Life

Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke (孟轲), was born in the State of Zou. His birthplace is now within the county-level city of Zoucheng, Shandong Province, only thirty kilometres (eighteen miles) south of Confucius's birthplace in Qufu.

He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius's grandson, Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled throughout China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. During the Warring States period (403–221 BC), Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi (1046 BC to 221 BC) from 319 to 312 BC. He expressed his filial devotion when he took three years leave of absence from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life.

Mencius is buried in the "Mencius Cemetery" (孟子林, Mengzi Lin, also known as 亚圣林, Yasheng Lin), which is located 12 km to the northeast of Zoucheng's central urban area. A stele carried by a giant stone tortoise and crowned with dragons stands in front of his grave.

Mother

Mencius's mother is often held up as an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. One of the most famous traditional Chinese four-character idioms is 孟母三迁 ( mèngmǔ-sānqiān, literally Mencius's mother moves three times); this saying refers to the legend that Mencius's mother moved houses three times before finding a location that she felt was suitable for the child's upbringing. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the proper environment for raising children.

Mencius's father died when Mencius was very young. His mother Zhǎng (仉) raised her son alone. They were very poor. At first they lived by a cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions. Therefore, the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town. There the boy began to imitate the cries of merchants (merchants were despised in early China). So the mother moved to a house next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study. His mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar.

Another story further illustrates the emphasis that Mencius's mother placed on her son's education. As the story goes, once when Mencius was young, he was truant from school. His mother responded to his apparent disregard for his education by taking up a pair of scissors and cutting the cloth she had been weaving in front of him. This was intended to illustrate that one cannot stop a task midway, and her example inspired Mencius to diligence in his studies.

There is another legend about his mother and his wife, involving a time when his wife was at home alone and was discovered by Mencius not to be sitting properly. Mencius thought his wife had violated a rite, and demanded a divorce. His mother claimed that it was written in The Book of Rites that before a person entered a room, he should announce his imminent presence loudly to let others prepare for his arrival; as he had not done that in this case, the person who had violated the rite was Mencius himself. Eventually Mencius admitted his fault.

She is one of 125 women of which biographies have been included in the Lienü zhuan ('Biographies of Exemplary Women'), written by Liu Xiang.

Lineage

Duke Huan of Lu's son through Qingfu (庆父) was the ancestor of Mencius. He was descended from Duke Yang of the State of Lu (鲁炀公). Duke Yang was the son of Bo Qin, who was the son of the Duke of Zhou of the Zhou dynasty royal family. The genealogy is found in the Mencius family tree (孟子世家大宗世系).

Mencius's descendants lived in Zoucheng in the Mencius Family Mansion, where the Mencius Temple was also built and also a cemetery for Mencius's descendants.

Meng Haoran and Meng Jiao were descendants of Mencius who lived during the Tang dynasty.

During the Ming dynasty, one of Mencius's descendants was given a hereditary title at the Hanlin Academy by the Emperor. The title they held was Wujing Boshi (五经博士; 五经博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì). In 1452 Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen (孟希文) 56th generation and Yan Hui-Yan Xihui (顔希惠) 59th generation, the same was bestowed on the offspring of Zhou Dunyi-Zhou Mian (周冕) 12th generation, the two Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi-Chen Keren (程克仁) 17th generation), Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting (朱梴) 9th generation, in 1456–1457, in 1539 the same was awarded to Zeng Can's offspring-Zeng Zhicui (曾质粹) 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.

One of Mencius's direct descendants was Dr. Meng Chih (Anglicised as Dr. Paul Chih Meng) former director of China House, and director of the China Institute in 1944. Time magazine reported Dr. Meng's age that year as 44. Dr. Meng died in Arizona in 1990 at the age of 90. North Carolina's Davidson College and Columbia University were his alma mater. He was attending a speech along with Confucius descendant H. H. Kung.

