Names

Lao Tzu itself is a Chinese honorific title: 老 (Old *rˤuʔ, "old, venerable") and 子 (Old *tsəʔ, "master"). In traditional accounts, Laozi's actual personal name is usually given as Li Er Old *rəʔ nəʔ, Mod. Lǐ Ěr) and his courtesy name as Boyang Old *Pˤrak-lang, Mod. Bóyáng). A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan Lǐ Dān). Sima Qian in his biography mentions his name as Lǐ Ěr, and his literary name as Lǐ Dān, which became the deferential Lǎo Dān Lǎo Dān). The name Lǎo Dān also appears interchangeably with Lǎo Zi in early Daoist texts such as the Zhuangzi, and may also be the name by which Lao Tzu was addressed by Confucius when they possibly met. According to the Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, "the 'founder' of philosophical Daoism is the quasi-legendary Laodan, more commonly known as Laozi (Old Master)".

The honorific title Lao Tzu has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is still Lao Tzu, which is based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system. In the 19th century, the title was usually romanized as Lao-tse. Other forms include the variants Lao-tze, Lao-tsu and Laozi/Lao Zi.

As a religious figure, he is worshipped under the name "Supreme Old Lord" , Tàishàng Lǎojūn) and as one of the "Three Pure Ones". During the Tang dynasty, he was granted the title "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" Tàishàng Xuānyuán Huángdì).

Historical views

In the mid-twentieth century, a consensus emerged among scholars that the historicity of the person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the Tao Te Ching was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands".

The earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BC Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts. In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BC. His surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the imperial archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi and wrote a book in 15 parts. In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century BC reign of Duke Xian of the Qin Dynasty. The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was part of the Guodian Chu Slips. It was written on bamboo slips, and dates to the late 4th century BC.

According to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi.

He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu. In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier.

The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.

Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang dynasty. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (陇西李氏). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.

The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again. In others, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others say he was the Buddha himself.

A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), embellished the relationship between Laozi and Yinxi. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary interaction between Taoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao.

The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted the Tao Te Ching, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue, thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Tao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life. After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In this legend, Laozi is the perfect Taoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation. Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.

The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Masters, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.

Taoist myths state that Laozi was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. (The Chinese surname Li shares its character with "plum".) Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life. Other myths state that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived nine hundred and ninety years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.

File:Laozi.jpg|According to Chinese legend, Laozi left China for the west on a water buffalo.

File:Laozi meets Yin Xi.PNG|Laozi meets Yinxi

File:Konfuzius-laozi.jpg|Confucius meets Laozi, Shih Kang, Yuan dynasty

File:Lao Tzu - Project Gutenberg eText 15250.jpg|Depiction of Laozi in E. T. C. Werner's Myths and Legends of China

Tao Te Ching

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing), though the identity of its author(s) or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history. It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy – the ruler is the awareness, or self, in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire is the experience of the body, senses and desires.

The Tao Te Ching, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.

Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.

Wu wei (无为), literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".

It is a concept used to explain ziran (自然), or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang "sitting in oblivion" (emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi.

Taoism

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism, intimately connected with the Tao Te Ching and "primordial" (or "original") Taoism. Popular ("religious") Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.

Influence

Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower in traditional accounts, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. Lao Tsu influenced millions of Chinese people by his psychological understanding. He persuaded people by his inaction and non-speaking.

Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak.

Laozi was a proponent of limited government. Left-libertarians in particular have been influenced by Laozi – in his 1937 book Nationalism and Culture, the anarcho-syndicalist writer and activist Rudolf Rocker praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community. In his 1910 article for the Encyclopædia Britannica, Peter Kropotkin also noted that Laozi was among the earliest proponents of essentially anarchist concepts. More recently, anarchists such as John P. Clark and Ursula K. Le Guin have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular. In her rendition of the Tao Te Ching, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."

The right-libertarian economist Murray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the first libertarian, likening Laozi's ideas on government to Friedrich Hayek's theory of spontaneous order. James A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony." Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from the Tao Te Ching' in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader. Philosopher Roderick Long, however, argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers.

File:Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|A Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) fresco depicting Confucius and Laozi, from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong, China

File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|A detail of the same fresco

File:Laozi 002.jpg|A stone sculpture of Laozi, located north of Quanzhou at the foot of Mount Qingyuan

生平

出生

身份之争

历史上对老子的身份确认并不详细，《史记》一书的《老子韩非列传》认为老子疑似有三个可能，分别是：李耳、老莱子及太史儋。

• 一是老聃，担任东周的守藏史藏书室官员，在洛阳管理周室的藏书及档案。史记中有记载老子是楚国苦县厉乡曲仁里人，今属河南省鹿邑县。：「老子者，楚苦县厉乡曲仁里人也。姓李氏，名耳，字聃，周守藏室之史也。」。老子，老姓李氏，名耳，字聃。另外在《史记正义》中记载，「老子，楚国苦县厉乡曲仁里人也。姓李，名耳，字伯阳。一名重耳，外字聃。身长八尺八寸，黄色美眉，长耳大目，广额疏齿，方口厚唇，日月角悬，鼻有双柱。周时人，李母怀胎八十一年而生。」。老姓出于老童，颛顼之后也。而李氏出于皋陶，「理」、「李」古通，该族以官为氏。理官即今之司法官也，掌审判。后人或称其姓李，或谓老为生而白首，或愈说愈玄，实为姓氏不分，而大作文章所致。一说先秦典籍中没有提及「李耳」，此二字或由「老聃」二字转出亦有可能。「耳」与「聃」字义相应。「老」和「李」古音同，「李」姓或由「老」姓转出，如荀卿转为孙卿。老子即老聃或许是可以确认的，如《庄子》文中时常称老聃，见于《天运》篇，《庚桑楚》篇等。

• 二是老莱子，因老聃与老莱子的出生地相同。

• 三是太史儋，司马迁在其《史记》中曾怀疑太史儋就是道家学派的创始人老子：「或曰儋即老子，或曰非也，世莫知其然否。」，太史儋曾出任周朝史官，故称「太史儋」或「周太史儋」。不过许多人不认可这种观点，他们认为周太史儋后于孔子一百馀年，与《礼记》等诸多典籍所记载的孔子入周问礼于老子不合，二则，据《史记》记载，他曾经西入秦会见秦献公。但至于见秦献公的年份，司马迁也没弄很清楚，他在《老子列传》中认为是孔子去世后129年，也即公元前350年。但在《周本纪》中又说是周烈王二年，即公元前374年，相差了24年。而据郭店楚简中已有《老子》的摘抄，说明那时《老子》一书已比较流行。郭店楚简的年份也定在在公元前350年至公元前300年前之间。《老子》如果为周太史儋所著，不可能一成书就流传到楚国去。所以司马迁在写到周太史儋时，用了「或曰儋即老子，或曰非也，世莫知其然否」，来表示以周太史儋为老子，只是当时的一种推测。

故里之辩

老子确切出生地不详，关于老子故里的文字记载更是少之甚少，最早见于司马迁《史记•老子列传》记载老子的出生地是在楚国苦县厉乡曲仁里，今属河南省鹿邑县，《汉书》、《后汉书》及《资治通鉴》也沿用司马迁的记载，楚就是古代楚国，苦县就是今鹿邑县，厉乡（或作「濑乡、赖乡」）就是县城东的太清宫乡，而曲仁里就是今镇政府所在地——太清宫镇。这本是一桩铁案，历代均史不绝书。如古苦县即今鹿邑，公私著述记载者就有如下数家。《史记索隐》：「苦县本属陈国，春秋时楚灭陈，而苦又属楚，故云楚苦县。至高帝十一年，立淮阳国，陈县、苦县皆属焉。今检《地理志》，苦实属淮阳郡。」《史记正义》引《年表》：「淮阳国，景帝三年废。至天汉修史之时，楚节王纯都彭城，相近。疑苦此时属楚国，故太史公书之。」梁玉绳《史记志疑》曰：「《四书释地·又续》曰：『苦县属陈，老子生时，地尚楚未有。陈灭于楚惠王，在春秋获麟后三年，孔子已卒，况老聃乎？史冠楚于苦县上，以老子为楚人者，非也。』余因考葛洪《神仙传》谓苦县人；边韶《老子铭》谓楚相县人，春秋之后，『相县荒虚，今属苦』者，并乃《史记》之误。惟皇甫谧《高士传》云陈人，《经典释文·序录》云陈国苦县人，固未尝误，然《礼·曾子问疏》引《史记》作陈国苦县，岂据别本乎？」 《通典•州郡》：「真源，古之苦县，老子生于此。」《括地志》：「苦县在亳州谷阳县界。有老子宅及庙，庙中有几井尚存，在今亳州真源县也。」《历代地理沿革表》卷二十五：「苦，汉属淮阳国，后汉属陈国。三国仍称苦县。晋成康三年更名为谷阳。唐乾封元年更名真源。建元元年改曰仙源，神龙元年复名真源。宋大中祥符七年夏，更名卫真，全同。元初省卫真，入鹿邑，后迁鹿邑治，此属亳州。」《元和郡县图志》卷七：「真源县，本楚苦县，春秋时属陈，后为楚所并。隋开皇六年，后置谷阳县，理苦城，属亳州。」《历代疆域表•汉•淮阳国》：「苦县，今鹿邑县东10里楚之苦县。」

