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项羽[View] [Edit] [History]ctext:603665
Relation | Target | Textual basis |
---|---|---|
type | person | |
name | 西楚霸王 | |
name | 楚霸王 | |
name | 项羽 | default |
name | 项籍 | |
ruled | dynasty:楚 | |
from-date 项羽元年二月乙酉 -206/3/12 | ||
to-date 项羽五年十二月壬戌 -202/1/27 | ||
authority-wikidata | Q182266 | |
link-wikipedia_zh | 项羽 | |
link-wikipedia_en | Xiang_Yu |
Read more...: Names and titles Family background Early life Revolution against the Qin dynasty Battle of Julu Feast at Hong Gate Division of the empire Chu–Han Contention Battle of Pengcheng Battle of Xingyang Treaty of Hong Canal Battle of Guling Defeat and downfall Death Depiction of character Song of Gaixia Evaluation Cultural references Poetry, folk tales, novels Operas Television Film Video games
Names and titles
Xiang Yu's family name was Xiang (项 Xiàng) while his given name was Ji (籍 Jí|w=Chi|j=Zik6|labels=no) and his courtesy name was Yu (羽 Yǔ|w=Yü|j=Jyu5|labels=no). He is best known as Xiang Yu.
Xiang Yu is popularly known as "Xi Chu Ba Wang" (西楚霸王 Xī Chǔ Bà Wáng|w=Hsi Ch'u Pa Wang|j=Sai1 Co2 Baa3 Wong4|labels=no), which has been translated as "Overlord of Western Chu", "Hegemon-King of Western Chu", "Conqueror of Western Chu", "King of Kings of Western Chu", and other renditions. This title is sometimes simplified to "Ba Wang" (霸王 Bà Wáng|w=Pa Wang|j=Baa3 Wong4|labels=no), without the link to "Western Chu". Since Xiang Yu's death, the term Ba Wang has come to be used specifically to refer to him. Xiang Yu's subjects would sometimes have addressed him as "Xiang Wang" (项王 Xiàng Wáng), which literally means "King Xiang".
Family background
There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the house of Mi (芈), the royal family of the Chu state in the Zhou dynasty. His ancestors were granted the land of Xiang (项) by the king of Chu and had since adopted "Xiang" as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had served in the Chu military for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather was a well known general who led the Chu army in resisting the Qin invaders led by Wang Jian, and was killed in action when Qin conquered Chu in 223 BC.
Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC in the late Warring States period when the Qin state started unifying the other six major states. According to the descendants of the Xiang family in Suqian, Xiang Yu's father was Xiang Chao (项超), Xiang Yan's eldest son. Xiang Yu was raised by his elder uncle Xiang Liang because his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state unified China and established the Qin dynasty.
Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one of his eyes just like the mythical Emperor Shun and Duke Wen of Jin. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi (approximately 1.85 metres, about 6' 1") and possessed unusual physical strength as he could lift a ding (an ancient Chinese vessel resembling a giant cauldron on tripods).
Early life
In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang Liang was not very satisfied with him. Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat thousands of enemies." Hence, his uncle tried to educate him in military strategy and the art of war instead, but Xiang Yu stopped learning after he had grasped the main ideas; Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, so he gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.
When Xiang Yu grew older, Xiang Liang killed someone so they fled to Wu to evade the authorities. At the time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area and Xiang Yu and his uncle watched the emperor's procession pass by. Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him." Xiang Liang was shocked and immediately covered his nephew's mouth with his hand. Afterwards, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.
Revolution against the Qin dynasty
In 209 BC, during the reign of Qin Er Shi, peasant rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty, plunging China into a state of anarchy. , the Administrator of Kuaiji, wanted to start a rebellion as well, so he invited Xiang Liang to meet him and discuss their plans. However, the Xiangs lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him instead, with Xiang Yu personally striking down hundreds of Yin's men. Xiang Liang initiated the rebellion himself and rallied about 8,000 men to support him. Xiang Liang proclaimed himself Administrator of Kuaiji while appointing Xiang Yu as a general. Xiang Liang's revolution force grew in size until it was between 60,000 and 70,000. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin as King Huai II of Chu to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin Dynasty and restore the former Chu state. Xiang Yu distinguished himself as a competent marshal and mighty warrior on the battlefield while participating in the battles against Qin forces.
Later that year, Xiang Liang was killed at the Battle of Dingtao against the Qin army led by Zhang Han and the military power of Chu fell into the hands of the king and some other generals. In the winter of 208 BC, another rebel force claiming to restore the Zhao state, led by Zhao Xie, was besieged in Handan by Zhang Han. Zhao Xie requested for reinforcements from Chu. King Huai II granted Xiang Yu the title of "Duke of Lu" (鲁公), and appointed him as a second-in-command to Song Yi, who was ordered to lead an army to reinforce Zhao Xie. At the same time, the king placed Liu Bang in command of another army to attack Guanzhong, the heartland (capital territory) of Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to enter Guanzhong first will be granted the title "King of Guanzhong".
Battle of Julu
The Chu army led by Song Yi and Xiang Yu reached Anyang, some distance away from Julu (巨鹿; in present-day Xingtai, Hebei), where Zhao Xie's forces had retreated to. Song Yi ordered the troops to lay camp there for 46 days and he refused to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to proceed further. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting and killed him on a charge of treason. Song Yi's other subordinates were afraid of Xiang Yu so they let him become the acting commander-in-chief. Xiang Yu sent a messenger to inform King Huai II and the king approved Xiang's command.
In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army advanced towards Julu and he sent Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead the 20,000 strong vanguard army to cross the river and attack the Qin forces led by Zhang Han, while he followed behind with the remaining majority of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations, in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days or die trapped before the walls of the city with no supplies or any hope of escape. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Chu forces scored a great victory after nine engagements, defeating the 300,000 strong Qin army. After the battle, other rebel forces, including those not from Chu, came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration for his martial valour. When Xiang Yu received them at the gate, the rebel chiefs were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not even dare to look up at him.
Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin to Xianyang to request for reinforcements and supplies from the Qin imperial court. However, the eunuch Zhao Gao deceived the emperor and the emperor dismissed Zhang Han's request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin when the latter was returning to Zhang Han's camp, but Sima managed to escape alive. In dire straits, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops eventually surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu perceived the surrendered Qin troops as disloyal and a liability, and had them executed by burying them alive at Xin'an (新安; in present-day Yima, Henan). Zhang Han, along with Sima Xin and Dong Yi, were spared from death. Xiang Yu appointed Zhang Han as "King of Yong", while Sima Xin and Dong Yi were respectively conferred the titles of "King of Sai" and "King of Di".