In the Republic of China there is an office called the "Sacrificial Official to Mencius" which is held by a descendant of Mencius, like the post of "Sacrificial Official to Zengzi" for a descendant of Zengzi, "Sacrificial Official to Yan Hui" for a descendant of Yan Hui, and the post of "Sacrificial Official to Confucius, held by a descendant of Confucius.

The descendants of Mencius still use generation poems for their names given to them by the Ming and Qing Emperors along with the descendants of the other Four Sages (四氏): Confucius, Zengzi, and Yan Hui.

Historical sites related to his descendants include the Meng family mansion (孟府), Temple of Mencius (孟庙), and Cemetery of Mencius (孟林).

One of Mencius's descendants moved to Korea and founded the Sinchang Maeng clan.

Main concepts

Human nature

While Confucius himself did not explicitly focus on the subject of human nature, Mencius asserted the innate goodness of the individual, believing that it was society's influence – its lack of a positive cultivating influence – that caused bad moral character. "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature" and "the way of learning is none other than finding the lost mind."

The four beginnings (or sprouts)

To show innate goodness, Mencius used the example of a child falling down a well. Witnesses of this event immediately feel

Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such as Xunzi who thought people were innately bad, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation, they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop, or they could fail. In this way Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good to begin with. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence, otherwise known as Ren.

Education

According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books" (尽信书，则不如无书, from 孟子.尽心下). One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.

Destiny

Mencius also believed in the power of Destiny in shaping the roles of human beings in society. What is destined cannot be contrived by the human intellect or foreseen. Destiny is shown when a path arises that is both unforeseen and constructive. Destiny should not be confused with Fate. Mencius denied that Heaven would protect a person regardless of his actions, saying, "One who understands Destiny will not stand beneath a tottering wall". The proper path is one which is natural and unforced. This path must also be maintained because, "Unused pathways are covered with weeds." One who follows Destiny will live a long and successful life. One who rebels against Destiny will die before his time.

Views on politics and economics

Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler. Speaking of the overthrow of the wicked King Zhou of Shang, Mencius said, "I have merely heard of killing a villain Zhou, but I have not heard of murdering as the ruler."

This saying should not be taken as an instigation to violence against authorities but as an application of Confucian philosophy to society. Confucianism requires a clarification of what may be reasonably expected in any given relationship. All relationships should be beneficial, but each has its own principle or inner logic. A Ruler must justify his position by acting benevolently before he can expect reciprocation from the people. In this view, a King is like a steward. Although Confucius admired Kings of great accomplishment, Mencius is clarifying the proper hierarchy of human society. Although a King has presumably higher status than a commoner, he is actually subordinate to the masses of people and the resources of society. Otherwise, there would be an implied disregard of the potential of human society heading into the future. One is significant only for what one gives, not for what one takes.

Mencius distinguished between superior men who recognize and follow the virtues of righteousness and benevolence and inferior men who do not. He suggested that superior men considered only righteousness, not benefits. That assumes "permanent property" to uphold common morality. To secure benefits for the disadvantaged and the aged, he advocated free trade, low tax rates, and a more equal sharing of the tax burden.

Comparisons to contemporaries

His alleged years make him contemporary with Xun Zi, Zhuangzi, Gaozi, and Plato.

Xun Zi

Xun Zi was a Confucian who believed that human nature is centered on self-interest and greed, and the purpose of moral cultivation is to develop our nature into goodness. This put him at odds with Mencius. Later, the thinker Zhu Xi declared the views of Xun Zi to be unorthodox, instead supporting the position of Mencius.

Plato

Mencius's argument that unjust rulers may be overthrown is reminiscent of Socrates's argument in Book I of Plato's Republic.

Influence

Mencius's interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially by the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty. Mencius's disciples included a large number of feudal lords, and he is said to have been more influential than Confucius had been.