上引典籍均以老子为苦县人，且记载了苦县更多及隶属沿革的轨迹：东周及以前属陈国鸣鹿（即今鹿邑辛集乡）→春秋楚国苦县→西汉淮阳国苦县→东汉陈国苦县→三国苦县→晋更名谷阳县→北齐撤谷阳入武平县→隋谷阳县→唐叠更名真源县、仙源县、真源县→宋更名卫真县→元撤卫真县入鹿邑县（移今治）→明、清沿袭，也曾多次属亳州（或谯郡）。记载古厉乡（或濑乡、赖乡）的典籍也有如下数家。《后汉书•郡国志•陈国》：「苦……有赖乡。」并引伏滔《北征记》说「有老子庙」，引《古史考》说「有曲仁里，老子里也」。《晋太康地记》：「苦县城东有濑乡祠，老子所生地也。」《朱韬玉札》与《神仙传》：「老子，楚国苦县濑乡曲仁里人。」《元和郡县图志》卷七：「（唐）乾封元年，高帝幸濑乡，以玄元皇帝于此，遂改为真源县。」《舆地志》记载：「老子祠，即老子所生旧宅。」《历代地理沿革表》卷二十五：「苦，春秋时曰相，有濑乡，老子所居也。」《历代疆域表•汉•淮阳国》：「老子苦县厉乡人，春秋时属陈；楚灭陈后，苦又属楚。」

以上均详尽记载了老子为苦县厉乡或濑乡、赖乡人。且考之音韵，「濑、赖、厉」为一韵之转，「厉乡、濑乡、赖乡」实为一地之异名。该地名的历史可远溯商代。那时在今鹿邑县东，有一小小方国——赖（濑、历）。周灭商后，赖归陈。但有人认为，赖国在西周时即不存在。《春秋僖公十五年》云：「楚人伐徐」（徐在今安徽泗县西北约50里处）；「秋七月，齐师、曹师伐厉。」《左传》说：「秋，伐厉，以救徐也。」惠栋《械传补注》以为即《左传桓十三年》之赖，在今湖北省随县之厉山店，晋、宋以来沿袭惠说。王夫之《疏》以此为另一厉，即苦县厉乡。今以地理考之，齐移救徐之师以伐厉，可证成王说。另外，出土铜器《鲁大司徒铭》云：「鲁大嗣（司）徒子仲白乍（作）其庶女历孟姬也。」另据《水经注》「涡水又东径苦县西南，分为二水，枝流东北注，于赖城入谷，谓死谷也」、「涡水又东北屈，至赖乡西，谷水注之」和「涡水又东径赖乡城南」的记载，历或赖的都城北魏时还有明显遗址，否则郦道元不会言之凿凿。据上，春秋「厉」（或「赖」「濑」），即今鹿邑县太清宫，为古厉国都城所在，亦即老子故里。请看，《太康地记》云「苦县城东有濑乡祠，老子所生地」；《舆地志》云「老子祠，即老子所生旧宅」；《历代地理沿革表》云「苦，有濑乡老子所居也」；《史记集解》引《括地志》云「苦县在亳州谷阳县界，有老子宅及庙」；《元和郡县图志》云「乾封元年，高帝幸濑乡，以玄元皇帝于此，遂改为真源县」；唐僧道宣《广弘明集序》说「李叟生于厉乡」；《太平寰宇记》引崔元山《濑乡记》云「濑乡在（苦）县」；《历代疆域表•淮阳国》云「老子苦县厉乡人。春秋时属陈；楚灭陈后，苦又属楚」。上述文献完全可信且于今有证：「赖乡」就是今鹿邑县城东太清宫镇一带地方，旧时出土的《鲁大司徒铭》与最新考古发掘均为有力证据（详下）。

至于「曲仁里」，有鹿邑县城东门内的老君台正门牌坊上的联语可以为证。联语云：「地古永传曲仁里，天高近接太清宫。」曲仁里作为「赖乡」的下级行政单位，即今太清宫镇（笔者幼时以至青年时代即在此镇读书、工作）。太清宫镇在县城东5公里处（与《濑乡记》《历代疆域表》均符合若），旧名又为「犹龙镇」，义取《史记•老子列传》孔子「吾今日见老子，其犹龙邪」。镇内西北角有一方圆数十丈高地，父老相传谓之「隐阳山」；一条小河发源于此，当地至今名之为「濑（濑）乡沟」，该沟贯穿太清宫镇全境。此水名与历代文献恰好符合（其本字应作「赖」）。至于「曲仁里」的含义，或许即边韶《老子铭》所谓「曲涡间即曲仁里也」。这也是目前海内外道教界的共识。

