Background

Gao Huan was born in 496, at Northern Wei's northern garrison town Huaishuo (怀朔镇, near Guyang in modern Baotou, Inner Mongolia). He was ethnically Chinese Han, but his family, having resided at Huaishuo ever since his grandfather Gao Mi (高谧) was exiled there for faults while serving as a Northern Wei official, had largely been acculturated in the Xianbei ways. (Gao Huan's nickname Heliuhun was a Xianbei name.) His father was Gao Shusheng (高树生), and his mother was Han Qiji (韩期姬), Gao Shusheng's wife, died soon after his birth, and he was raised at the house of his older sister Gao Loujin (高娄斤) with her husband, Wei Jing (尉景). In his young days, his family was poor, and he became a servant at the old Northern Wei capital Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi). While serving at Pingcheng, Lou Zhaojun an ethnic Xianbei, and the daughter of a wealthy house, saw him and was impressed with his appearance and behavior, and she married him despite her parents' opposition. It was only after this marriage that Gao had sufficient money to buy a horse, and he became a courier for the Pingcheng defense headquarters, often delivering official mail to and from the capital Luoyang.

In 519, Gao happened to be at Luoyang when a mob of soldiers, angry over the minister Zhang Yi (张彝)'s new policy of excluding soldiers from civil service, sieged Zhang's house and then killed him. The regent Empress Dowager Hu (Emperor Xiaoming's mother) did not dare to punish them, but largely pardoned them except for eight leaders. Gao was unimpressed by Empress Dowager Hu's actions and believed that Northern Wei was on the verge of collapse. When he returned to Pingcheng, he sold his properties and used the funds to gather associates around him, stating that if disturbances occurred, the property might not be his any more anyway. His associates around this time included people from diverse ethnic backgrounds such as Xianbei, Chinese and Xiongnu, in addition to his brother-in-law Wei Jing, Sima Ziru (司马子如), Liu Gui (刘贵), Jia Xianzhi (贾显智), Sun Teng (孙腾), Hou Jing (侯景), and Cai Jun (蔡儁). Together they were often in the countryside, and when they saw injustices, they would seek to correct them.

In 525, in the midst of Six Frontier Towns rebellions (六镇之乱) against Northern Wei's rule, Gao and his associates joined one of the major Xianbei and Turkic rebel leaders, Du Luozhou (杜洛周). However, Gao soon became unimpressed with Du's behavior, and he escaped from Du's army. He then joined another rebel leader, Ge Rong (葛荣), but eventually went to the Northern Wei general and Xiongnu tribal leader Erzhu Rong. By this time, Liu Gui, a Xiongnu descendant and close friend of Gao Huan was already serving under Erzhu, and he often praised Gao's talent, but when Erzhu met Gao, he was not initially impressed as Gao was poor, and looked haggard and unconfident. However, when Gao was able to tame a very wild horse, Erzhu became impressed, and they became closer and closer, with Gao pointing out that with the empire in disarray, it would be a good opportunity for Erzhu to seize power.

Ethnic identity

Gao Huan was descended from a Han Chinese family, at least paternally. However, at the same time he maintained a very public culturally Xianbei appearance. He claimed the Bohai Chinese Gao clan (渤海高氏) as his ancestors and Bohai his ancestral land, but had become de-Sinicized. It was recorded that he would make speech to his soldiers only in the Xianbei language instead of Chinese, unless one of his most fiercest generals - Gao Aocao (高敖曹) was at the scene, he would then switch his use of language from Xianbei to Chinese, Gao Aocao was one of the few ethnic Chinese whom had earned respect from Gao Huan. Gao Huan was also reported as having frequently said to his soldiers in Xianbei language: "Those weak Chinese are just your servants and dogs, all you guys need to do is simply to fight and protect our empire." He had become Xianbeified as his clan had lived in Xianbei cultural region for some time after being relocated from what is now modern Hebei (Bohai). The Eastern Wei enfeoffed the land of Bohai to Gao Huan, and he became "Prince of Bohai" or "King of Bohai". Before Gao's death, he sang the Chile song (Chile song was considered by many scholars as a military song for all Xianbeified soldiers) together with his trusted Chile general Hulü Jin (斛律金) in front of most of his major Xianbei, as well as Xianbeified Xiongnu, Chile and Chinese generals, and wept bitterly. He also pointed out that his powerful Chinese general Hou Jing was capricious, cunning and could not be trusted, who will rebel after his death, he then appointed several Xianbei and Chile generals whom he considered to be both upright and talented to be on guard of Hou Jing. In the end Hou did rebel against Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, but the rebellion was successfully put down by Eastern Wei's senior general Murong Shaozong (慕容绍宗).

Under the Erzhus

Erzhu Rong was impressed with Gao Huan's talents, and he made Gao one of his military commanders. In 528, Emperor Xiaoming, displeased at the hold on power that Empress Dowager Hu's lover Zheng Yan (郑俨) and Zheng's associate Xu Ge (徐纥) had, entered into a conspiracy with Erzhu to have Erzhu advance on the capital to force Empress Dowager Hu to kill Zheng and Xu. Erzhu therefore began to march on the capital, and he made Gao his forward commander. On the way, however, Emperor Xiaoming ordered him to stop, but the news of the conspiracy still leaked, and Empress Dowager Hu poisoned Emperor Xiaoming to death and declared his distant toddler nephew Yuan Zhao emperor.

