱除胡元，复兴汉、唐规模，成为当时政治上共同的理想。但明太祖终是一粗人，历史文化修养不深，他首先反对尊孟子为圣人。他在中国传统政治史上，做了一件创古未有的大翻案，即是正式下令废止宰相，改用内阁大学士。照法理讲，内阁只是皇帝的私人办公厅，不是政府正式的政事堂。内阁学士也只是皇帝的内廷秘书，不是外朝正式宰相之职。于是皇帝在法理上，便变成在政府里的真正领袖。

• 顾祖禹：「太祖起自东南，奄有西北，为古今异数。尝考其用兵之法，实一出于孙吴，攻瑕捣虚，是以所向无敌。夫有取天下之志，而无取天下之略，自开辟以来，未见有成功者也。太祖明于先后缓急之宜，分合向背之理，始则决机于两陈，继直制胜于庙廊，大略同于汉高，精密媲于光武。」

• 赵翼：盖明祖一人，圣贤、豪杰、盗贼之性，实兼而有之者也。

• 崔瑞德主编《剑桥中国明代史》：这位杰出的开国之君在14世纪40年代，从天灾人祸和饥寒交迫的钟离村，一跃而在1368年在南京登上大宝，他走的这条道路由于他自己的雄心壮志和力求飞黄腾达的意识，已被有力地强行改造，而使之具有符合那些传统形式的合理的外貌。他精通怎样取得帝王统治之术。作为此后的皇帝，他将使这种帝王之术适应他为之著了迷的帝王大业的需要。

家族成员

父母兄姊

• 父：朱世珍仁祖淳皇帝，原名朱五四

• 母：淳皇后陈氏

• 兄弟：朱兴隆南昌王，朱兴盛盱眙王，朱兴祖临淮王

• 姊妹：曹国公主、太原公主

后妃

• 皇后：马皇后，宿州人，郭子兴义女，朱元璋发妻。

• 妃嫔：成穆贵妃孙氏、淑妃李氏、宁妃郭氏、郭惠妃、庄靖安荣惠妃崔氏、江贵妃、赵贵妃、昭敬充妃胡氏、郑安妃、达定妃、胡顺妃、李贤妃、刘惠妃、葛丽妃、韩妃、余妃、杨妃、周妃、张美人、郜氏、林氏。除以上妃嫔外，其馀不可考。或称，包括十数名宫人在内的四十六名嫔御殉葬孝陵。

• 除发妻马皇后外，朱元璋早年妾室可考证的有孙氏、郭氏、达氏数人。

　• 对其早期家庭生活亦有诸多传闻。有瓮妃、碽妃之说，其原为元顺帝宫人，生下朱棣。或说朱梓母达氏为陈友谅妾，朱梓为陈友谅遗腹子。然皆无实证。朝鲜方面史料称，周英赞、周谊之女为高丽进献元朝的贡女，元顺帝北逃后，入朱元璋后宫。或认为周妃是其中一人。

明朝官员刘辰所著国初事迹，濠州胡家有女守寡，朱元璋欲纳之，其母不从。后闻随军在淮安，不曾适人，遣人以书达平章赵君用，请求之。君用以胡氏同其母送至，纳之，立为胡妃。

　• 明初俞本所著《纪事录》，至正十七年（1357年）「故元帅韦德成妻美，上令移居后庭，通而生子，名曰朱生。或谏曰：『故将之妻，不可纳。』遂于本妇配总管胡汝名，朱生随母往焉。」此前一年七月，韦德成、邵肆领兵攻宣州未成，韦德成溺死，邵肆阵亡。韦德成即宁正养父，而俞本是宁正部属。龙凤十三年（1365年），朱元璋「闻相国部下宣使熊义妹色美，欲纳为宫人，令都事张来释为媒，通言于熊义母，允纳聘财讫，择日归内。来释启曰：『熊氏女许参政杨希武弟杨希圣久矣。』上怒曰：『汝既为媒，令臣民知吾之过。』立命将士提于内桥，众刀斫为泥，示众，追回财礼等物，仍令与杨希圣为婚，希圣终不敢娶。」