1991年时安徽省涡阳县教师杨光在《阜阳师范学院学报》社科版上投稿《老子生地考辨》一文，得出老子出生地在今安徽省涡阳县闸北镇郑店村的结论，此说法存在争议。

孔子问道

后因为东周王室衰落，周天子实际上名存实亡，多地发生叛乱，诸侯争相称霸称王，礼崩乐坏持续了二百多年。周襄王十七年(前635年)，就发生「子带之乱」，遂为伯而得河内地，大量典籍被掠夺到楚国的国都（郢），老子因而被免职。 随后老子清心潜隐，与孔子来往较多。践土会盟后，孔丘曾经适周问礼从鲁国国都（今山东曲阜）千里迢迢赶到洛邑（今河南洛阳）问向老聃礼乐。

《史记·老子韩非列传》中曾记载孔子向老子请教关于礼的问题。孔子年五十一，适周问礼于老子。后曰：「五十知天命。」。在今洛阳有「孔子入周问礼碑」。《史记·老子韩非列传》：孔子适周，将问礼于老子。老子曰：「子所言者，其人与骨皆已朽矣，独其言在耳。且君子得其时则驾，不得其时则蓬累而行。吾闻之，良贾深藏若虚，君子盛德容貌若愚。去子之骄气与多欲，态色与淫志，是皆无益于子之身。吾所以告子，若是而已。」

著写五千言的传说

相传，当时身为柱下史的老子不忍见周朝衰落，同时也为避祸而西出函谷关之前，被时任守关要职的「关令」（官名）尹喜（「关令尹喜曰」一说为守关的令尹感到高兴）拦住，并邀请作客，向他请教周礼。李聃在当时总结思想著述，并对尹喜道：「老夫授汝《道德经》，分上下两篇，上篇为《道经》，言宇宙根本，含天地变化之机，蕴神鬼应验之秘;下篇为《德经》，言处世之方，含人事进退之术，蕴长生久视之道。研习不止，苦修不懈，终有所成！」，而后留下五千言一书，又称老子，道教称《道德经》，倒骑青牛而去。

在神话故事中，尹喜在土台（今「瞻紫楼」）望气，见东方紫气腾腾，霞光万道，观天象奇景，欣喜若狂，大呼」紫气东来，必有异人通过」。忙令关吏清扫街道，恭候异人，此后函谷关一带的门楣或春联都肯写「紫气东来」四个大字，流传至今，所以古称「紫气东来函谷关，老子著书五千言」。杜甫在《秋兴》诗中写道：「西望瑶池降王母，东来紫气满函关」。

个人思想

老子创有zh-hans:朴; zh-hant:朴;素的辩证法。名句：「祸兮，福之所倚；福兮，祸之所伏。物或损之而益，或益之而损」。这部流传两千多年的《道德经》是跨时代的作品，在不同的时代，这部作品会被解释出不同的含义。据统计，道德经是仅次于基督教《圣经》被翻译语言最多的一部作品。

老子是道家性命双修的始祖，于生命上主张自然，讲究致虚极，守静笃、不与人争的修持。老子在政治上主张的无为而治和小国寡民，老子有一段话常被视为对为政者的箴言：「天之道，损有馀而补不足；人之道则不然，损不足以奉有馀。」；「民之饥，以其上食税之多；民之轻死，以其上求生之厚；民不畏死，奈何以死惧之。」

道家学说

《汉书‧艺文志》谓：「道家者流，盖出于史官，历记成败存亡祸福，古今之道，然后知秉要执本，清虚以自守，卑弱以自持，此君人南面之术也。」西汉史学家司马谈《论六家要旨》谓：「道家使人精神专一，动合无形，赡足万物。其为术也，因阴阳之大顺，采儒墨之善，撮名法之要，与时迁移，应物变化，立俗施事，无所不宜，指约而易操，事少而功多。」「其术以虚无为本，以因循为用。无成埶，无常形，故能究万物之情。不为物先，不为物后，故能为万物主。」。

《庄子》文中有提到老聃，如内篇、徳充符篇及外杂篇。《荀子》天论编中也有接触老子的思想，「老子有见于诎，无见于信」。吕不韦的《吕氏春秋》中也提到「老耽贵柔」。

去世

老子末年于狄道府（今甘肃临洮）逝世。《庄子》文中载有「老聃死，秦失（佚）吊之，三号而出」，是老子老死于秦国的证据。对老子的事迹已不能确定，将李耳、老莱子与太史儋并列，称老子一百六十馀岁或二百馀岁。