Erzhu refused to recognize Yuan Zhao as emperor, and he continued his march on Luoyang, declaring Yuan Ziyou the Prince of Changle emperor (as Emperor Xiaozhuang). Luoyang's defenses collapsed, and Erzhu arrested and threw Empress Dowager Hu and Yuan Zhao into the Yellow River to drown. Believing that the imperial officials would never obey him, he massacred a large number of them (including Emperor Xiaozhuang's brothers), and Emperor Xiaozhuang, fearing what would come next, offered to yield the throne to Erzhu. Gao suggested that Erzhu accept the offer, but Erzhu hesitated and ultimately ruled against it. His general Heba Yue (贺拔岳), who opposed Erzhu's taking of the throne, suggested Erzhu that Gao should be executed to show his good faith, but Erzhu ruled against it. In fact, for Gao's contributions to the campaign, Emperor Xiaozhuang created him the Count of Tongdi.

Erzhu subsequently carried out a number of campaigns against agrarian rebels to try to reunify the empire. Gao thereafter participated in the campaigns against Ge Rong and Xing Gao (邢杲), as well as the rebel general Yang Kan (羊侃), serving with distinction. On one occasion, when Erzhu Rong was asking his commanders for opinions on who could succeed him as the commanding general of the army if he were no longer there, most opined that Erzhu Zhao could, but Erzhu Rong himself opined that Gao Huan was the only one capable of doing so, and he warned Erzhu Zhao, "You are no match for Gao Huan, and one day he will surely pierce through your nose." Erzhu Rong thereafter made Gao the governor of Jin Province (晋州, roughly modern Linfen, Shanxi), and while governor, Gao gathered much wealth, intending for use later.

In 530, Emperor Xiaozhuang, believing that Erzhu would eventually seize the throne, ambushed and killed him in the palace. The Erzhus, led by Erzhu Zhao and Erzhu Rong's cousin Erzhu Shilong, fought against Emperor Xiaozhuang, and Erzhu Zhao was thereafter marching on Luoyang, declaring Erzhu Rong's wife the Princess Beixiang's nephew Yuan Ye emperor. Erzhu Zhao summoned Gao to aid him, but Gao declined, using the excuse that he needed to fight against local agrarian rebels. Erzhu Zhao was displeased, but for the time being did not act against Gao. Later in the year, Erzhu Zhao captured Luoyang and arrested Emperor Xiaozhuang, delivering Emperor Xiaozhuang to his headquarters at Jinyang (晋阳, in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). Gao wrote a letter to Erzhu Zhao urging him not to harm the emperor, but Erzhu Zhao refused to answer, and subsequently strangled Emperor Xiaozhuang to death.

Despite this, Gao remained nominally under the Erzhus' command structure, and when, around the new year, the general Gedouling Bufan (纥豆陵步番), loyal to Emperor Xiaozhuang, attacked Erzhu Zhao and initially defeated him, approaching Jinyang, Gao came to Erzhu Zhao's aid, and together they defeated and killed Gedouling. After the battle, Erzhu Zhao and Gao swore themselves to be brothers. Erzhu Zhao, trusting Gao, commissioned him with Ge Rong's former troops (largely Xianbei) and, accepting his suggestion, allowed him to take his new troops east of the Taihang Mountains to seek food.

In spring 531, Gao Huan was posturing to attack his distant relative Gao Gan (高乾), who had declared a rebellion at Xindu (信都, in modern Hengshui, Hebei), against the Erzhus. However, Gao Gan and Li Yuanzhong (李元忠) were able to persuade him that the Erzhus, because of their corruption, were hated by the people, and he could overthrow them. Gao Huan thereafter stirred his troops by forging orders from Erzhu Zhao that indicated that Erzhu Zhao was about to turn them into servants for his own troops. Gao Huan's troops believed the forged orders, and when he declared a rebellion in summer 531, they supported him.

Rebellion against the Erzhus

Initially, Gao Huan's rebellion formally continued to recognize Emperor Jiemin, whom Erzhu Shilong had made emperor in spring 531 to replace Yuan Ye (whose distant imperial lineage made him appear inappropriate as emperor). However, at Sun Teng's urging, in fall 531, Gao declared another distant member of the imperial Yuan clan, Yuan Lang, emperor.

Despite Gao's reputation for being a capable soldier, his army was still weak, and initially, most key members of the Erzhu clan did not take him seriously, except Erzhu Shilong. Soon, Erzhu Shilong's brothers Erzhu Zhongyuan (尔朱仲远) and Erzhu Dulü (尔朱度律), as well as Erzhu Zhao, converged against Gao, but Gao successfully spread rumors to make the Erzhus suspicious of each other, due to existing conflicts that Erzhu Zhao and Erzhu Shilong already had, and Erzhu Zhongyuan and Erzhu Dulü subsequently withdrew. Gao then defeated Erzhu Zhao in battle in winter 531, forcing Erzhu Zhao to withdraw as well. In spring 532, Gao captured the important city Yecheng, and used it as a base for subsequent operations.