Feast at Hong Gate
After his victory at the Battle of Julu, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion on Guanzhong, the heartland of the Qin dynasty. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin ruler Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang (Qin's capital), bringing an end to the Qin Dynasty. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong was already under Liu's control. Cao Wushang (曹无伤), a subordinate of Liu Bang, sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At that time, he had about 400,000 troops under his command while Liu Bang only had a quarter of that number.
As strongly encouraged by his advisor Fan Zeng, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a feast at Hong Gate and plotted to kill Liu during the banquet. However, Xiang Yu later listened to his uncle Xiang Bo and decided to spare Liu Bang. Liu Bang escaped during the banquet under the pretext of going to the latrine.
Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang in 206 BC. He ordered the execution of Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.
Despite advice from his subjects to remain in Guanzhong and continue with his conquests, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his homeland in Chu. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamourous outfits. Who would notice that?" One of his followers said, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing." Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.
Division of the empire
After the downfall of the Qin dynasty, Xiang Yu offered King Huai II the more honourable title of "Emperor Yi of Chu" and announced his decision to divide the former Qin Empire. Xiang Yu declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (西楚霸王) and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu territories, with his capital at Pengcheng. In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, to be granted to his subordinates and some leaders of the former rebel forces. He moved some of the rulers of other states to more remote areas and granted the land of Guanzhong to the three surrendered Qin generals, ignoring Emperor Yi's earlier promise to appoint Liu Bang as king of that region. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Hanzhong area and given the title of "King of Han" (汉王).
Xiang Yu appointed several generals from the rebel coalition as vassal kings, even though these generals were subordinates of other lords, who should rightfully be the kings in place of their followers. Xiang Yu also left out some other important rebel leaders who did not support him earlier, but did contribute to the overthrow of Qin. In winter, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi to the remote region of Chen, effectively sending the puppet emperor into exile. At the same time, he issued a secret order to the vassal kings in that area and had the emperor assassinated during his journey in 205 BC. The emperor's death was later used by Liu Bang as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.
Shortly after the death of Emperor Yi, Xiang Yu had Han Cheng (King of Hán) put to death and seized Han's lands for himself. Several months later, Tian Rong (chancellor of Qi) took control over the Three Qis (Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei) from their respective kings and reinstated Tian Fu as the King of Qi, but he took over the throne himself afterwards. Similarly, Chen Yu, a former vice chancellor of Zhao, led an uprising against the King of Changshan, Zhang Er, and seized Zhang's domain and reinstalled Zhao Xie as the King of Zhao.
Chu–Han Contention
Battle of Pengcheng
In 206 BC, Liu Bang led his forces to attack Guanzhong. At that time, Xiang Yu was at war with Qi and did not focus on resisting the Han forces. The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another five kingdoms and attacked Western Chu with a 560,000 strong army, capturing Xiang Yu's capital of Pengcheng. Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu led 30,000 men to attack Liu Bang and defeated the latter at the Battle of Pengcheng, with the Han army suffering heavy casualties.
Battle of Xingyang
Liu Bang managed to escape after his defeat with Xiang Yu's troops on pursuit. Han troops retreated to Xingyang and defended the city firmly, preventing Chu forces from advancing west any further, but only managed to hold on until 204 BC. Liu Bang's subordinate Ji Xin disguised himself as his lord and surrendered to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learned that he had been fooled, he became furious and had Ji Xin burned to death. After the fall of Xingyang, Chu and Han forces were divided on two fronts along present-day Henan. However, Xiang Yu's forces were not faring well on the battlefront north of the Yellow River, as the Han army led by Han Xin defeated his troops in every single battle. At the same time, Liu Bang's ally Peng Yue led his men to harass Xiang Yu's rear.
Treaty of Hong Canal
By 203 BC, the tide had turned in favour of Han. Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father after a year-long siege and he threatened to boil Liu's father alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu Bang remarked that he and Xiang Yu were oath brothers, so if Xiang killed Liu's father, he would be guilty of patricide. Xiang Yu requested for an armistice, known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, and returned the hostages he had captured to Liu Bang as part of their agreement. The treaty divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively.
Battle of Guling
Shortly after, as Xiang Yu was retreating eastwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and led his forces to attack Western Chu. Liu Bang sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting for their assistance in forming a three-pronged attack on Xiang Yu, but Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops and Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. Liu Bang retreated and reinforced his defences, while sending emissaries to Han Xin and Peng Yue, promising to grant them fiefs and titles of vassal kings if they would join him in attacking Western Chu.
Defeat and downfall
In 202 BC, Han armies led by Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Western Chu from three sides and trapped Xiang Yu's army, which was low on supplies, at Gaixia. Liu Bang ordered his troops to sing folk songs from the Chu region to create a false impression that Xiang Yu's native land had been conquered by Han forces. The morale of the Chu army plummeted and many of Xiang Yu's troops deserted in despair. Xiang Yu sank into a state of depression and he composed the Song of Gaixia. His wife Consort Yu committed suicide. The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite cavalry on a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement, with 5,000 enemy troops pursuing them.
After crossing the Huai River, Xiang Yu was only left with a few hundred soldiers. They were lost in Yinling (阴陵) and Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp. When Xiang Yu reached Dongcheng (东城), only 28 men were left, with the Han troops still following him. Xiang Yu made a speech to his men, saying that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure. After that, he led a charge out of the encirclement, killing one Han general in the battle. Xiang Yu then split his men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up as well to attack the three groups. Xiang Yu took the Han troops by surprise again and slew another enemy commander, inflicting about 100 casualties on the enemy, while he only lost two men.
Death
Xiang Yu retreated to the bank of the Wu River (near present-day He County, Maanshan, Anhui) and the ferryman at the ford prepared a boat for him to cross the river, strongly encouraging him to do so because Xiang Yu still had the support of the people from his homeland in the south. Xiang Yu said that he was too ashamed to return home and face his people because none of the first 8,000 men from Jiangdong who followed him on his conquests survived. He refused to cross and ordered his remaining men to dismount, asking the ferryman to take his warhorse, Zhui (骓), back home.