隐居广阳山的六年说

据旧《沙河县志》、《顺德府志》和广阳山古碑记载，以及中国老子研究会专家经过多次的实地考察、论证，认定广阳山就是老子昔年讲学、隐居修行的处所，并且邢台沙河市是老子在中国开坛讲经的第一道场。

老子化胡说

一说老子并没有去世，而是到了西域，并对西域人实行教化，这就是所谓的「老子化胡」。老子化胡说源出东汉，汉桓帝延熹九年（166年）襄楷所上奏章中有「或言老子入夷狄为浮屠」的说法。

《三国志·魏书》：「浮屠所载，与中国老子经相出入，盖以老子西出关，过西域，至天竺教胡，及浮屠弟子合二十有九。」西晋天师道祭酒王浮撰写《老子化胡经》，称老子携尹喜西入天竺，化为佛陀，立浮屠教。书成之后，被佛教徒指为伪经，双方争论持续近千年。直至元代旧事重提，朝廷举行辩论，结果，在当时道教失势，包括《老子化胡经》等经书被焚毁禁止流传。今各种《老子化胡经》俱无完帙，《太上灵宝老子化胡妙经》今有敦煌抄本S.2081存世，10卷本《老子化胡经》敦煌抄本中存有其中4卷：卷1、卷2、卷8、卷10。

家族

父

• 李敬，出仕于周定王，担任御史大夫

母

• 益寿氏，楚国人

后代

• 李宗：老子之子。

• 李注：李宗之子，老子之孙。

• 李宫：李注之子。

• 李假：李宫玄孙，仕于汉孝文帝。

• 李解：李假之子，为胶西王卬太傅，因家于齐焉。

作品

五千言

《德道经》，又被人们广泛称为《道德真经》、《老子》。书名是后来的称谓，最初这本书称为《老子》而无《道德经》之名，或可能始于韩非子「解老」、「喻老」两篇更前之先。全书形成于东周末期至春秋战国时期，分上下两篇，原文顺序上篇为《德经》，下篇为《道经》，篇文不分章，相传是老子留下约五千言的著作。近几年考古工作后，与原通传于世的西汉河上公本作比对，人们发现一些重要内容有明显差别，因而有一种观点认为西汉初年这本书还没有统一得到定本，帝王和儒家为巩固自身华夏正统地位，而故意密谋篡改此书。

《道德经》虚用第五：「天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。」《说文》：「刍，刈草也。象包束草之形。」段注：「谓可飤牛马者。」刍为把草包成束，用以喂牛马。此段为《道德经》争议最大之处，多是从儒家的眼光窥之；实则，不仁，意指不偏私。刍狗，比喻皆是一视同仁地喂养。在老子眼中，人类并无高于动物，狗，与人一般，是有形之一。这在庄子的齐物论，已经阐述得非常清楚。从老子本书的意涵，亦可以看出，老子所说的天地不仁、圣人不言，实则是大自然运行的法则，而圣人效法而已。

《道德经》论述了修身、治国、用兵、养生之道，阐述自然无为的思想，其中包含了不少对立转化的朴素辩证观点。在形式上，此书是语录体韵文，语言精练，多排比对偶之句。修辞凝练，音节铿锵，理虽玄远，文实多姿。其修辞比况，多以政治为旨归，被后世文士取法，是中国古代先秦诸子分家前的一部作品，又是早期中国哲学史上非常罕见的一部关于宇宙本体论的思辩书卷，被尊为「内圣外王」的必学之书，以及「万经之王」。

十九世纪初，欧洲就开始了对《道德经》的研究，到二十世纪的四五十年代，欧洲共有60多种《道德经》译文。20世纪80年代，据联合国教科文组织统计，这本书的外文译本已有近1000多种，涉及30多种语言，是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

流传版本

《道德经》有三种版本比较主要：

• 第一种现行所见的最早文本是1993年10月在湖北荆门郭店楚墓出土的那804枚战国竹简。

• 第二种版本是1973年12月在湖南长沙马王堆出土的西汉帛书甲、乙本，其中有字简730枚，共计13000多个汉字，为了避讳等诸多原因，帛书的内容有所改动，全册的字体分隶书、篆体两种不同的书法，其中前两种是道家学派的著作，其馀多为儒家学派的著作。