The Erzhus soon reconciled, and soon, Erzhu Zhao, Erzhu Zhongyuan, Erzhu Dulü, and Erzhu Tianguang converged on Yecheng. However, despite the Erzhus' numerical superiority, Gao defeated them, forcing Erzhu Zhao to flee back to Jinyang and Erzhu Zhongyuan back to his base Dong Commandery (东郡, in modern Anyang, Henan). Erzhu Tianguang and Erzhu Dulü tried to retreat to Luoyang, but at this time, the general Husi Chun rebelled against the Erzhus in Luoyang itself, killing Erzhu Shilong and another brother of Erzhu Shilong, Erzhu Yanbo (尔朱彦伯), and he also captured Erzhu Dulü and Erzhu Tianguang in battle, delivering them to Gao. Erzhu Zhongyuan soon abandoned Dong Commandery and fled to rival Liang Dynasty, leaving Erzhu Zhao as the only major surviving member of the Erzhu clan. Gao marched toward Luoyang, then controlled by Husi, with Yuan Lang.

However, Gao was beginning to believe that Yuan Lang, due to his lineage's being distant from recent emperors, to be an inappropriate choice to be emperor as well. He toyed with the idea of allowing Emperor Jiemin to remain emperor, but decided against it after his generals Wei Lan'gen (魏兰根) and Cui Ling (name not in Unicode) advised him that Emperor Jiemin would be difficult to control in the future. He also considered Emperor Xiaowen's son Yuan Yue (元悦) the Prince of Huai'nan, and he welcomed Yuan Yue back from Liang, but he subsequently heard that Yuan Yue was arbitrary in his actions, and so decided against it as well. Instead, he offered the throne to Emperor Xiaowen's grandson Yuan Xiu the Prince of Pingyang, and Yuan Xiu accepted, taking the throne as Emperor Xiaowu. Gao became the paramount general of the empire, although the imperial government became largely run by Husi Chun and Emperor Xiaowu's associate Wang Sizheng (王思政).

During Emperor Xiaowus reign

Emperor Xiaowu initially deferred to Gao Huan, who continued to command the largest army of the state and took over Erzhu Rong's old headquarters at Jinyang as his own, on most decisions, and Emperor Xiaowu married Gao's daughter as his empress in late 532. He also created Gao the Prince of Bohai, a title that Yuan Lang had initially created Gao in 531 but Gao continuously declined until winter 533. However, the relationship between Emperor Xiaowu and Gao soon deteriorated, over Emperor Xiaowu's suspicions that Gao had designs on the throne, and over Emperor Xiaowu's desires to reassert imperial authority. Emperor Xiaowu therefore tried to align himself with independent generals, the brothers Heba Yue (贺拔岳), who controlled the western provinces, and Heba Sheng (贺拔胜), who controlled the southern provinces. Gao tried to remain deferential to Emperor Xiaowu outwardly, but was becoming increasingly displeased with the emperor's independence.

Gao tried to undermine Emperor Xiaowu's allies. In winter 533, he sent his associate Zhai Song (翟嵩) to persuade Heba Yue's lieutenant Houmochen Yue (侯莫陈悦) to betray Heba, while in spring 534 ambushing a major tribal leader, Gedouling Yili (纥豆陵依利), whom Emperor Xiaowu had also made overtures to, taking over Gedouling's troops. Soon thereafter, Homouchen assassinated Heba Yue, but Homouchen missed an opportunity to take over Heba Yue's troops. Subsequently, those troops supported Heba Yue's assistant Yuwen Tai as their leader, and Yuwen soon defeated Houmochen, who committed suicide. Emperor Xiaowu subsequently entered into an alliance with Yuwen. When Gao tried to make overtures to Yuwen, Yuwen arrested his messengers and delivered them to Emperor Xiaowu.

Emperor Xiaowu soon prepared a campaign against Gao, and he, trying to catch Gao by surprise, issued a secret edict to Gao claiming to be actually planning to attack Yuwen and Heba Sheng. Gao, however, saw through Emperor Xiaowu's plot, and marched toward Luoyang. Wang Sizheng, believing that the imperial troops were not strong enough to resist Gao's, suggested Emperor Xiaowu to flee to Yuwen's territory, and Emperor Xiaowu decided to do so, rejecting Husi Chun's offer to take one final stand at Luoyang, particularly when Heba Sheng failed to come to the emperor's aid and when Yuwen's troops failed to arrive quickly. It took Gao only a month to reach Luoyang, and Emperor Xiaowu fled west, encountering Yuwen's troops on the way, and had them escort him back to Yuwen's headquarters at Chang'an, where he reestablished the imperial government and made Yuwen prime minister.

Meanwhile, Gao Huan took over the Luoyang region, and soon also defeated Heba Sheng, taking over his territory and forcing him to flee to Liang. Gao then wrote repeated petitions to Emperor Xiaowu, requesting that he return to Luoyang and indicating that he was willing to return to the status quo ante. Emperor Xiaowu did not respond to any of Gao's overtures. Gao therefore made Yuan Shanjian, the son and heir apparent of Emperor Xiaowu's cousin Yuan Dan (元亶) the Prince of Qinghe emperor (as Emperor Xiaojing) and moving the capital from Luoyang to Yecheng, thus formally dividing the empire into two (Eastern Wei under Emperor Xiaojing and Western Wei under Emperor Xiaowu), albeit with each claiming to be the rightful one.