Xiang Yu and his men made a last stand against wave after wave of Han forces until only Xiang himself was left alive. Xiang Yu continued to fight on and slew over 100 enemy soldiers, but he had also sustained several wounds all over his body. Just then, Xiang Yu saw an old friend Lü Matong among the Han soldiers, and he said to Lü, "I heard that the King of Han (Liu Bang) has placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of "Wanhu Marquis" (万户侯; lit. "marquis of 10,000 households") on my head. Take it then, on account of our friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by slitting his throat with his sword, and a brawl broke out among the Han soldiers at the scene due to the reward offered by Liu Bang, and Xiang Yu's body was said to be dismembered and mutilated in the fight. The reward was eventually claimed by Lü Matong and five others.
After Xiang Yu's death, Western Chu surrendered and China was united under Liu Bang's rule, marking the victory of the Han dynasty. Liu Bang held a grand state funeral for Xiang Yu in Gucheng (谷城; in Dongping County, Taian, Shandong), with the ceremony befitting Xiang's title "Duke of Lu". Xiang Yu's relatives were spared from death, including Xiang Bo, who saved Liu Bang's life at the Feast at Hong Gate, and they were granted marquis titles.
Depiction of character
Xiang Yu is depicted as a ruthless leader, ordering the massacres of entire cities even after they surrendered peacefully. This often led to cities putting up strong resistance, as they knew they would be killed even if they surrendered. The most notorious example of his cruelty was when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered Qin troops to be buried alive after the Battle of Julu, and the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. In contrast, Liu Bang is portrayed as a shrewd and cunning ruler who could be brutal at times, but forbade his troops from looting the cities they captured and spared the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu's story became an example for Confucianists to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people. However, his ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and his death at the early age of around 30.
Song of Gaixia
The Song of Gaixia (垓下歌), translated as The Hegemon's Lament by Burton Watson, was a song composed by Xiang Yu while he was trapped by Liu Bang's forces at Gaixia.
The lyrics in English as follows are based on Burton Watson's translation:
Evaluation
The historian Sima Qian, who wrote Xiang Yu's biography in the Records of the Grand Historian, described Xiang as someone who boasted about his achievements and thought highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others before him. Sima Qian thought that Xiang Yu had failed to see his own shortcomings and to make attempts to correct his mistakes, even until his death. Sima Qian thought that it was ridiculous when Xiang Yu claimed that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure.
Liu Bang's general Han Xin, who was one of Xiang Yu's opponents on the battlefield, made a statement criticising Xiang, "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. Neither was he able to make good use of capable generals nor was he able to support Emperor Yi of Chu, as he killed the emperor. Even though he had the name of a Conqueror, he had already lost the favour of the people."
The Tang dynasty poet Du Mu mentioned Xiang Yu in one of his poems Ti Wujiang Ting (题乌江亭): "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong, who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can make a comeback?" However, the Song dynasty poet Wang Anshi had a different opinion, as he wrote, "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?" The Song Dynasty female poet Li Qingzhao wrote: "A hero in life, a king of ghosts after death. Until now we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."
Mao Zedong also once mentioned Xiang Yu, "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Conqueror." In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: not following Fan Zeng's advice to kill Liu Bang at the Feast at Hong Gate and letting Liu leave; adhering firmly to the terms of the peace treaty (without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust); building his capital at Pengcheng.
Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possessed great courage but lacked wisdom, and his character is aptly summarised using the Chinese idiom you yong wu mou (有勇无谋 yǒu yǒng wú móu), meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", "foolhardy". Xiang Yu's battle tactics were studied by later military leaders while his political blunders served as cautionary tales for later rulers. Another Chinese idiom, si mian chu ge (四面楚歌 sì miàn chǔ gē|l=surrounded by Chu songs), was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him" (有一范增而不能用), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on his advisor Fan Zeng and failure to actually listen to Fan's advice.
Cultural references
Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese folk tales, poetry, and novels, and he has been the subject of films, television, plays, Chinese operas, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his wife Consort Yu and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero to his character.
Poetry, folk tales, novels
Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle appears in Chinese folk tales and poetry, e.g., in his final battle. The Meng Ch'iu, an 8th-century Chinese primer, contains the four-character rhyming couplet: "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the episode in the Battle of Xingyang when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his army, to distract Xiang Yu in order to buy time for Liu Bang to escape from the city of Xingyang.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, Sun Ce is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" (小霸王) and is often compared favourably to Xiang Yu by his contemporaries. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms era. In Water Margin, another of the Four Great Classical Novels, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 outlaws, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for his resemblance to Xiang Yu in appearance.
In Jin Ping Mei, (Ci Hua edition) Xiang Yu (项籍) is mentioned as an example of a tragic character in the song at the opening of the first chapter.
The character Mata Zyndu in Ken Liu's epic fantasy novel The Grace of Kings is based on Xiang Yu.
Operas
A famous Beijing opera, The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell, depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige's award-winning motion picture Farewell My Concubine.
Television
• Portrayed by Shek Sau in the 1985 Hong Kong television series The Battlefield.
• Portrayed by Hu Jun in the 2003 Chinese television series The Story of Han Dynasty.
• Portrayed by Kwong Wah in the 2004 Hong Kong television series The Conqueror's Story.
• Portrayed by Tan Kai in the 2010 Chinese television series The Myth.
• Portrayed by Peter Ho in the 2012 Chinese television series King's War.
• Portrayed by Ming Dao in the 2012 Chinese television series Beauties of the Emperor.
• Portrayed by Qin Junjie in the 2015 Chinese television series The Legend of Qin.
• Portrayed by Tim Yu in the 2018 Chinese television series Hero's Dream.
Film
• Portrayed by Ray Lui in the 1994 Hong Kong film The Great Conqueror's Concubine.
• Portrayed by Feng Shaofeng in the 2011 Chinese film White Vengeance.
• Portrayed by Daniel Wu in the 2012 Chinese film The Last Supper.
Video games
Xiang Yu is one of the thirty-two historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI by Koei. He is also featured as a non-playable character (NPC) in the action role-playing game Prince of Qin. Xiang Yu is one of the main two characters in the 1990s Super Nintendo historical simulation game Rise of the Phoenix by the Koei corporation, the other being Liu Bang. Xiang Yu is a playable character in the online mobile role-playing game Fate/Grand Order.