• 朱元璋杀害了很多拘禁在宫中的女人

　• 《罪惟录》提到，朱元璋葛丽妃和李贤妃、鄗宁妃（一说即郭宁妃）用大筐盛著尸体，送出太平门外，胡充妃抛尸城外，1390年处死达定妃，1398年迫李贤妃自缢，天潢玉牒提到迫李淑妃殉葬死。

　• 《纪事录》载，洪武年间宫廷内有大量浣衣罪妇，洪武二十九年，上疑其通外，将妇女五千馀人，俱剥皮贮草以示众，守门宦者如之。（明初，常见剥皮之刑。朱元璋反腐中常用于贪官。）

　• 朱元璋死后，以妃嫔和宫人进行殉葬。「洪武三十一年七月，建文帝以张凤、李衡、赵福、张弼、汪宾、孙瑞、王斌、杨忠、林良、李成、张敏、刘政由锦衣卫所试百户散骑带刀舍人，进为本所千、百户，其官皆世袭。以诸人皆西宫殉葬宫人父兄，世所称朝天女户者也。」

子女

太祖共有二十六子，嫡长子朱标为皇太子，其馀皆分封为王，又分封一个从孙为王，使之出镇全国险要。一部分镇守北方以防蒙古的侵扰，称边王。他们东起辽东，西迄甘肃，各守据点，保卫著边疆，如燕王朱棣镇北平（今北京）、宁王朱权镇大宁（今内蒙古昭乌达盟宁城县大明城）、谷王朱橞镇宣府（今河北宣化）等称为「守边」九王。馀下则星罗棋布，分驻内地。如周王镇开封、楚王镇武昌、潭王镇长沙、蜀王镇成都、鲁王镇兖州等。诸王中，以北方边王的势力最大。如宁王有甲士八万，战车六千。而燕王和晋王朱棡权力尤高，如中央派来的宋国公冯胜、颖国公傅友德等均受其节制，甚至朱元璋允许此二王扩展其军事势力，军中事大者方才奏闻，但直接导致了建文帝的靖难之变。明太祖分封诸子为王，以加强边防，藩屏皇室。诸王之中，以北方诸王势力较强，又以秦王朱樉、晋王朱棡与燕王朱棣的势力最大。为防止朝中奸臣不轨，明太祖规定诸王可移文中央捉拿奸臣，必要时得奉天子密诏，领兵「靖难」。同时为防止诸王尾大不掉，明太祖也允许今后的皇帝在必要时可下令「削藩」。

儿子

朱元璋前五子生母有争议，有传说朱棣母为碽妃或瓮妃

女儿

杀害驸马而守寡者包括安庆公主、汝宁公主。临安公主和寿春公主后人因为是朱元璋后代免被族诛斩首。

后人

中华人民共和国前总理朱熔基是朱元璋的直系后裔，属于朱元璋第十八个儿子岷庄王这一支，朱熔基是岷藩十九世孙。

太祖朱元璋第十一皇子蜀献王朱椿第二十世子孙朱清时是物理化学家。

弗兰克·里贝里的表弟声称，他们的家庭是中国皇帝的后裔，可能是朱元璋的孙子建文帝。

轶事典故

白话文圣旨

相传明代天子常以口语发旨，并非朱元璋无能力以文言下笔，即便无能力，亦有翰林词臣可以代为捉刀润饰，之所以选择白话，乃因白话简便易懂，取其便利也。如明成祖曾将建文帝忠臣的妻子，贬为妓女，当这位女性死亡时，成祖发旨：「分付（吩咐）上元县抬出门去，著狗吃了！钦此！」

• 朱元璋白话文圣旨之一：朱元璋时期，某群岛有倭寇来犯，地方官吏问咋办，朱元璋一道圣旨说：「奉天承运皇帝诏曰：告诉百姓每（们），准备好刀子，这帮家伙来了，杀了再说。钦此。」