During Emperor Xiaojings reign

Eastern Wei's territorial size and military strength was far stronger than Western Wei's, and Gao made a number of attempts to try to end the division by conquering Western Wei, but the battles largely proved to be inconclusive, allowing Western Wei to stand. Periodically, Western Wei generals who had prior relationships with Gao would defect to Eastern Wei, and Gao at times carried out campaigns deep within Western Wei territory. However, Western Wei was able to portray Gao as a renegade general who expelled the emperor, and often during campaigns, local populace would assist Western Wei troops because they believed Western Wei's characterization. During this period, Gao also tried to foster harmony between the ethnic Xianbei and Chinese, persuading the Xianbei that they needed the Chinese to practice agriculture to be fed, and persuading the Chinese that they needed the Xianbei's military aptitude to protect them. He saw Emperor Xiaowu's flight as a blot on his personal history, so he treated Emperor Xiaojing with great formal respect, deferring to Emperor Xiaojing in all public occasions.

in spring 535, Gao Huan learned that around the new year 535, Emperor Xiaowu, who had a falling out with Yuwen Tai over Yuwen's refusal to condone his incestuous relationships with his cousins, had been poisoned to death by Yuwen. Gao suggested that an official mourning period be held for Emperor Xiaowu, and while there were disagreements, eventually a mourning period was held.

Also in spring 535, a sex scandal affected Gao's household. Gao's heir apparent Gao Cheng, born of his wife Princess Lou, had an affair with Gao Huan's concubine Zheng Dache (郑大车), and the affair was discovered. Gao Huan caned Gao Cheng and put him under house arrest, and refused to meet with Gao Cheng's mother Princess Lou. He also considered replacing Gao Cheng as heir apparent with Gao You (高浟), the son of his concubine Erzhu Ying'e, the daughter of Erzhu Rong who had previously been Emperor Xiaozhuang's empress. After intercession by Gao Huan's friend Sima Ziru, who reminded him how much Princess Lou had done for him before he had accomplished great things and who used violent methods to force the servant girls who were witnesses to the affair to recant, Gao Huan calmed down and did not replace Gao Cheng.

Around the new year 536, Gao Huan tried to make an alliance with Rouran against Western Wei, by marrying a princess to Rouran's Chiliantoubingdoufa Khan Yujiulü Anagui. However, Yujiulü Anagui soon took a Western Wei princess as consort as well, and the alliance did not materialize.

In spring 536, Gao made a deep incursion into Western Wei territory, capturing Xia Province (夏州, roughly modern Yulin, Shaanxi), while also rescuing his ally Cao Ni (曹泥) the governor of Ling Province (灵州, roughly modern Yinchuan, Ningxia), who had been trapped behind Western Wei lines. The Western Wei general Moqi Pu (万俟普), his son Moqi Shouluogan (万俟受洛干), and other generals Chigan Baole (叱干宝乐) and Poliuhan Chang (破六韩常), who were stationed in the western Western Wei territory, also joined Gao and returned to Eastern Wei with him.

Also in spring 536, Gao Huan, at Gao Cheng's request, made Gao Cheng the Eastern Wei prime minister, despite the fact that Gao Cheng was only 14 at this point. Gao Cheng was sent to Yecheng, and he took over actual reign of the Eastern Wei imperial government.

In spring 537, Gao Huan launched a major attack three-pronged on Western Wei, commanded by himself and his key generals Dou Tai (窦泰) and Gao Aocao (高敖曹), intending to draw Yuwen's troops to himself while having Dou advance deep into Western Wei territory. Yuwen, pretending to be ready to abandon Chang'an to withdraw to modern eastern Gansu, instead launched a surprise attack on Dou's troops, slaughtering most of them. Dou committed suicide. Gao Huan and Gao Aocao were forced to withdraw. In counterattacks, Western Wei took modern western Henan and southwestern Shanxi.

In winter 537, after hearing news that the Guanzhong region (the heart of the Western Wei state) was suffering from a major famine, Gao Huan launched another major attack on Western Wei. He encountered Yuwen at Shawan (沙苑, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), and, believing that he had overwhelming numerical advantage, rejected the strategy of Hulü Qiangju (斛律羌举) to bypass Yuwen and make a direct attack on Chang'an, and his own initial inclination to set fire to the grass fields at Shawan to have it burn Yuwen's troops, instead directly engaging Yuwen in battle. Yuwen's troops, however, fought hard, one of Yuwen's key generals Li Bi (李弼), led about 600 elite cavalry, charged through Gao's 200,000 soldiers and broke their formation. They defeated Gao's troops, forcing Gao to withdraw. In light of his defeat, the southern provinces and Luoyang area largely rebelled and declared allegiance to Western Wei, but in spring 538 Gao sent Hou Jing against the southern provinces, recapturing them.

In 538, after Emperor Wen of Western Wei married Yujiulü Anagui's daughter as his empress, Yujiulü Anagui cut off relations between Rouran and Eastern Wei.

In fall 538, Gao Huan, assisted by Hou Jing and Gao Aocao, put Luoyang under siege. Yuwen and Emperor Wen led the Western Wei troops to aid Luoyang's defender, the general Dugu Xin, and a largely inconclusive battle with heavy losses on both sides occurred—with Western Wei being able to kill Gao Aocao, and Yuwen nearly killed in the battle as well. However, eventually Western Wei troops were forced to abandon Luoyang and withdraw, and at the same time, the Eastern Wei general Zhao Qingque (赵青雀), who had been captured by Western Wei in the Battle of Shawan, rebelled against Western Wei at Chang'an, forcing the Western Wei officials who remained in Chang'an to escort the crown prince Yuan Qin out of Chang'an. However, Gao Huan was unable to take advantage of the disturbance that Zhao caused, and Yuwen was able to return to Chang'an to suppress Zhao's rebellion. Meanwhile, Western Wei also recaptured some of the southern provinces. For the next few years, while there continued to be border battles, no major campaigns was initiated by either Eastern Wei or Western Wei.