The Mencius (also spelled Mengzi or Meng-tzu), a book of his conversations with kings of the time, is one of the Four Books that Zhu Xi grouped as the core of orthodox Neo-Confucian thought. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues, including arguments, with extensive prose. It was generally neglected by the Jesuit missionaries who first translated the Confucian canon into Latin and other European languages, as they felt that the Neo-Confucian school largely consisted of Buddhist and Taoist contamination of Confucianism. Matteo Ricci also particularly disliked what they had believed to be condemnation of celibacy as unfilial, which is rather a mistranslation of a similar word referring more to aspects of personality. François Noël, who felt that Zhu's ideas represented a natural and native development of Confucius's thought, was the first to publish a full edition of the Mencius at Prague in 1711; as the Chinese rites controversy had been recently decided against the Jesuits, however, his edition attained little influence outside central and eastern Europe.

In a 1978 book that estimated the hundred most influential persons in history to that point, Mencius was ranked at 92.

Mencius Institute

The first Mencius Institute was established in Xuzhou, China in 2008 under a collaboration between Jiangsu Normal University, China Zoucheng Heritage Tourism Bureau, and Xuzhou Mengshi Clan Friendship Network.

First Mencius Institute outside of China is located at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) Kampar Campus.

生平

据说孟子是鲁桓公的庶长子孟庆父的后代，孟庆父之子孟孙敖另立一族，为孟孙氏，或称仲孙氏、孟氏。鲁穆公八年（公元前408年），齐国攻破了孟孙氏的食邑郕城，孟孙氏子孙遂分散开来。孟子的祖先就从鲁国迁居到邹国（今山东省邹城市），于是孟子自此成了邹国人。相传其父名为激，字公宜；其母亲的姓氏也有仉氏与李氏之说。据说，孟子三岁丧父，孟母艰辛地将他抚养成人，孟母管束甚严，其「孟母三迁」、「断机教子」等故事，成为千古美谈，是后世母教之典范。

子思为师，但根据史书考证发现子思去世时离孟子出生还早几十年，所以还是如《史记》中所记载的受业于子思的门人的说法比较可信。

孟子曾仿效孔子，带领门徒游说各国。但是不被当时各国所接受，退隐与弟子一起著述。有《孟子》七篇传世，篇目为：《梁惠王》上、下；《公孙丑》上、下；《滕文公》上、下；《离娄》；《万章》上、下；《告子》上、下；《尽心》上、下。其学说出发点为性善论，提出「仁政」、「王道」，主张德治。

南宋时朱熹将《孟子》与《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》合在一起称「四书」。从此直到清末，「四书」一直是科举必考内容。孟子的文章说理畅达，发挥详尽气势充沛并长于辩论。

思想

孟子思想主要分为政治哲学，即仁爱，以及人生哲学，即性善（人性善）以及重义轻利。

性善论与性恶论

先秦儒家对于人性善恶问题给予了极大的关注。在中国人性论史上，第一个提出性善论的是孟子。他认为，人性是善的，就像水往低处流一样，这是一个不争的事实。孟子认为，人生来都有最基本的共同的天赋本性，这就是「性善」或「不忍人之心」，或者说对别人的怜悯之心、同情心。他举例说，人突然看到小孩要掉到井里去(「乍见孺子将入于井」)，都会有惊惧和同情的心理。这种同情心，并不是为了讨好这小孩子的父母，也不是要在乡亲朋友中获得好名声，也不是厌恶见死不救的名声，而完全是从人天生的本性中发出来的，这就是「不忍人之心」。

「不忍人之心」也叫「恻隐之心」。此外还有「羞恶之心」、「辞让之心」、「是非之心」。这四种心﹙也叫「四端」或「四德」﹚，就是孟子论述人性本善的根据。孟子认为，人与禽兽的差别很微小，仅仅在于人有这些「心」。如果没有这些「心」，就不能算作是人。在他看来，如果为人而不善，那不是本性的问题，而是由于舍弃了本性，没有很好地保持住它，绝不能说他本来就没有这些「善」的本性。因此，人如果有了不善的思想和行为，就应闭门思过，检查自己是否放弃了那些天赋的「心」，努力把这些「心」找回来，以恢复人的本性。这就是孟子所说的「求其放心」，后世称为「复性」。如果反省自己，一切都合乎天赋的道德观念，那就是最大的快乐，这就是孟子所说的「反身而诚，乐莫大焉」。