• 朱元璋白话文圣旨之二：洪武三年（1370年）11月26日给户部下发的清查登记户口的指示：「说与户部官知道，如今天下太平了也，只是户口不明白哩。教中书省置天下户口的勘合文簿户帖，你每（们）户部家出榜去，教那有司官将他所管的应有百姓，都教入官附名字，写著他家人口多少，写得真著，与那百姓一个户帖，上用半印勘合，都取勘来了。我这大军如今不出征了，都教去各州县里下著，绕地里去点户比勘合，比著的便是好百姓，比不著的，便拿来作军。比到其间，有司官吏隐瞒了的，将那有司官吏处斩。百姓每（们）自躲避了的，依律要了罪过，拿来作军。钦此。」

• 朱元璋白话文圣旨之三：洪武年间，第一任国子监祭酒（校长）宗讷秉承朱元璋的旨意，制订了许多严苛的规章条文，以至于学生中有被饿死吊死的。因此曾引发过两次学潮。其中第二次学潮是，一位名叫赵麟的太学生，写了一张没头帖子（匿名大字报）。朱元璋闻讯之后，龙颜大怒，下令将赵麟枭首示众。事情过去十年之后，朱元璋仍然余怒未消，就跑到国子监训了一通话。这一通训话，今天完整地保留在北京国子监的一块石碑上。全文如下：恁学生每（们）听著：先前那个宗讷做祭酒呵，学规好生严肃，秀才每循规蹈矩，都肯向学，所以教出来的个个中用，朝廷好生得人。后来他善终了，以礼送他回乡安葬，沿路上著有司官祭他。近年著那老秀才每做祭酒呵，他每都怀著异心，不肯教诲，把宗讷的学规都改坏了，所以生徒全不务学，用著他呵，好生坏事！如今著那年纪小的秀才官人每来署学事，他定的学规，恁每当依著行。敢有抗拒不服，撒泼皮，违犯学规的，若祭酒来奏著恁呵，都不饶！全家发向烟瘴地面去，或充军，或充吏，或做首领官。今后学规严紧，若有无籍之徒，敢有似前贴没头帖子，诽谤师长的，许诸人出首，或绑缚将来，赏大银两个。若先前贴了票子，有知道的，或出首，或绑缚将来呵，也一般赏他大银两个。将那犯人凌迟了，枭令在监前，全家抄没，人口发往烟瘴地面。钦此！」

• 朱元璋赐外甥曹国公李文忠诏令：「老舅家书付保儿：教你知道驴马（驴马即朱元璋之侄、大都督朱文正小名）做的人。当自从守住江西，好生的行事不依法度。近来我的令旨，为开按察司衙门，他三日不接，我言教在江上打著船，便似叫化的一般。他又差人往浙西城子里官卖物事，及至开我令旨，不许军民头目来听。密行号令，但有按察司里告状的，割了舌头，全家处死。在那里奸人家妻女，多端不仁。我禁人休去张家那下买盐，他从江西自立批文，直至张家盐场买盐，江上把截的不敢挡，尽他往来。南台城里仓与库四处，俱各有物，其馀多等不仁不孝的勾当。我心里闷，说不的许多。保儿且知道这几件。你父亲到时，自有话与他说也。保儿守城子，休学驴马。你想你母亲，你便休恼我。凡事依首领官行，那家好男子，他好公主的父亲，以致这弟（阙）做的事。好驴马所言。驴马者，朱文正也。的令史都弄（此下年久损落不可考）」

• 朱元璋白话文圣旨之四：《谕西番罕都必喇等诏》：奉天承运的皇帝教说与西番地面里应有的土官每知道者：俺将一切强歹的人都拿了，俺大位子里坐地有。为这般上头，诸处里人都来我行拜见了，俺与了赏赐名分，教他依旧本地里面快活去了。似这般呵，已自十年了。止有西番罕东毕里巴一撒他每这火人，为甚么不将差发来，又不与俺马匹牛羊？！今便差人将俺的言语去开与西番每知道，若将合纳的差发认了，送将来时，便不征他；若不差人将差发来呵，俺著人马往那里行也者！教西番每知道。俺听得说，你每释伽佛根前、和尚每根前好生多与布施，么道那的是十分好勾当，你每做了者，那的便是修那再生的福。有俺如今掌管著眼前的祸福哩，你西番每怕也那不怕？你若怕时节呵，将俺每礼拜著！将差发敬将来者！俺便教你每快活者，不著军马往你地面里来，你众西番每知道者！