In summer 539, Gao Huan gave his second daughter to Emperor Xiaojing in marriage as Emperor Xiaojing's wife and empress.

In winter 541, Gao Huan had Emperor Xiaojing issue an edict standardizing measurement units for cloth, to avoid the populace's being unfairly taxed.

In winter 542, Gao Huan launched a major attack on the Western Wei border city of Yubi (玉壁, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), but the Western Wei defence was held successfully and Gao was forced to withdraw.

In spring 543, another sexual wrongdoing by Gao Cheng would lead to a new campaign between Eastern Wei and Western Wei. The official Gao Zhongmi (高仲密, Gao Aocao's brother), already fearful over his situation because one of Gao Cheng's major assistants, Cui Xian (崔暹), had tried to pick his faults after he divorced Cui Xian's sister, was further aggravated when Gao Cheng tried to rape his second wife, Li Changyi (李昌仪). He therefore surrendered the important garrison of Hulao (虎牢, in modern Zhengzhou, Henan) to Western Wei. Yuwen led his troops to try to come to Gao Zhongmi's aid and further again seize the entire Luoyang region, but was repelled in a major battle near Luoyang, during which both Yuwen and Gao Huan were nearly killed in battle, with Heba Sheng, then a Western Wei general, nearly killing Gao with a spear. (In retaliation, Gao Huan later had all of Heba's sons who remained in Eastern Wei territory executed.) By summer 543, the Western Wei forces had withdrawn, and the entire Luoyang region was again under Eastern Wei control.

in 544, with Gao Huan believing that four key officials who were close to him—Sun Teng, Sima Ziru, his cousin Gao Yue (高岳), and his sworn "brother" Gao Longzhi (高隆之) -- were wielding too much power, he gave the 22-year-old Gao Cheng additional authorities, and Gao Cheng increasingly asserted authorities over these officials and others. For example, once when Sun visited Gao Cheng but was acting insufficiently deferentially, Gao Cheng had his attendants throw Sun on the ground and pound him with the sword hilts. Gao Cheng also made one of his close assistants, Cui Jishu (崔季舒, Cui Xian's uncle) an assistant to Emperor Xiaojing, in order to keep a closer eye on Emperor Xiaojing. Gao Cheng soon greatly enhanced the authorities of both Cui Xian and Song Youdao (宋游道) and charged them with the responsibilities of stamping out corruption among officials—which Gao Huan himself had been reluctant to do so. Based on Cui Xian's and Song's recommendations, Sima was arrested and reduced to commoner rank, while Yuan Tan (元坦) the Prince of Xianyang was relieved of all governmental posts.

In spring 545, Erzhu Ying'e's brother Erzhu Wenchang (尔朱文畅) and Zheng Dache's brother Zheng Zhongli (郑仲礼), along with Ren Zhou (任胄), conspired to assassinate Gao Huan and support Erzhu Wenchang as leader, but the conspiracy was discovered, and the conspirators were put to death, along with their families. However, because of Gao Huan's favors for Erzhu Ying'e and Zheng Dache, he spared their brothers.

Lou Zhaojun supported and assisted Gao Huan when he married more women, wanting to expand his power.

In fall 545, due to an alliance between Western Wei and Rouran to attack Eastern Wei, Gao Huan sued for peace with Rouran by requesting a marriage between a daughter of Yujiulü Anagui and Gao Cheng. Yujiulü Anagui refused, stating that it would only be sufficient if Gao Huan himself married her. Gao Huan himself initially refused, but Princess Lou, Gao Cheng, and Wei Jing all persuaded him otherwise, and he married Yujiulü Anagui's daughter, referring to her as the Princess Ruru (蠕蠕公主). To facilitate this marriage, Princess Lou moved out of the mansion, but Gao Huan and Princess Lou were not formally divorced.

In fall 546, Gao Huan launched another major attack on Western Wei, apparently to make one final attempt to destroy it. He put Yubi under siege, intending to attract Western Wei forces to Yubi in order to destroy it, but Western Wei did not respond. Yuwen' Chinese general in charge of defending Yubi, Wei Xiaokuan, however, defended against all kinds of siege tactics that Gao Huan tried, for 50 days, and Eastern Wei forces suffered 70,000 deaths from the battle and the illnesses. Gao Huan himself was physically and emotionally drained, and he became ill, and he was forced to withdraw. Western Wei subsequently declared that Wei had killed Gao Huan with a powerful crossbow, and Gao Huan, in order to dispel the rumor, appeared before his army to sing Chile song with Hulü Jin in front of his generals. As he did, he wept bitterly.

Gao's illness continued to progress once he returned to Jinyang, and he recalled Gao Cheng to Jinyang to give him final instructions. Gao Cheng became increasingly concerned that the powerful Chinese general Hou Jing, who was then defending Luoyang and in charge of the provinces south of the Yellow River, would rebel, particularly after Hou refused a recall order. Gao Huan left Gao Cheng instructions not to announce his death, gave a list of ethnic Xianbei, Xiongnu and Chile generals that he could depend on such as Kudi Gan (厍狄干) and Hulü Jin (斛律金), and orders to put Murong Shaozong (慕容绍宗) -- a capable general that Gao Huan had intentionally not promoted in order to allow Gao Cheng to do so—in charge of an army against Hou. He died in spring 547, and while a false casket was buried publicly, he was buried at a secret location in Cheng'an (成安, in modern Handan, Hebei).