• 第三种是通传的汉代河上公本《老子章句》和曹魏王弼本，全书共有81章，前三十七章为《道经》，后四十二章为《德经》。

据统计，清代之前，《道德经》版本有103种之多，都是从汉以来经每个朝代的文人墨客撰写流传而来。古书在上千年的传抄、刻印过程中难免出现错误，因此，在不断地出现校订本，迄今为止，校订本共三千多种。目前，学术界较为重视的版本，是王弼的版本，和长沙马王堆出土的两个抄本，称为帛书甲本、乙本。帛书道德经，早王弼本400馀年，近些年许多学者推崇帛书，但甲本缺字1400，乙本缺字600。

千百年来，为《道德经》作注疏者不计其数。元代正一天师张与材曾说：「《道德经》八十一章，注本三千馀家。」据学者调查，流传至今的《道德经》注本约有一千馀种。

作者争议

史学界对于《五千言》的作者究竟是谁，究竟哪一位是撰写《道德经》一书的「老子」，至今未有定论。

劳思光在《中国文化要义》一书曾指出，老子在世年份应后于孔子、向孔子授礼的老子应不是《五千言》的作者、老子受关令尹喜之邀著书然后出关的故事应为杜撰。易中天在其讲座中也曾表示，认为孔子向其问礼的那个「老聃」，应该不是撰写《五千言》的作者。民国初年学者冯友兰则认为《道德经》是在战国后期著作；学者胡适则认为这是春秋时期的作品。

宗教的人格神化

道教创立与神话

道教可以上溯到原始社会中国人祭天的活动，后来逐渐产生了方仙道、黄老道等思想，于是，老子就被人们尊为道祖。所以，道教门徒认为：老子是太清神之下。又称老子为「太上混元老君、梵形神宝玄真降生道德天尊」，通称「太上老君」，简称「老君」。又称「道德天尊」、「混元老君」等。尤其是在商以前，认为老君即分身下降，随世立教，事竟则隐，故在世未有诞生之迹。至商十八世王阳甲践祚之十七年，公神化气，老君自太清境分神化，寄胎于玄妙王之女理氏（又称玄妙玉女）腹中，于武丁九年二月十八日降生，所以每年的农历二月十五，为道教重大节日，乃道祖太上老君「圣诞」。道德天尊，乃道教天神，传说中的道教教主。这是最早关于老君诞生之迹的纪传。周昭王二十三年老君西过函谷关，度关令尹喜，授以道德五千言，此后被道教奉为开山祖师。从《列仙传》开始，把老子列为神仙，还说老子重视房中术。

东汉明帝、章帝之际（公元 58～88 年），益州太守成都人王阜撰《老子圣母碑》，将老子神化为先天地之神物，把老子和道合而为一，视老子为化生天地的神灵。成为了道教创世说的雏形4。而汉桓帝更是亲自祭祀老子，把老子作为仙道之祖。为谋塑造的便利，工匠们在那时候就开始把老子肖像由「拂尘」转变成手执「蒲扇」，并传说老子居住大罗天上太清仙境，其道教尊称名称为「道德天尊」，俗曰「太上老君」，也是道教最高尊神三清道祖之一。至魏晋南北朝，太上老君之名益显。

汉顺帝时（公元 126～144 年）张陵在巴蜀鹤鸣山创立五斗米道，即奉老子为教主。据传张陵（另一说认为该书作者是张陵之孙张鲁）在传教布道时作的《老子想尔注》称：「一者道也。……一在天地外，入在天地间，但往来人身中耳……一散形为气，聚形为太上老君，常治昆仑，或言虚无，或言自然，或言无名，皆同一耳。」首次在道书中出现了太上老君的名号。

东晋葛洪的《神仙传》汇集群书所见之老子传记，或称老子先天地生，或称其母怀孕七十二年生，生而白发，故称老子。亦有称其母于李树下生，生而能言，指树而姓「李」，把先天神降格为后天神。然而据东汉延熹八年陈相边韶的《老子铭》，老子「离合于混沌之气，与三光为终始」，「道成化身，蝉蜕度世」。

北周武帝建德三年五月「初断佛、道两教，经像悉毁，罢沙门、道士，并令还民」。据道书称，当时太上老君曾遣使显灵。时过一月，武帝即又下诏曰：「至道弘深，混成无际，体包空有，理极幽玄……今可立通道观于都城……并宜弘阐，一以贯之。」

以后「三清」神名逐渐流变发展，至唐代才成为定说。唐武宗时，道教依据先前的神话，将老子定为是三清尊神之一太上老君的第十八个化身。为「三清」之第三位，三清为「玉清」元始天尊、「上清」灵宝天尊、「太清」道德天尊。