• 朱元璋白话文圣旨之五：洪武八年（1375年）给西安行都卫下发的关于接待乌思藏僧人的指示：皇帝圣旨：中书省官我根前题奏，西安行都卫文书里呈来，说乌思藏哈尔麻剌麻卒尔普寺在那里住坐修行。我想修行是好的勾当，教他稳便在那里住坐，诸色人等休教搔扰。说与那地面里官人每知道者。

嗜杀

明朝马生龙所著《凤凰台记事》记朱元璋嗜杀诸事：

• 高皇微行大中桥傍，闻一人言繁刑者，语近不逊。上怒，遂幸徐武宁第，武宁已出，夫人出迎，上问：「王安在？」夫人对以：「何事、在何所。」夫人欲命召，止之。乃曰：「嫂知吾怒乎？」夫人谢：「不知。」因大惧，恐为王也，叩首请其故。上曰：「吾，为人欺侮。」又请之，上怒甚，不言。久之，命左右往召某兵官，帅兵三千，持兵来，上默坐以待之。夫人益惧，以为决屠其家也，又不敢呼王。少顷兵至，上令二兵官，守大中、淮清二桥，使兵自东而西，诛之，当时顿灭数千家。上坐以伺，返命乃兴。

• 元宵都城张灯，太祖微行至聚宝门外，见民间张一灯，上绘一大足妇人，怀一西瓜而坐，上意其有淮西妇人大足之讪，乃剿除一家九族三百馀口，邻里俱发充军。

• 洪武中，欧阳都尉挟四妓饮，事觉，逮妓急，妓分必死，大毁其貌，以往。一老胥谓曰：「予我千金，能免尔死。」妓与之半。胥曰：「上，位神圣，宁不知若曹之侈肆？慎不可欺，当如常貌，更加饰耳。」妓曰：「何如？」曰：「须沐浴靓洁，以脂粉香，泽面与身，令香透彻而肌理，极其妍艳。首饰衣装，悉以金宝锦绣，虽里衣亵裙，不可以寸素间之。务穷尽妖丽，能夺目荡心则可。问其词，一味哀呼而已。」妓从之。比见上，上令自陈，妓无一言，上顾左右曰：「绑起，杀了。」妓解衣就缚，自外及内备极华烂，绘彩珍具堆积满地，照耀左右，至裸体，肤肉如玉，香闻远近。上曰：「个小妮子，使我见，也当惑了。那厮可知哩。」即叱放之。

贴春联和吃月饼

• 朱元璋在南京定都以后曾令「公卿士庶家，门上须加春联一副」，还要求对联所用的纸笺必须朱砂染色，名为「万年红」。「红」和「朱」同义，寓意为大明王朝江山永固。。

• 早在徐达攻下元大都之后，朱元璋曾命以当年起兵时秘密传递消息所用「月饼」作为赏赐群臣的节令糕点。在八月十五中秋节吃月饼的同时还流传著「八月十五杀鞑子」的传说。

喝茶讲和

朱元璋起兵时，进军徽州。当时在黄山脚下有两个大户人家，一个是程家一个是鲍家，两家结怨已久，经常发生争执。两家听闻朱元璋在徽州，便想由让他主持个公道。

面对两家的各执一词，朱元璋有心化解恩怨却无计可施，当时跟随朱元璋的刘伯温献上一条妙计。于是，朱元璋请两家人进了军营里，说要请他们两家一起喝茶。当地有好茶叶，但是军营里却没有喝茶用的茶壶茶具。朱元璋把情况告诉程、鲍二人，俩人立刻派家丁回家去取。程、鲍二人为了争面子拿了许多上好的茶具来，朱元璋对于每家的茶具都仔细观摩，后又细细询问。在一问一答间，三人把注意力放在了茶壶上，局面一片祥和。在这样的气氛中，朱元璋巧妙劝说二人，让他们重归于好。刘伯温在一旁突然大笑起来，称赞朱元璋这「喝茶讲壶」的办法英明。不过，刘伯温是浙江人，这壶字的发音从他嘴里一出，变成了「和」字的发音。从此以后，喝茶讲和的传统，就在黄山脚下流传下来。