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Wuming, of the Lou clan (武明皇后 娄氏; 501–562), personal name Zhaojun (昭君)

　• Gao Cheng, Emperor Wenxiang (文襄皇帝 高澄; 521–549), first son

　• First daughter

　　• Married Yuan Xiu of Henan (河南; 510–535) in 532

　　• Married Yuan Shao of Henan, Duke Pengcheng (河南 元韶; d. 559) in 535

　• Princess Taiyuan (太原公主), second daughter

　　• Married Yuan Shanjian of Henan, Prince Zhongshan (河南; 524–552) in 539

　　• Married Yang Yin (511–560) in 551

　• Gao Yang, Emperor Wenxuan (文宣皇帝 高洋; 526–559), second son

　• Gao Yan, Emperor Xiaozhao (孝昭皇帝 高演; 535–561), sixth son

　• Gao Yu, Prince Xiangchengjing (襄城景王 高淯; 536–551), eighth son

　• Gao Zhan, Emperor Wucheng (武成皇帝 高湛; 538–569), ninth son

　• Gao Ji, Prince Boling Wenjian (博陵文简王 高济; d. 569), 12th son

• Princess Ruru, of the Yujiulü clan (蠕蠕公主 郁久闾氏; 530–548)

• Lady, of the Erzhu clan (尔朱氏; d. 556), personal name Ying'e (英娥)

　• Gao You, Prince Pengcheng Jingsi (彭城景思王 高浟; 533–564), fifth son

　• Gao Ning, Prince Huashan (华山王 高凝), 13th son

• Lady, of the Han clan (韩氏; 504–551), personal name Zhihui (智辉)

　• Gao Huan, Prince Shangdang Gangsu (上党刚肃王 高涣; 533–558), seventh son

• Lady, of the Erzhu clan (尔朱氏)

　• Gao Jie, Prince Rencheng (任城王 高湝; 538–577), tenth son

• Lady, of the You clan (游氏)

　• Gao Shi, Prince Gaoyang Kangmu (高阳康穆王 高湜; 538–560), 11th son

• Lady, of the Zheng clan of Xingyang (荥阳郑氏), personal name Dache (大车)

　• Gao Run, Prince Fengyi (冯翊王 高润; 543–575), 14th son

• Lady, of the Wang clan (王氏)

　• Gao Jun, Prince Yong'an Jianping (永安简平王 高浚; d. 558), third son

• Lady, of the Mu clan (穆氏)

　• Gao Yan, Prince Pingyang Jingyi (平阳靖翼王 高淹; 531–564), fourth son

• Lady, of the Feng clan (冯氏)

　• Gao Qia, Prince Hanyang Jinghuai (汉阳敬怀王 高洽; 542–554), 15th son

　• Princess Fuyang (浮阳公主)

• Unknown

　• Princess Changle Zhaoshun (长乐昭顺公主; 525–557), personal name Zheng (徵), third daughter

　　• Married Liu Honghui, Prince Pingliang (刘洪徽) in 533

　• Princess Yingchuan (颍川公主)

　　• Married Duan Yi of Wuwei, Prince Pingyuan (武威 段懿)

　• Princess Dongping (东平公主)

　　• Married Kezhuhun Tianhe, Duke Boling (可朱浑 天和; d. 560)

　• A daughter who married Sima Xiaonan of Henei (河内 司马消难)

Ancestry

生平

早年

高欢六世祖高隐，西晋玄菟太守。高隐之子高庆，高庆之子高泰，高泰之子高湖，三世仕慕容氏。高湖的儿子高谧被流放怀朔镇，后世居于此，因为「累世北边，故习其俗，遵同鲜卑」，令家族后来鲜卑化。

《北齐书·神武上》记载他「目有精光，长头高颧，齿白如玉，少有人杰表。深沉有大度，轻财重士，广结士人，为豪侠所宗。」高欢的母亲韩期姬是高树生的正室，在他出生后不久即去世，高树生将他交给高欢姐姐高娄斤和姐夫尉景抚养长大。在六镇起义爆发后，先后投靠杜洛周、葛荣，后来投奔尔朱荣。他向尔朱荣提出讨伐胡太后亲信郑俨、徐纥而清君侧，受尔朱荣赏识。在河阴之变后，尔朱荣掌握朝政，高欢被封为晋州刺史。

创业

后来北魏孝庄帝杀死尔朱荣，尔朱家族起兵讨伐孝庄帝，孝庄帝战败被杀。尔朱家族立长广王元晔为帝。高欢却没有参与这次行动。后来他设法说服尔朱兆派他统帅镇压六镇之乱得到的降兵，并带领他们前往河北。

尔朱家族残暴不仁，高欢遂产生讨伐尔朱家族的想法。在此期间，尔朱兆听从慕容绍宗的建议，企图一举把高欢解决。但高欢深藏不露，使得尔朱兆与他结为兄弟，不设防备。尔朱度律废元晔，立节闵帝，封高欢为「渤海王」，并征其入朝。高欢清楚其中有诈，拒不接受。不久之后，高欢在信都起兵，拥立自己辖区的宗室勃海太守元朗为帝以便号令天下，正式讨伐尔朱氏。经过一年的战斗，尤其是经过韩陵之战，高欢击败了尔朱兆、尔朱世隆、尔朱彦伯、尔朱天光、尔朱度律、尔朱仲远等人，掌握了政权。慕容绍宗归降，被高欢重用。