孟子的性善论对传统思想影响很大，宋代以后流传的《三字经》第一句话就是「人之初，性本善。」性善论也成为后来儒家的正统观念。

在先秦儒家中，有一派反对孟子的性善论，而主张性恶论。这一派的代表就是荀子。荀子提出「人之性恶，其善者伪也」的著名论点。他认为，人生来的本性是：饿了就想吃饱，冷了就想穿暖，累了就想休息，这是人之本性的真实表露。在他看来，「好利」、「疾恶」、「好声色」等，都是人的自然情欲，也是人的性恶的表现。而善的道德意识是后天人为加工的结果。这种后天人为的加工就叫「伪」。

荀子针对孟子的性善论，第一次运用「性」与「伪」的范畴来说明人的自然本性和社会道德的关系，反对把人的自然属性道德化，强调「性伪之分」，认为人的自然本性是基于生理机能而产生的物质生活的欲求，而社会道德规范是对这种欲求的限制和调节，二者是对立的。同时，二者又是统一的，「无性，则伪之无所加；无伪，则性不能自美。性伪合，然后圣人之名一」。意思是说，没有自然本性，社会道德的人为加工就无从施加；没有人为加工，人性就不能由恶变善。圣人的作用就在于把「性」和「伪」很好的结合起来、统一起来。

荀子较全面的论述了「性」与「伪」的对立统一关系，并著重强调对人性的改造，提出了「化性起伪」、「涂之人可以为禹」等观点，认为人都有改变本性，成为圣人的可能。荀子性恶论的观点对法家影响甚大，。傅斯年认为荀子的说法与孔子相近，反而孔子与孟子对性的看法迥不相同，而这点差异「宋儒明知之，而非宋儒所敢明言也」。

政治思想

民本思想

「民为贵，社稷次之，君为轻。」意思是说，人民放在第一位，国家其次，君在最后。孟子认为君主应以爱护人民为先，为政者要保障人民权利，这就是孟子的民本思想(部份人以为孟子是民主的先驱)。孟子赞同若君主无道，人民有权推翻政权。孟子认为取得政权要有爱民之心，还要有合法的手段。而且政权还要有取决于民意，若上位者的德行和为政不为百姓所接受，那上位者就要丧失继续执政的资格了。孟子并引用尚书太誓篇的：「天视自我民视，天听自我民听」告诫人君重视民心。正因此原因，《汉书》「艺文志」仅仅把《孟子》放在「诸子略」中，视为子书，没有得到应有的地位。

到五代十国的后蜀时，后蜀主孟昶命令人楷书十一经刻石，其中包括了《孟子》，这可能是《孟子》列入「经书」的开始。到南宋的孝宗时，朱熹将《孟子》与《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》合在一起称「四书」，并成为「十三经」之一，《孟子》的地位才被推到了高峰。

传说明太祖朱元璋因不满孟子的民本思想，曾命刘三吾等人删节《孟子》中的有关内容。如《尽心篇》，删「民为贵，社稷次之，君为轻。」十字。又《尽心篇》，删「吾今而后知杀人亲之重也：杀人之父，人亦杀其父；杀人之兄，人亦杀其兄。然则非自杀之也，一间耳。」七句。又《离娄篇》，删「君之视臣如手足，则臣视君如腹心；君之视臣如犬马，则臣视君如国人；君之视臣如土芥，则臣视君如寇雠。」六句。

仁政与王道

孟子主张君主行仁政，承接性善论，孟子认为「人有不忍人之心」，乃有「不忍人之政」，君主只要将自己的仁德推广，所谓「幼吾幼以及人之幼，老吾老以及人之老」，由爱护自己的家人，到爱护国民，就是仁政。