藏宝图

位于浙江金华婺城区雅畈镇和安村附近山崖上，当地的驴友发现了许多神秘摩崖石刻，大大小小的文字，工整有力，但年代久远，风化严重，难以辨认。听村里老人说，这些『天书』是朱元璋在南山避难时留下的藏宝图。金华市文物局专家蒋金治表示，发现一块石头上留有明朝的年号，该石刻大约是元末明初石刻。

相关争议

相貌之争

朱元璋画像存世有两种版本，一为明清宫中所藏御容，方脸虬髯，一为世间所流传的长脸版本。明朝陆容《菽园杂记》卷十四称「太祖尝集画工写御容，多不称旨。有笔意逼真者，自以为必见赏，及进览，亦然。一工探知上意，稍于形似之外，加穆穆之容以进。上览之，甚喜，乃命写数本以赐诸王。盖上之意早有，而他工不能知也」，意指现存前一版本的朱元璋画像曾经美化。

张萱《疑耀》则称「先大夫令滇时，从黔国邸中模高皇御容，龙形虬髯，左脸有十二黑子，其状甚奇，与世俗所传相同，似为真矣。余值西省，始得府所藏高、成二祖御容，高皇帝乃美丈夫也，须髯皆为银丝，可数，不甚修，无所谓龙形虬髯、十二黑子也。」，意指现存前一版本的朱元璋画像才是真实形象。谈迁在《枣林杂俎》认为民间流传的版本是因为「太祖好微行察外事。微行恐人识其貌，所赐诸王侯御容一，盖疑像也。真幅藏之太庙。」

另外，明朝张瀚《松窗梦语》称：「成祖之容大类太祖，但颐间多髯，二缕长垂至腹。内侍相传，上每进膳，用金钩挂髯于耳。又闻袁柳庄云：『紫髯过脐，即登九五。』太宗每自拂其须，后果至腹始即位。」，现代学者认为明清宫中所藏的方脸虬髯御容，比较更接近朱元璋的真实形象。

文字狱

朱元璋曾借魏观案兴文字狱，处死诗人高启。

张宏杰《朱元璋传》认为，李成桂以权臣篡位，极度希望得到朱元璋的承认，所以他对朱元璋一直毕恭毕敬，忍气吞声，极力讨好。不论从哪个角度，他都不可能在表文中故意讽刺朱元璋。朱元璋郑重其事地在外国表文中大挑毛病，只能说明，他的心理变态已经严重到十分极端的程度了。

世人传言说朱元璋因「光」「则」字杀人，但此事真实性受到学界广泛怀疑。

徐祯卿《翦胜野闻》及赵翼《廿二史札记》中记载，洪武中翰林官徐一夔在贺表里写到「光」字和「则」字，被朱元璋认为是讽刺自己当过和尚和反贼，于是被杀。但据学者陈学霖考证，徐一夔寿至八十馀岁，死于惠宗建文二年，故以上记载当系谬传。

在《大明御制皇陵碑》里，朱元璋本人并未隐瞒自己出家和参加起义的旧事，倒是坦承了这段在士大夫看来不堪的历史。

影视作品

电影

以下列出曾饰演「朱元璋」的演员，以及剧中演出「朱元璋」的电影：

电视剧

以下列出曾饰演「朱元璋」的演员，以及剧中演出「朱元璋」的电视剧：

戏曲电视剧

以下列出曾饰演「朱元璋」的演员，以及剧中演出「朱元璋」的戏曲电视剧：

歌仔戏

以下列出曾饰演「朱元璋」的演员，以及剧中演出「朱元璋」的歌仔戏：

文学作品

• 金庸《倚天屠龙记》

• 黄易《覆雨翻云》

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