高欢以元朗世系疏远不是皇帝之选，有心另立皇帝。他最初有意奉戴节闵帝，派仆射魏兰根观察节闵帝为人。但节闵帝神采高明，魏兰根怕日后难制，于是与高乾兄弟及黄门侍郎崔㥄以节闵帝系尔朱氏所立，一旦奉戴则当初起兵无名为由，说服高欢废帝。高欢又因汝南王元悦是北魏孝文帝子，认为他可以继位，于是告知元悦自己有意拥立，但元悦性行轻狂，举止多有过失，高欢于是也放弃了拥立他的打算，废节闵帝和元朗，立孝文帝之孙元修为北魏孝武帝，而将节闵帝囚禁于佛寺。高欢被授大丞相、天柱大将军、太师、世袭定州刺史，增封并前十五万户，辞天柱大将军，减户五万。高欢独揽大权，使孝武帝非常不满。孝武帝联合贺拔岳试图牵制高欢的势力。高欢亲信司空高乾密奏高欢孝武帝有二心，结果被孝武帝杀掉。高欢哭著说：「天子枉害司空！」两人关系迅速恶化（亦有说高乾代表的汉人豪族势力本非高欢嫡系，其死亦有被高欢故意出卖借刀杀人的成分）。高欢命令侯莫陈悦干掉贺拔岳，并派侯景去接收贺拔岳的部队。不料，贺拔岳的部下奉戴宇文泰为主，侯景无功而返。宇文泰用为贺拔岳报仇的名义起兵，并发檄文讨伐高欢。

孝武帝终于在534年逃往关中投靠宇文泰，而高欢另立元善见为孝静帝，迁都邺（今河北临漳西南），史称东魏，由高欢任相。当年12月，宇文泰杀孝武帝，立元宝炬为帝，定都长安，史称西魏。东西魏对峙的局面形成。

与西魏之战

天平四年（537年）春，高欢、高昂、窦泰分三路进攻西魏。先锋窦泰疾攻潼关，宇文泰故意示弱，率精锐出潼关左面的小关，以强势兵力攻其不备，东魏军溃败，大将窦泰自杀。高欢被迫撤军。

十月，高欢率兵二十万至蒲津（今山西永济县一带）攻打西魏，志在为窦泰复仇，高欢命令高昂领兵三万出河南。时关中大饥，宇文泰所将不满万人。东魏右长史薛琡提议坚守粮道，不可渡河野战；侯景也劝高欢分成二军，相继而进，但高欢不接受建议。后高欢渡河至冯翊城下，西魏华州刺史王罴有备，不可撄其锋，乃涉洛水，军于许原西。宇文泰至渭南，徵诸州兵马，诸将认为众寡不敌，请求缓进，不许。宇文泰令造浮桥于渭河，军队备有三日粮食，以轻骑渡渭河，至沙苑（今陕西大荔南，洛、渭之间）距东魏军仅六十里。宇文泰采用李弼的计谋，列阵于渭曲，又命将士将武器藏在芦苇中，候闻鼓声而起。不久，高欢遣东魏兵至，见西魏兵少人乏，于是兵马轻敌冒进，一时行伍乱次。宇文泰遂鸣鼓击之，于谨等六军与之合战，李弼率铁骑横击，东魏兵溃散败北，丧兵七万。这时李穆献计：「高欢胆破矣，逐之可获。」宇文泰不听，还军渭南，这时所徵诸州之兵刚到前线，宇文泰命令士兵每人种树一株，以旌武功。李弼等十二大将，以功进爵，史称「沙苑之战」。

公元538年，高欢部将侯景夺回洛阳金墉城，宇文泰率军救援，一开始东魏气势如虹，宇文泰战马中箭，把宇文泰甩在地上，结果宇文泰差点被俘虏。但不久后西魏军重整旗鼓，侯景被击败，高昂率军追击宇文泰，战败被斩。此战双方打平，但高欢痛失一员大将。

公元543年，高昂的哥哥高仲密以北豫州投降西魏，高欢率十万大军讨伐，宇文泰率军救援。高欢大将彭乐以数千骑兵冲入西魏北军，取得很大胜利，高欢鸣鼓进击，斩首三万馀级。高欢派彭乐追击宇文泰。宇文泰狼狈不堪，向彭乐哀求：「彭将军你太傻了！今天你杀掉我，明天你还有用吗？何不还营，把我丢下的金银宝物取走呢？」彭乐闻讯便不再追击，回去跟高欢报告：「宇文泰侥幸逃跑，已经心惊胆战！」高欢听说彭乐放走大敌，气得要命，却无可奈何。

隔日，双方重整旗鼓再战。这一次西魏占了上风，东魏战败，高欢被迫撤退。宇文泰命令贺拔胜率三千兵马追击高欢，贺拔胜的兵器几乎都击到了高欢，贺拔胜边追边喊：「贺六浑，我贺拔破胡（贺拔胜的表字）今天一定宰了你！」所幸高欢部下射死贺拔胜坐骑，这才顺利脱险。高欢回军后，下令把贺拔胜留在东魏的几个儿子统统杀掉，贺拔胜郁郁而终。