楚国名将项燕之孙,七岁后随叔父项梁迁吴中,秦末民变期间在会稽郡(今江苏苏州)起兵反秦,被楚后怀王封为鲁公。前207年钜鹿之战中,项羽统率楚军五万大破秦军四十万,决定秦朝覆亡之势,秦朝最后一位君主子婴自降为「秦王」,不再称「皇帝」。项羽起兵三年,即率领山东六国诸侯灭秦,分封天下,政由羽出,自封「西楚霸王」,统治黄河及长江下游的梁楚九郡,年仅二十五岁。
前206年,汉王刘邦从汉中出兵进攻项羽,展开了历时四年的楚汉战争,期间项羽虽然彭城之战(今江苏徐州)大破刘邦,但项羽因分封矛盾引起各路诸侯纷纷反叛,且始终无法有固定的后方补给,粮草殆尽,最后反被刘邦所灭。前202年,项羽在垓下之战为刘邦指挥诸侯六十万联军所败,突围至乌江后,自刎而死。
项羽被誉为中国历史最为勇猛的将领,史学家称「羽之神勇,千古无二」,且在「霸王」一词通常专指项羽。
Read more...: 生平 出身 起兵反秦(前209-前207) 巨鹿之战(前207) 进入关中(前206) 分封天下(前206) 楚汉相持(前206-前204) 兵败陈垓(前203-前202) 乌江自刎(前202) 所封诸侯王 从属 家族成员 亲属 后人 争议 自杀地点 称呼 评价 艺术 文化影响 影视形象 动漫 游戏
生平
出身
项羽是项燕之孙,历代习武,项氏多人也是楚国将领。项羽本人据载是目生重瞳,身长八尺,力能扛鼎,才气过人。项羽少年时读书辍学,学剑术也中途而废。其叔父项梁因此不满,项羽回答:「书足以记名姓而已。剑一人敌,不足学,学万人敌。」于是项梁不教他读书与剑术,改教他兵法,但项羽略知大意以后,便不肯全部学完。后来项梁因故杀人,躲避仇家,携项羽逃亡到吴中(今苏州)定居。
前223年,王翦率60万大军攻楚,项燕败与秦军被杀,楚亡。
秦始皇帝三十七年(公元前210年),秦始皇巡游会稽郡渡钱塘江时,时年22岁的项羽跟项梁一起旁观皇帝出巡,项羽说:「彼可取而代也」(我可以取代他。),吓得项梁急掩其口,但从此对项羽另眼相看。该处一说名掩浦,一名项浦,位于湖州府城东北十六里弁山东,两名皆与此典故有关。
起兵反秦(前209-前207)
秦二世元年(前209年)七月,陈胜、吴广在大泽起义,开始反秦。到了九月,会稽郡假守殷通(代理太守)欲先发制人发兵反秦,于是找项梁商议。但项梁却命项羽趁机谋杀了殷通,史书记载当时项羽在殷通府中拔剑斩其头及击杀门下近百人。项梁在吴中各县自行举兵起义反秦,不久便招募了精兵八千人,俗谓「八千江东子弟」。
项梁自封为会稽郡郡守,项羽则任裨将,率领八千子弟,渡长江,得到一些反秦军队归附,兵力增至六、七万人,进驻下邳,并消灭了自立为楚王的景驹势力。范增进言楚地流行「楚虽三户,亡秦必楚」之说,建议项梁立故楚后人为王,项梁采纳,在民间找到楚怀王嫡孙熊心,立他为楚王,仍号「楚怀王」,即楚后怀王,以争取楚地民心。
巨鹿之战(前207)
项梁北伐秦兵,前208年九月在定陶之战中遇秦兵主力章邯,阵亡。章邯其后率军攻赵国,大败赵军,赵王赵歇退至巨鹿。楚后怀王迁都至彭城(今江苏徐州),封项羽为长安侯,鲁为其食邑,故项羽又称鲁公。怀王与诸将约定,「先入定关中者王之」,即先攻破关中者为关中王。项羽希望怀王命他攻关中,但怀王不听,而命刘邦攻关中,命宋义为上将军,项羽为次将,率兵往钜鹿救赵。
宋义军到达安阳后停止前进,在当地停留了四十六日。前208年十一月,项羽建议进兵,但宋义不接纳,项羽便矫诏杀了宋义,楚军诸将拥立羽为假(代理)上将军。项羽派桓楚禀报怀王,怀王被迫任命项羽为上将军。
项羽进兵巨鹿(今河北平乡县西南)。秦军兵力有王离军二十万与驻守粮道的章邯军二十万,楚军只有五万,兵力远远少于秦军。仔细考察形势后,项羽决定先派英布、蒲将军率两万楚军渡漳河,袭击秦军粮道,令王离军乏食,并使章邯军疲于奔命,而能对王离军各个击破。项羽随后率其馀4万楚军渡河,命令部下在渡河后砸碎釜锅与凿沉舟船(后世称之为「破釜沉舟」,意谓豁出一切),全军仅携带三日乾粮,馀者焚之,表明自绝退路,以示士卒必死,无一还心,若不得胜便有死无生。
最后项羽九战九胜,楚军无不以一当十,大破秦军四十万。当时带领援兵的诸侯仅作观战(即成语「作壁上观」),待章邯引兵退却时,诸侯军乃敢进攻王离、涉间,项羽辕门召见时,诸侯全部膝行而前,莫敢仰视。项羽成为「诸侯上将军」,为各路诸侯军队的统帅。前207年六月,秦将章邯率所部向项羽投降。
进入关中(前206)
巨鹿之战后,项羽继续向关中进军,前207年十一月(前207年12月14日–前206年1月11日),项羽担心秦降兵生变,于是命楚军在一夜间在新安城南(今河南省三门峡市义马市二十里铺村一带)坑杀掉降兵二十馀万人。但刘邦前207年十月已经抢先占领秦都咸阳,并派军在函谷关阻止楚军入关,楚军以英布为先锋乃破关直入。刘邦大惧,乃退出咸阳,扎营灞上。刘邦的部下左司马曹无伤派人向项羽说「沛公欲王关中,使子婴为相,珍宝尽有之。」项羽大怒。当时项羽统率四十万军队,而刘邦只得十万人。范增游说项羽铲除刘邦,项羽在鸿门(今陕西省西安市临潼区新丰镇鸿门堡村)宴请刘邦,范增于席间命项庄借表演剑术为名,意欲刺杀刘邦,后世称此为「项庄舞剑,意在沛公」。但项伯起身保护刘邦,又加上张良命樊哙冲进来游说项羽,项羽让刘邦平安地离去,后世称此宴为「鸿门宴」。前206年,项羽进入咸阳后,杀秦王子婴,焚咸阳秦宫室,大火维持三个月,他经过的地方「无不一片废墟」,关中人民对他大为失望,不得民心。
