Early life

A native of modern-day Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, he was part of the powerful Dou clan which dominated court politics during his tenure. However, his father Dou Xun fell into disgrace and died in 70 AD, leaving Dou Xian an orphan. His fortunes were greatly enhanced, though, when his two sisters entered the imperial harem in 77. In the following year, the older of these two sisters became Empress Zhangde, the wife of Emperor Zhang of Han, and lasted briefly as empress dowager and regent during the early reign of Emperor He of Han. The biography of Dou Xian can be found in Chapter LIII of the Hou Hanshu.

Campaigns against the Xiongnu

In 89 AD, Dou Xian led a Han expedition against the Northern Xiongnu. The army advanced from Jilu, Manyi, and Guyang in three great columns. In the summer of 89, the forces—comprising a total of 40,000 troops—assembled at Zhuoye Mountain. Near the end of the campaign, Dou's forces chased the Northern Chanyu into the Altai Mountains, killing 13,000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200,000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes. A light cavalry of 2000 was sent towards the Xiongnu at Hami, capturing the region from them. Dou Xian marched with his troops in a triumphal progress to the heartland of the Northern Xiongnu's territory and engraved an inscription commemorating the victory on Mount Yanran, before returning to Han. The Han victory in the campaign of 89 AD resulted in the destruction of the Xiongnu state.

In 90 AD, Dou Xian had encamped at Wuwei. He sent Deputy Colonel Yan Pan with 2000 light cavalry to strike down the final Xiongnu defenses in the Western Regions, capturing Yiwu and receiving the surrender of Jushi. Major Liang Feng was dispatched to capture the Northern Chanyu, which he did, but he was forced to leave him behind as Dou Xian had already broken camp and returned to China. In the tenth month of 90 AD, Dou Xian sent Liang Feng and Ban Gu to help the Northern Chanyu make preparations for his planned travel as he wished to submit to the Han court in person the following month.

However, this never came to be as Dou Xian dispatched General Geng Kui and Shizi of the Southern Xiongnu with 8000 light cavalry to attack the Northern Chanyu, encamped at Heyun (河雲), in 90 AD. Once the Han forces arrived at Zhuoye Mountains, they left their heavy equipment behind to launch a swift pincer movement towards Heyun. Geng Kui attacked from the east via the Khangai Mountains and Ganwei River (甘微河), while Shizi attacked from the west via the Western Lake (西海). The Northern Chanyu—said to be greatly shocked by this—launched a counterattack, but he was forced to flee as he left his family and seal behind. The Han killed 8000 men and captured several thousands. In 91 AD, General Geng Kui and Major Ren Shang with a light cavalry of 800 advanced further via the Juyan Gol (Juyansai) into the Altai Mountains, where the Northern Chanyu had encamped. At the Battle of Altai Mountains, they massacred 5000 Xiongnu men and pursued the Northern Chanyu until he escaped to an unknown place. By 91 AD, the last remnants of the Northern Xiongnu had migrated west towards the Ili River valley.

Downfall

In 92, the Dous suddenly fell from grace as the result of a coup d'état. The details are unclear now, but it appeared that Emperor He, perhaps encouraged by his brother Prince Qing (whose mother had died at the Dous' hand and whose status as crown prince had been stripped away by their machinations) and the eunuch Zheng Zhong (鄭眾), made sudden orders to the imperial guards to have them arrest Dou Xian's associates and execute them. He sent Dou Xian and his brothers back to their marches, but eventually ordered them to commit suicide, with the exception of Dou Gui. Empress Dowager Dou remained empress dowager, but lost all power.

Inscription of Yanran

The Inscription of Yanran, composed by Ban Gu and engraved on Mount Yanran to commemorate Dou Xian's victory again the Xiongnu, was recorded in the 5th-century Book of Later Han. The expression "to carve a stone on Yanran" (勒石燕然) entered the Chinese language as a synonym for achieving a decisive victory. In 2016, a researchers team of Mongolian national university expedition rediscovered the inscription in the Inil (Delgerkhangai) Mountains in southern Mongolia". The 220 legible characters of the inscription, out of a total of 260, are identical to the text recorded in the Book of the Later Han.

生平

建初二年（77年），漢章帝立竇憲之妹為皇后。竇憲、竇篤兄弟親倖，「賞賜累積，寵貴日盛，自王、主及陰、馬諸家，莫不畏憚」。永元元年（89年）竇憲派遣刺客刺殺太后倖臣劉暢，嫁禍利侯劉剛，後因事洩獲罪，被囚於宮內。竇憲恐懼，請求出擊北匈奴以贖死。

伐北匈奴

逢南匈奴單于請兵北伐，乃拜竇憲為車騎將軍。夏六月，竇憲以執金吾耿秉為副手，各領四千騎，合南匈奴、烏桓、羌胡兵三萬餘出征。竇憲出雞鹿塞（內蒙古磴口縣西北七十公里），度遼將軍鄧鴻出稠陽塞（今固陽），南單于出滿夷谷，三軍在涿邪山會師，大敗北匈奴於稽洛山（今蒙古國額布根山），竇憲、耿秉乘勝追擊，至達和渠北醍海（屠申海），殺一萬三千多人，俘虜無數。後登燕然山（今蒙古國杭愛山）。在燕然山刻石記功，命班固撰其辭曰：「鑠王師兮徵荒裔，剿兇虐兮截海外，敻其邈兮亙地界，封神丘兮建隆嵑，熙帝載兮振萬世。」史稱燕然勒石。

九月庚申日，朝廷拜車騎將軍竇憲為大將軍，位高三公，以中郎將劉尚為車騎將軍。燕然山大捷，使竇憲堅定了消滅北匈奴的決心。

二年後，永元三年（91年）二月，大將軍竇憲派遣左校尉耿夔領兵出居延塞，出塞五千里進攻金微山（今阿爾泰山），大破北匈奴單于主力，斬名王以下五千餘人，俘虜北單于皇太后，北單于倉皇逃竄不知所終。

涉嫌謀逆

竇憲既破匈奴，權震朝廷，遂陰圖篡漢。漢和帝知其陰謀，與中常侍鄭眾計殺竇憲。

永元四年（92年）夏四月丙辰日，大將軍竇憲返回京師。六月，和帝以竇憲謀逆，下令逮捕其黨羽，謁者僕射沒收大將軍印綬，改封為冠軍侯，遣竇憲和竇篤、竇景、竇瓌都回封地。竇憲、竇篤、竇景到封地後，都被迫令自殺。當時正在編撰《漢書》的史家班固亦受竇憲牽連，死於獄中。

家庭

評價

范曄的後漢書對竇憲有較高的評價，認為他的功績是超過了衛青霍去病。「衛青、霍去病資強漢之眾，連年以事匈奴，國耗太半矣，而猾虜未之勝，所世猶傳其良將，豈非以身名自終邪！竇憲率羌胡邊雜之師，一舉而空朔庭，至乃追奔稽落之表，飲馬比鞮之曲，銘石負鼎，薦告清廟。列其功庸，兼茂于前多矣，而後世莫稱者，章末釁以降其實也。是以下流，君子所甚惡焉。夫二三子是之不過房幄之間，非複搜揚仄陋，選舉而登也。當青病奴僕之時，竇將軍念咎之日，乃庸力之不暇，思鳴之無晨，何意裂膏腴，享崇號乎？東方朔稱「用之則為虎，不用則為鼠」，信矣。以此言之，士有懷琬琰以就煨塵者，亦何可支哉！」