武定四年（546年），高欢率十万大军在玉璧（山西稷山）与宇文泰交战，西魏守将韦孝宽积极防守，高欢无懈可击。东魏苦攻玉壁五十多天，战死病死七万多人，高欢因忧愤生病，被迫撤退。西魏造谣高欢中箭病危，高欢回师途中带病召集群臣，请斛律金高歌〈敕勒歌〉一首：「敕勒川，阴山下，天似穹庐，笼盖四野。天苍苍，野茫茫，风吹草低见牛羊。」曲中高欢亲自和唱，哀恸流泪。

武定五年春正月朔（547年2月6日），发生了日食，高欢说：「日食是为了我吗，死了又有什么遗憾。」正月丙午（547年2月25日），高欢向魏孝静帝启禀陈说，当日，高欢在晋阳去世，虚岁五十二，葬于义平陵（不过据《资治通鉴》记载，义平陵是高欢的衣冠冢，实陵潜葬于鼓山石窟）。

高欢之子高洋篡魏登基后，追尊高欢为太祖献武皇帝，后主时，又改为高祖神武皇帝。

评价

高欢善于玩弄权术，足智多谋，精通权宜之计。从他替尔朱荣出谋划策，到后来击破掌权的尔朱家族都显示了这一点。另外，高欢临终前嘱咐儿子高澄，指出侯景必然造反，但只要用慕容绍宗为将就可讨平。结果不出高欢所料。高欢用人惟才是用，为北齐立国打下了坚固的基础。

然而，高欢野心太大，未能处理好与孝武帝的关系，致使孝武帝出奔宇文泰，最终造成东西魏对峙之局。而且，高欢控制的东魏实力虽远强于西魏，但他在战术不及宇文泰，导致他终其一生未能统一北方。高欢亦教子无方，他身后的北齐政权暴君和昏君辈出，朝政混乱，最终被宇文氏的北周消灭。

尔朱荣认识高欢时，对高欢能让马乖乖站著让他清洗，十分惊讶，高欢表示强硬手段才是唯一方法，尔朱荣对他记忆十分深刻，开始拔擢他。后来，高欢几个儿子有次面对一团绳索难解，其中次子高洋一刀砍断，高欢十分高兴。此为「快刀斩乱麻」一语由来。

家族

父母

• 高树生

• 韩期姬

兄弟姐妹

• 高娄斤，常山君，嫁东魏骠骑大将军、开府仪同三司、长乐王尉景

• 高琛，东魏骠骑大将军、御史中尉、赵郡贞平王

• 高惠宝，陈留文恭王

• 乐陵公主，嫁北齐太宰、章武景烈王厍狄干

妻妾

正室

• 武明皇后娄昭君

• 蠕蠕公主郁久闾氏 阿那瓌之女

妾室

• 大尔朱氏，原为北魏孝庄帝元子攸皇后

• 小尔朱氏，原为北魏元晔皇后

• 郑大车，冯翊太妃，生冯翊王高润

• 韩智辉，上党太妃

• 游娘，父游京之

• 冯娘，冯子昂妹，初为魏任城王妃，再嫁尔朱世隆，后为高欢所娶，生汉阳敬怀王、浮阳公主

• 李娘，李延实侄女。初为魏城阳王妃。

• 王娘，生永安王浚

• 穆娘，生平阳王淹

• 马氏

• 元氏，元晖女

子女

儿子

• 长子：高澄，北齐文襄帝，母武明皇后

• 次子：高洋，北齐文宣帝，母武明皇后

• 三子：高浚，永安简平王，母王氏

• 四子：高淹，平阳靖翼王，母穆娘

• 五子：高浟，彭城景思王，母大尔朱氏

• 六子：高演，常山王 北齐孝昭帝，母为武明皇后

• 七子：高涣，上党刚肃王，母韩智辉

• 八子：高淯，襄城景烈王，母武明皇后

• 九子：高湛，长广王 北齐武成帝，母武明皇后

• 十子：高湝，任城王，母小尔朱氏

• 十一子：高湜，高阳康穆王，母游氏

• 十二子：高济，博陵文简王，母武明皇后

• 十三子：高凝，华山王，母大尔朱氏

• 十四子：高润，冯翊文昭王，母郑大车

• 十五子：高洽，汉阳敬怀王，母冯娘

女儿

• 长女，高皇后，母为娄昭君，北魏元修皇后，再嫁元韶

• 次女，太原长公主，母为娄昭君，东魏元善见皇后，再嫁杨遵彦（杨愔）

• 三女，苌乐长公主，名徵，字阿难，嫁东魏敷城县开国公，北齐平梁王刘洪徽

• 高氏，封号不详，司马消难之妻

• 颍川公主

• 义宁公主

• 浮阳公主，母冯娘

• 东平公主

• 阳翟公主，生父韩贤

部下

• 窦泰

• 斛律金

• 高乾

• 高昂

• 高岳

• 刘贵

• 孙腾

• 高隆之

• 司马子如

• 贾显智

• 段荣

• 段韶

• 尉景

• 侯景

• 慕容绍宗

• 薛孤延

• 叱列平

• 库狄干

• 万俟洛

• 可朱浑元

• 斛律羌举

• 莫多娄贷文

• 厍狄回洛

• 慕容俨

• 步大汗萨

• 刘丰生

• 娄昭

• 娄睿

• 封隆之

• 李元忠

• 彭乐

• 潘乐

• 张保洛

• 皮景和

• 薛琡