分封天下(前206)
这时韩生劝说项羽留驻关中,可成就霸业。项羽没有留在关中的打算,当时秦宫皆以烧而残破,又思东归,他说:「富贵不归故乡,如衣绣夜行,谁知之者。」此为成语衣锦还乡和锦衣夜行的由来。韩生则因为项羽不留关中,批评项羽:「人言楚人沐猴而冠耳,果然。」(听人说楚国人像是戴帽子的弥猴,果真如此。)项羽听说后很生气,烹杀了他。
之后项王使人致命怀王,请示如何分封领地。怀王曰:「如约。」即先入关中的刘邦为关中王。项羽不服,乃尊怀王为楚义帝,欲自己称王,并分封各路将相:「天下初发难时,假立诸侯后以伐秦。然身被坚执锐首事,暴露于野三年,灭秦定天下者,皆将相诸君与籍之力也。义帝虽无功,故当分其地而王之。」(天下初发难时,我们暂立六国诸侯后代(即怀王)为王伐秦。然而亲身披甲执锐起义,战场奋战三年,灭秦定天下的,是各位和我的力量啊。不过,义帝虽无功,我们还是分地让他称王。)诸将皆曰:「善。」
之后自立为「西楚霸王」,统治梁楚九郡,定都彭城(今江苏徐州)。他把华夏大地分封给各路反秦将领,故秦关中之地,封给章邯、司马欣、董翳三位秦朝降将,将刘邦封到汉中郡、巴郡、蜀郡、武都郡、广汉郡当汉王。也大概在此时,为项羽帐下执戟郎的韩信因不受重用而弃楚投汉,日后成为楚汉战争中极关键的人物。
不久项羽把义帝流放至长沙国郴县,暗命英布在半途杀死他。同年齐相国田荣起兵自立为齐王,又派兵支援陈馀击败常山王张耳,陈馀复立代王赵歇为赵王。
楚汉相持(前206-前204)
前206年8月,汉王刘邦趁项羽讨伐齐地田荣时,反叛出兵攻击三秦(即关中),击溃楚军,司马欣、董翳降汉,章邯被围困于废丘,汉军取得关中。此时韩王信攻韩地,再下十馀城,11月,韩王信受封韩王。汉军取得关中与韩地,站稳脚跟,准备东进。
前205年4月,汉军准备万全,刘邦以项羽杀害楚义帝为名,联合五国诸侯,兵分两路,共五十六万大军进攻楚国,占领彭城(今江苏徐州),汉军尽收货宝美人,夜夜笙歌。项羽闻讯,命部属留守齐地,亲率三万精兵南下。项羽所在的齐地位于彭城北方,项羽仔细考察形势后,决定绕到彭城西边,也就是从刘邦攻入彭城,防御最薄弱的方向从背后予以奇袭。项羽行军电光石火,先击败鲁县的樊哙,吕泽不及回防。项羽在早晨向彭城刘邦的数十万汉军发动进攻,至中午大破汉军,将汉军压迫于谷、泗水地区,韩信等各路汉军溃败,被歼十馀万人。楚军收复彭城,又紧追不舍至睢水上(今安徽淮北市西),汉军被逼入河中,溺毙十馀万人,「睢水为之不流」。此时楚军已经包围刘邦三层,然而突然大风西北而起,飞沙走石,天昏地暗,楚军大乱,刘邦趁机与数十骑逃走。太公吕后为楚军所获。此战项羽以楚军三万击溃汉军五十六万,为中国历史上之名战役。此一大败让汉军元气大伤,尽失原本占领关中与韩地的优势,退守荥阳。
败逃的刘邦让缯贺击楚,阻止了楚军进攻。。刘邦还派曹参平定了程处在燕县的叛乱,楚柱天侯在衍氏的叛乱,樊哙在彭城之战前失了鲁地,战后再次取得鲁、梁一带之地,最后灌婴、靳歙、曹参、樊哙在「军于荥阳」,即在荥阳会合。随后引水灌废丘,废丘降,章邯自杀,消灭了章邯。接著刘邦稍收士卒,再加上萧何亦发关中老弱,都到荥阳助军,刘邦又以担任过秦朝骑士的李必、骆甲两人训练骑兵。之后在京索打败追击的项羽,汉二年五月刘邦西收兵与吕泽在下邑会合。刘邦派人去沛县找到了彭城之战失散的刘盈和鲁元公主。京索之战,汉军稳住阵脚,楚军也无力突破汉军防线进攻关中。双方从此开始在荥、成一带拉钜,战争进入相持阶段。
前204年,刘邦为解除荥阳相持的僵局,命令靳歙击断楚军从荥阳至襄邑的粮道,命令灌婴击断了楚军从阳武至襄邑的粮道,离开荥阳,攻打楚国后方的二号大本营:鲁城,并留下御史大夫周苛、魏王豹、枞公等人守荥阳,刘邦指挥的汉军正在攻打鲁城项冠。周苛认为魏王豹会投降项羽,杀了魏王豹,随即项羽攻破了荥阳,烹杀了周苛,项羽再破成皋,至巩县,直逼洛阳,刘邦完全平定鲁城,得知荥阳与成皋已失,项羽逼近洛阳,于是命令靳歙、丁复等单独攻打楚国后方,丁复在彭城打败龙且,刘邦与灌婴回洛阳抵挡项羽,把项羽阻挡在巩县不能西进,项羽猛攻洛阳与敖仓,刘邦命令灌婴去邯郸调韩信军回敖仓坚守,任命灌婴接任御史大夫之职,派郦食其说降齐国。
刘邦在拖住项羽同时,另派数路汉军分掠楚地,从后方包抄项羽,韩信、曹参、灌婴、吕泽军团等汉军精锐在潍水之战全歼了楚国大司马龙且率领的援齐楚军,平定齐国。彭越、刘贾在楚军后方往来,断绝楚军粮食补给,而英布在楚国后方九江攻城略地,刘贾、卢绾也配合英布作战。靳歙深入楚军后方,平定楚国大片领土,东至平定缯、郯、下邳,南至蕲、竹邑,击败项悍于济阳,从后方包围项羽。灌婴在淮北大破楚军最后一支主力项声军团,攻下西楚都城彭城。对楚军实现了战略包围,使项羽的处境更趋困难,楚军粮食缺乏,既不能进,又不能退,完全陷入了困境。