推行仁政的具体措施是行「王道」，要使人民富足，百姓安乐，即「保民而王」，人民自然拥戴君主，国家自然富强安定。

关于孟子究竟是主张王道还是德道学术界意见不一。从马王堆帛书和郭店简思孟学派代表作《五行》看，孟子主张的是善道和德道。《五行》讲：仁义礼智四行全，善道也；仁义礼智圣五行全，德道也。善道，人道也；德道，天道也。《童子问易》总结由《易经》而来的德道说：所谓德道，就是博爱、厚生，公平、正义，诚实、守信、文明、和谐，革故、鼎新，民主、法治之德性与德行。

身后

地位变迁

孟子是儒家最主要的代表人物之一，《汉书·楚元王传赞》说：「自孔子殁，缀文之士众矣。唯孟轲……博物洽闻，通达古今，其言有补于世。」但孟子的地位在宋代以前并不很高，甚至有一首讽刺孟子的打油诗：「乞丐何曾有二妻？邻家焉有许多鸡？当时尚有周天子，何事纷纷说魏齐？」。自中唐的韩愈著《原道》，把孟子列为先秦儒家中唯一继承孔子「道统」的人物开始，出现了一个孟子的「升格运动」，孟子其人其书的地位逐渐上升，取代了颜回成为「亚圣」。宋神宗熙宁四年（1071年），《孟子》一书首次被列入科举考试科目之中。元丰六年（1083年），孟子首次被官方追封，为「邹国公」，翌年被批准配享孔庙。以后《孟子》一书升格为儒家经典，南宋朱熹又把《孟子》与《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》合为「四书」，其实际地位更在「五经」之上。元朝至顺元年（1330年），孟子被加封为「亚圣公」，以后就称为「亚圣」，地位仅次于孔子。明朝朱元璋辑有《孟子节文》，删掉《孟子》里的章句，如「民为贵，社稷次之，君为轻」、「残贼之人谓之一夫，闻诛一夫纣矣，未闻弑君也」等。朱元璋曾说「使此老在今日宁得免耶！」越南学者张汉超在文章中说：「为士大夫者，非尧舜之道不陈前，非孔孟之道不著述。」

纪念

历代追封追諡

• 齐宣王封孟子为稷下学宫第一任上大夫。

• 1083年（宋元丰六年），升邹国公。

• 1330年（元至顺元年），加赠为邹国亚圣公。

• 1452年（明景泰二年），孟子嫡派后裔被封为翰林院五经博士，子孙世袭。

• 1530年（明嘉靖九年），奉为亚圣，罢公爵。

• 1914年（民国三年），第73代翰林院五经博士孟庆棠改封奉祀官。

• 1935年（民国二十四年），改称亚圣奉祀官。

海外影响

孟子对日本明治维新发起人吉田松阴等人有一定影响。因发起第二次世界大战而作为战犯被判处绞刑的东条英机在监狱中也曾引用孟子的话「诚者，天之道也；思诚者，人之道也；至诚者而不动者，未之有也」(《孟子·离娄上》)。

孟子后代

评价

• 唐宋八大家之首的韩愈评价孟子：把孟子说成孔子的继承人，并认为圣人之道在孟子以后失传，使孟子在道统中具有了与孔子同等的地位。

• 北宋苏洵著有《苏评孟子》二卷（兵部侍郎纪昀家藏本）

• 南宋陆象山认为:孟子以先立其大而尽心知天，所谓「大」字，即指「本心」（本体之心）或理。

• 明王阳明:心学高峰。

• 傅斯年认为孟子的逻辑功夫远不如荀子，其讨论性善的言论「放而无律」，「孟子之词宜在淳于髡之上，荀卿之下也。」

流行文化

• 金庸小说《射雕英雄传》中黄蓉曾说道：「孟夫子最爱胡说八道，他的话怎么能信 ？」

• 小说《大秦帝国》虚构了张仪与孟子的两次论战。