《道藏·太平部·三洞珠囊》卷七引《老君圣迹》云：「此即玉清境，元始天尊位，在三十五天之上也。此即上清境，太上大道君（灵宝天尊）位，在三十四天之上也。太清境太极目，即太上老君〔道德天尊〕位，在三十三之上也。」于是「三清」遂成为道教的最高神。唐代皇室，以老子李耳为同姓，崇奉太上老君，累加尊号。唐高宗尊太上老君为「太上玄元皇帝」，唐玄宗三上尊号，称「大圣祖高上大道金阙玄元天皇大帝」，立道教为国教。太上老君不仅被奉为李唐王朝的始祖，帮助唐高祖李渊平定天下，据称当武则天篡夺李唐王朝后，又显灵降世，谓「武后不可革命」，「不得辄立异姓……武后亦终惧此言，不敢立武三思」。

到宋真宗于大中祥符六年（1013 年）加号「太上老君混元上德皇帝」，是历代帝王对太上老君的最后一次加封。明成祖朱棣崇尚老子为其化身真武大帝大修武当，有北修故宫，南修武当之称。

非遗文化的申报

安徽涡阳的老子传说（Lao Zi legend）在涡阳代代相传，大多采用地方口语，语言通俗优美，有著较高的文学研究价值，分为两个部分：第一部分刻画了老子从童年到暮年的成长过程；第二部分是有关老子和天静宫的传说。涡阳县天静宫景区是与港澳台同胞共同修建完成的。

老子这样一个人物历经几千年的神化和传说，已经是家喻户晓，耳熟能详。2014年11月11日，经中华人民共和国批准将河南「老子传说」列入第四批国家级非物质文化遗产代表性项目名录和国家级非物质文化遗产代表性项目名录扩展项目名录，并由安徽省涡阳县和河南省灵宝市申办的《老子传说》上榜。鹿邑的太清宫是老子的出生地，明道宫是老子的讲道升仙地，已入批为国家级AAAA级旅游景区。

后世悼怀

名家评价

• 孔子曰：「鸟，吾知其能飞；鱼，吾知其能游；兽，吾知其能走。走者可以为网，游者可以为纶，飞者可以为矰，至于龙，吾不能知，其乘风云而上天。吾今日见老子，其犹龙邪！」

• 战国道家学派的代表人物庄子：「关尹、老聃乎，古之博大真人哉！」

• 北宋文学家苏辙在《双溪集·遗言》说：「言至道无如五千文。」

• 南宋闽学派、程朱理学的创始人朱熹说：「盖老聃，周之史官，掌国之典籍，三皇五帝之书，故能述古事而倍好之。如五千言，亦或古有是语而老子传之，未可知也。」

• 清世祖爱新觉罗福临评价称：「老子道贯天人，德超品汇，著书五千馀言，明清静无为之旨。然其切于身心，明于伦物，世固鲜能知之也。」

• 德国著名语言学家弗里德里希·尼采这样评论老子其人：「老子思想的集大成——像一个永不枯竭的井泉，满载宝藏，放下汲桶，唾手可得。」

唐代尊号

唐高宗在乾封元年（666年），追尊为太上玄元皇帝。唐玄宗在天宝二年（743年），追尊庙号圣祖，谥号玄元皇帝；在天宝八载（749年），追尊为圣祖大道玄元皇帝；在天宝十三载（754年），上尊号为大圣祖高上大道金阙玄元天皇大帝。

纪念建筑

老君台

传说中老子的诞生地，楚国苦县（河南鹿邑县的东北隅）的县城东门内北侧有一座升仙台，民间称之为拜仙台、老君台，本来是明道宫之一，乃是唐玄宗天宝二年所建，台高13米 ，是由14个平面围成的高坛形古建筑，状若圆柱有棱角，顶部面积765平方米，底面积略大，全台以古式大砖堆砌，由24个平面围成圆柱形，台上环筑七十厘米高的围墙，形与城墙相似。台上有正殿三间，东西配殿各一间。正殿内原有老子铜像一尊，高两米许，铸工精巧。殿门檐下东西各嵌一碑，上书「道德真源」、「犹龙遗迹」。山门内东侧原有铁柱一根，高七尺，径七寸，山门下青石台阶三十二级，加上正殿前一层，恰为三十三层，正合老子升三十三层天之说。进入山门，是正殿，面阔3间，硬山式建筑，东西偏殿各一间。台上13棵桧柏青翠葱郁，常年凉风习习，百鸟飞鸣。山门向南约里许的中边轴线上，依次有望仙桥、明道宫、文昌宫、八角亭、游龙堤坊、万教之祖牌坊等。牌坊附近有「老子故里」、「孔子问礼处」两块碑碣。牌坊上联为「地古永传曲仁里」，下联是「天高近接太清宫」，横幅为「万教之祖」。唐高祖李渊、高宗李治、玄宗李隆基、宋真宋赵桓，以及大文学家苏东坡、欧阳修等曾来此或祭祀朝祖，或观瞻游览，留下了不朽华章。现仅存一座高达数丈的台观，上有一座正殿两间配殿，正殿内供奉有老子铜像。鼎盛时期，台前有房宇百数，曾设有「鸣鹿书院」，现为老君台中学所在地。