兵败陈垓(前203-前202)
前203年,汉军士气大盛,粮草充足,项王士卒疲惫,粮食告绝。项羽早先在彭城之战掳获刘邦之父刘太公、刘邦之妻吕雉,此时项羽以刘太公为人质要挟刘邦,但刘邦不理会。「我和你一起接受楚后怀王的命令,结拜为兄弟,我父亲就是你父亲;你一定要煮你父亲来吃,也请分我一杯羹!」项羽大怒,原想杀了刘太公,但因项伯的劝阻而作罢。后来两方签订鸿沟和约,项羽也释放刘邦家人,率军撤退。中国象棋棋盘上的「楚河汉界」,就是后人为了纪念此事而命名的。
不久刘邦从张良建议,撕毁和约追击楚军。刘邦趁项羽退军之际率领汉军发起追歼,在阳夏大破项羽率领的楚军,俘虏楚国大将周将军。刘邦到固陵后,命令刘贾渡淮河,攻下寿春,派人策反楚国大司马周殷,攻占城父,并与灌婴、靳歙约定好,在陈县夹击项羽,断截项羽逃回会稽的归路,汉将宣曲侯丁义率领骑兵和汾阳侯靳强率汉军为先锋,攻固陵楚军,便击破了楚大将钟离眜的部队,项羽得知灌婴、靳歙等率领汉军东来后,为防自己被包围,集结著剩馀主力南退守至陈下。
前202年。这时候,楚军东面丧失了龙且军团、项声军团,西面丧失了曹咎军团,南边大司马周殷也已叛楚率领军团投降,汉将刘贾堵截项羽南逃之路,西楚主力基本损失殆尽。楚军的粮草又被彭越截断,人无粮、马无草,危机重重。
刘邦面对大好形势,毫不手软,率领汉军就主动出击对陈县的项羽军发起追击歼灭战。陈下之战项羽大败,退逃东南,西楚陈公立即投向汉军,陈县归于汉军。项羽楚军主力受到重创后欲撤往会稽,刘贾、周殷、英布攻下城父堵截项羽,项羽逃到垓下,刘邦与刘贾、周殷、英布会合。
韩信、彭越、英布等会合刘邦后,汉军参战兵力已超过六十万人,在垓下将向江南撤退的十万楚军层层包围,此险恶形势即为后人所称「十面埋伏」。刘邦以韩信亲率三十万人为前军,孔将军(孔聚)在左翼,费将军(陈贺)在右翼,刘邦坐镇居中军在后,绛侯(周勃)、柴将军(柴武)做为预备队在刘邦军后待命。彭越、英布等在楚军后方,韩信亲率前军发动攻势,初战进攻受挫后退,在楚军追击时,刘邦让孔、费两翼左右包抄夹击楚军,同时韩信率领前军翻身再战,以及彭越、英布、刘贾、周殷等诸侯从各处围攻楚军,楚军在三面夹击中被击败。项羽被迫退回垓下城。
乌江自刎(前202)
}
力拔山兮气盖世
时不利兮骓不逝
骓不逝兮可奈何
虞兮虞兮奈若何
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垓下之战败后,楚军被包围在垓下城。是夜,汉军又以士兵以楚地方言唱歌,让楚军误以为汉军已渡江占领了他们的家乡,楚国已亡。这「四面楚歌」心理战术,使项羽军士气崩溃。项羽和他爱人虞姬在此际唱出了著名的《垓下歌》,唱了一遍又一遍。项羽泪水流了下来,左右部将也泣不成声,莫能仰视。项羽率剩馀精锐骑兵突围。
项羽率八百馀人突围,汉将灌婴带五千骑兵紧追不舍。渡过淮水以后,项羽的骑兵只剩下百人。项羽在阴陵迷路,向路边的农夫问路,农夫谎报路径,使项羽军迷失在大泽当中,被汉军追至,项羽引兵往东。
项羽到达东城时,只剩二十八骑,汉军骑兵追击的有数千人。项羽自度不得脱身。跟部将说:「吾起兵至今八岁矣,身七十馀战,所当者破,所击者服,未尝败北,遂霸有天下。然今卒困于此,此天之亡我,非战之罪也。今日固决死,愿为诸君快战,必三胜之,为诸君溃围,斩将,刈旗,令诸君知天亡我,非战之罪也!」语毕,将二十八骑分为四队四向。此时数千汉军已重重包围上来。项羽跟部将说:「吾为公取彼一将。」命令部将从四面分头下山,约定在山东面三处会合。接著,项羽大吼著从山上杀向汉军,望风披靡,如入无人之境,当场斩杀汉军一将。当时,赤泉侯杨喜为骑将,追杀项羽,项羽没出手,只回头瞪眼暴喝一声,赤泉侯即人马俱惊,向后逃跑了好几里远。下山后,项羽与其骑会为三处。汉军不知项羽所在,乃分军为三,再包围上来。项羽冲上前,再斩杀汉一都尉,又杀数十百人,再聚集部队,只损失了两名骑兵。项羽问部将:「何如?」部将皆拜服叹曰:「如大王言。」
项羽原准备东渡乌江,回到故土江东。乌江亭长准备船给项羽,说:「江东虽小,地方千里,众数十万人,亦足王也。愿大王急渡。今独臣有船,汉军至,无以渡。」项羽哈哈一笑:「天之亡我,我何渡为(为何渡)!且籍(项羽)与江东子弟八千人渡江而西,今无一人还,纵江东父兄怜而王我,我何面目见之?纵彼不言,籍独不愧于心乎?(纵使他们不说,籍难道不愧于心?)」语毕,再跟亭长说:「吾知公(您)长者。吾骑此马五岁,所当无敌,尝一日行千里,不忍杀之,以赐公。」将爱马乌骓托付给亭长后,项羽与骑兵下马步行,持短兵与追上的汉军接战。独项羽一人就杀死汉军数百人。项羽亦身受十馀处伤。此时项羽看见从小一起长大的玩伴吕马童也在汉军中,说:「若非吾故人乎?」吕马童不敢直视,转头背对项羽,跟另外一位军官王翳说:「此项王也。」项羽说:「吾闻汉购我头千金,邑万户,吾为若德(我送礼给你)。」于是自刎而死。王翳抢到项羽的头,其他追兵为抢夺项羽尸体,光自相残杀就杀死了数十人;最后郎中骑杨喜、骑司马吕马童、郎中吕胜及杨武各得一块尸体。五人将尸体拼凑起来,确实是项羽。刘邦故将属地分封为五:封吕马童为中水侯,封王翳为杜衍侯,封杨喜为赤泉侯,封杨武为吴防侯,封吕胜为涅阳侯。
因项羽曾封鲁公,故鲁地(今山东曲阜一带)一直不肯降汉,直到汉军出示了项羽首级,并答允礼葬项羽才肯投降。之后,汉王刘邦在谷城(今山东省东平县旧县乡)以鲁公礼安葬项羽,并亲为发哀,哭之而去。
所封诸侯王
从属
• 范增,项梁时曾建议立楚王之后。项羽尊其为「亚父」,后来不受项羽信任而离开。
• 龙且,项籍麾下将领,潍水之战为吕泽陈武丁礼韩信联军所败,与留公逃至假密,为汉灌婴部下所斩。
• 陈平,本魏王咎的太仆,屡次劝谏魏王咎而不被采用,离去。陈平过来后投项羽,随项羽入关,赐爵平爵卿。楚汉战争开始,殷王反楚,陈平率军平定。不久,汉军再次进攻殷王,殷王再次降汉,项羽大怒,迁怒于当初平定殷王的人并要杀他们。陈平于离开项羽投奔刘邦。
• 韩信,项籍麾下执戟郎,不被重用而投靠刘邦。
• 锺离昧,项籍麾下将领,西楚灭亡后隐姓埋名逃回家乡,后来投奔故交韩信以求庇护,但刘邦下死命大力通缉,自知无活路而自杀身亡,韩信持其头颅在陈下献给刘邦。
• 季布,项籍麾下将领,西楚灭亡后由夏侯婴推荐仕汉。高后时期阻止朝中的主战派对匈奴用兵,被吕后采纳。汉文帝初任河东太守,河东郡时为天下第一大郡,汉长安东部屏障。
• 蒲将军
• 桓楚,故秦寿春令。秦时项梁犯法,及由他疏通关系找到司马欣释放项梁,故为项氏所亲信。
• 周殷,项籍信任的亲信,任大司马,陈下之战前倒戈于刘邦。
• 吕马童,项籍的同乡,后来投靠刘邦。
• 叔孙通,于彭城之战后投靠刘邦。
• 郑君,项羽败,高祖令故项羽臣下名籍,郑君不从,见逐,孝文时去世。子郑当时武帝时任大司农。
• 武涉,项籍麾下的论客,曾往韩信处劝降,事不成。
• 丁公,项籍麾下骑将,季布和季心的母弟,于彭城之战放走刘邦,西汉时被刘邦斩首。
• 利几,陈公,项羽败亡,降汉,封颖川侯。不久汉高祖六年秋,利几于颍川反,刘邦乃率军亲征,利几兵败被杀
• 萧公角,彭越反梁地,受田荣将军印。项羽派其征彭越,反为彭越打败;
• 留公,姓名不详,与龙且共救齐,为吕泽韩信联军所败。
• 薛公,姓名不详,楚汉战争后期与项声共复定淮北,灌婴回师,战于下邳,为灌婴军所斩。
• 薛公,姓名不详。项羽败后投奔滕公夏侯婴。英布反,在刘邦亲征前为其分析形势,为刘邦所采纳
• 周兰,亚将,从龙且救齐,为灌婴所俘。灌婴占领彭城后进攻苦、谯,再次为灌婴所俘。
• 李将军,山阴人李左绩。鲁城守将,在项羽死后仍然坚持不降,刘邦派人把项羽首级送往谷城并为项羽发丧,李将军逐率军投降,后自刎殉主。
家族成员
亲属
• 项伯,项籍的叔父,刘邦称帝赐姓刘,改名为刘缠,封射阳侯。公元前192年去世。射阳位于今江苏宝应射阳湖镇一带。
• 刘猷,项伯之子,项籍堂弟,刘邦称帝赐姓刘,改名为刘猷。项伯死后,他有罪,不得继承其爵位,国除。
• 项庄,项籍堂弟,在鸿门宴舞剑而出名。
• 项声,九江王英布为汉,与龙且将楚军破九江,尽有九江。楚汉战争末年,汉将灌婴攻楚略地至淮,进至广陵。项羽令项声率军复定淮北。及灌婴回师复渡淮,大破其军于下邳。
• 项它,项羽败亡后归汉,赐姓刘,汉高祖七年(前200年)封平皋侯,孝惠五年(公元前190)年去世,谥炀侯,子共侯刘(项)远嗣。汉武帝元鼎五年,侯项胜坐酹金免。
• 项悍
• 项冠,刘邦率领灌婴和靳歙破于鲁城,其所部下五楼烦将五人、连尹一人为灌婴军斩杀。
• 项襄,项氏亲,汉二年从起定陶,去世,谥「安侯」,子哀侯舍嗣。景帝时哀侯舍历任太仆、御史大夫,周亚夫罢相,继任丞相,景帝后元年免。
• 项婴,被项籍派往张耳当监察官,后被张耳所杀。
后人
争议
自杀地点
由于《史记·项羽本纪》、《史记·高祖本纪》及《汉书·灌婴传》有提及项羽「身死东城」、「追杀项羽东城」等,有人认为项羽是在东城自刎而不是乌江,但其观点未有被广泛接受。事实上,「东城自刎」、「乌江自刎」两种说法并没有矛盾,只是地方行政单位的级数不同。乌江即是乌江亭,在东城县县境。研究者指乌江亭可能因地处长江渡口、交通要津而设的亭。故完整的说法是:项羽于九江郡东城县乌江亭自刎。
称呼
关于项羽到底是「霸王」还是「项王」的称呼,史书记载并不确定。根据《史记·项羽本纪》记载:「项王自立为西楚霸王,王九郡,都彭城。」,所谓「西楚霸王」在《项羽本纪》中就出现过这么一次,此后不再出现「霸王」,而是称项羽为「项王」。项羽最后在东城被围,自己说:「吾起兵至今八岁矣,身七十馀战,所当者破,所击者服,未尝败北,遂霸有天下。」最后,太史公称赞说:「夫秦失其政,陈涉首难,豪杰蜂起,相与并争,不可胜数。然羽非有尺寸,乘势起陇亩之中,三年,遂将五诸侯灭秦,分裂天下,而封王侯,政由羽出,号为『霸王』,位虽不终,近古以来未尝有也。」