传说老子修道成仙，且于此处飞升，故得今之地名。宋真宗大中祥符七年（公元1014年）追封老子为「太上老君混元上德皇帝」，故又名老君台。

太清宫

太清宫镇旧名厉乡曲仁里，太清宫就位于河南省周口市鹿邑县城东约5-10公里的太清宫镇东北隅上，民间俗称「前宫」。传说这里是老子的，也是祭祀老子的祠庙。据《后汉书》记载，太清宫最早建于东汉延熹八年（西元165年），最开始的名字叫「老子庙」，是由汉桓帝刘志派两次派中常侍管霸到鹿邑创建这座老子祠建筑，并在这个建筑内立一座老子祠碑作为纪念。

唐太宗贞观元年修老子庙；乾封中，高宗亲诣道宫，追加老子「玄元皇帝」尊号，并修建「紫微宫」。开元三年玄宗亲书《道德经》刻石立于宫内；天宝二年，将「紫微宫」换作「太清宫」。

1997年河南省文物考古工作队在太清宫镇出土了很多周、唐、宋元时期的文物、碑刻，发现了宋代殿堂遗址，整个建筑面积2.4万平方米，其中一座面积达3000平方米，是故宫太和殿的两倍。20世纪80年代，河南人民政府拨款修复，建成太极殿、三圣母殿、娃娃殿、围墙、山门等，并重雕玉石老君像，置于太极殿中。

洞霄宫

今河南省周口市鹿邑县镇北与前宫呈南北方向的「洞霄宫」，民间俗称「后宫」。历代所建老子宫殿庙宇多集中于此。自西汉始，老子地位不断提高，帝王奉祀不绝，至唐达到顶峰。

东汉时，老子被道教奉为教祖，汉桓帝延熹间遣中常侍左官赴该地祀老子。隋开皇年间，文帝命亳州刺史杨元胄，营建宫宇。天宝二年，在太清宫后方设有「洞霄宫」，两宫相距一里，中有河流，上有会仙桥；总占地872亩，各种建筑600馀间，殿阁棋布，雄伟壮观。前宫以太极殿为中心，东有老子牧牛场遗址，西有隐阳山遗址，中有九步井；内供老子像，殿侧立有高约1.5米，直径约25公分的铁柱，为老子任柱下史的象徵。唐太和七年，文宗敕宣武军节度使李程兼太清宫使予以修葺。当时「唐高祖、太宗、高宗、中宗、睿宗、明皇六圣御容，列侍于老君左右。两宫二观，古桧千馀树，屋宇七百馀间，有兵士五百人镇卫宫所」杜光庭：《道教为验记》。宋建隆元年，皇帝遣使致祭；祥符五年，上老子尊号曰「太上混元上德皇帝」，宫名改为「明道宫」。继唐玄宗以二月十五日为老子诞辰，宋徽宗重和元年以混元皇帝二月十五日生辰为贞元节，至今为道教重大节日。金大定二十四、二十六年，先后建三清、玉帝等大小殿宇数十，后因兵乱兼涡水改道，均荡然无存。元朝经10馀年重修，曾颇具旧观。明、清虽一再重修，终难再现昔日辉煌。

老君岩

在齐云山上（今中国福建省泉州市丰泽区清源山西峰罗山山麓上）有一块形似人像的巨大天然花岗岩雕琢而成的春秋时期思想家老子的坐像，名叫老君岩。雕像高5.1米，宽7.3米，厚7.2米，细部雕刻非常生动，面部和前额饱满，双目深邃平视前方，胡须呈飘动状，右臂倚琴桌、左手平放膝上，周身衣服的褶皱也被表现出来，这座造像的雕刻年代最迟不晚于宋。老君造像附近原有真君殿、北斗殿等道教建筑群，现已不存。

老君岩始建于宋元时期，是中国现存最大的宋代道教石像，也是清源山的标志性景点，雕工精湛，极富历史和艺术价值。1988年列为中国第三批全国重点文物保护单位。2001年公布第五批全国重点文物保护单位时，将另外6处8尊石造像与老君岩造像合并保护，称为「清源山石造像」。