有意思的是《汉书·陈胜项籍传》中,虽然几乎是同样的语言,却没有用「西楚霸王」,《汉书·陈胜项籍传》:「羽自立为西楚伯王,王梁、楚地九郡,都彭城。」「然羽非有尺寸,乘势拔起陇亩之中,三年,遂将五诸侯兵灭秦,分裂天下而威海内,封立王侯,政繇羽出,号为『伯王』,位虽不终,近古以来未尝有也。」「霸」字变成了「伯」。
《史记考索·〈史记〉纪表书世家传说例》记载:「项羽自为西楚霸王,霸者,『伯』之借字。伯,长也,犹言诸王之长也。羽既为诸侯长矣,故《本纪赞》曰:『分裂天下而封王侯,政由羽出,号为霸王。』」可见「西楚霸王」实为「西楚伯王」,意思就是诸侯之长。
评价
《史记》作者司马迁在书中批评项羽:「吾闻之周生曰舜目盖重瞳子,又闻项羽亦重瞳子。羽岂其苗裔邪?何兴之暴也!夫秦失其政,陈涉首难,豪杰起,相与并争,不可胜数。然羽非有尺寸乘埶,起陇亩之中,三年,遂将五诸侯灭秦,分裂天下,而封王侯,政由羽出,号为『霸王』,位虽不终,近古以来未尝有也。及羽背关怀楚,放逐义帝而自立,怨王侯叛己,难矣。自矜功伐,奋其私智而不师古,谓霸王之业,欲以力征经营天下,五年卒亡其国,身死东城,尚不觉寤而不自责,过矣。乃引『天亡我,非用兵之罪也』,岂不谬哉!」。司马迁评论前段部分肯定项羽之功绩和勇猛,后半部分批评项羽骄傲自负,不善用人以及不省其过。但是,司马迁在史记中仍然把项羽的传记列为本纪,与历代中国最高统治者平级,是少数享此殊荣而无帝王(皇帝)头衔的人物。
认为是司马迁怨恨晚年昏聩的汉武帝,所以故意把项羽这刘氏大敌地位提升,不然综观史记对项羽贬多于褒,不至于到本纪的高度,同时项羽为人好大喜功、极爱面子。《史记·项羽本纪》:「人或说项王曰:『关中阻山河四塞,地肥饶,可都以霸。』项王见秦宫室皆以烧残破,又心怀思欲东归,曰:『富贵不归故乡,如衣绣夜行,谁知之者!』说者曰:『人言楚人(暗指项羽)沐猴而冠耳,果然。』项王闻之,烹说者。」《史记·项羽本纪》记载了项羽对平民与降卒的六次大屠杀,全部都是战胜之后骇人听闻的屠杀与杀降:第一次襄城屠杀,坑杀全城平民;第二次城阳大屠杀,处决了此前帮助齐郡防御的全城平民;第三次新安大屠杀,坑杀秦军降卒二十万;第四次咸阳大屠杀,杀戮关中平民无计,大烧大杀大劫掠大掘墓;第五次破齐大屠杀,坑杀田荣降卒数目不详,大劫掠大烧杀,逼反复辟后的齐国;种种大规模暴行之外,项羽又恢复了战国大煮活人的烹杀,后来又有杀楚怀王、杀秦王子婴并秦诸公子、大掘秦始皇陵等,使大屠杀的酷烈恶风在秦末之乱中骤然暴长。
扬雄在《法言》中批判:「或问:「楚败垓下,方死,曰『天也!』谅乎?」曰:「汉屈群策,群策屈群力;楚敦群策而自屈其力。屈人者克,自屈者负。天曷故焉!」」
楚国诸将:「项羽为人僄悍滑贼,诸所过无不残灭。」(《史记·高祖本纪第八》)
陈平:「项王为人,恭敬爱人,士之廉节好礼者多归之。至于行功爵邑,重之,士亦以此不附……项王不能信人,其所任爱,非诸项即妻之昆弟,虽有奇士不能用,平乃去楚。」
郦食其:「项王有倍约之名,杀义帝之负;于人之功无所记,于人之罪无所忘;战胜而不得其赏,拔城而不得其封;非项氏莫得用事;为人刻印,刓而不能授;攻城得赂,积而不能赏:天下畔之,贤才怨之,而莫为之用。故天下之士归于汉王,可坐而策也。」(《史记·郦生陆贾列传第三十七》)
刘邦:「项羽有一范增而不能用,此其所以为我擒也!」(《史记·高祖本纪第八》)
韩信曾批评项羽为:「遇强则霸的匹夫之勇,和遇弱则怜的妇人之仁。既不能任用贤能将帅,又曾迁逐楚义帝,用兵赶尽杀绝。虽名为霸王,其实民心尽失。」;「请言项王之为人也。项王喑恶叱吒,千人皆废;然不能任属贤将,此特匹夫之勇耳。项王见人恭敬慈爱,言语呕呕,人有疾病,涕泣分食饮;至使人有功,当封爵者,印刓敝,忍不能予,此所谓妇人之仁也。」
此二句意为项羽只看眼前而不识大体;好行小惠而不愿大封大赏,用人但凭个人好恶而非才学,只记过不记功且心胸狭隘,作风与刘邦完全相反。
高起、王陵对曰:「陛下慢而侮人,项羽仁而爱人。然陛下使人攻城略地,所降下者因以予之,与天下同利也。项羽妒贤嫉能,有功者害之,贤者疑之,战胜而不予人功,得地而不予人利,此所以失天下也。」《高祖本纪》;陈平曰:「项王为人,恭敬爱人,士之廉节好礼者多归之。至于行功爵邑,重之,士亦以此不附......项王不能信人,其所任爱,非诸项即妻之昆弟,虽有奇士不能用,平乃去楚。」《陈丞相世家》。此二句意指刘邦待人傲慢无礼,但用人不疑且封赏从不手软;相较之下项羽仁而爱人,但用人疑神疑鬼且封赏极为小气,无法留才。
王充:「项羽恶微,号而用兵,与高祖俱起,威力轻重,未有所定,则项羽力劲。」(《论衡·卷十九·恢国篇第五十八》)
郭嘉:「昔项籍七十馀战,未尝败北,一朝失势而身死国亡者,恃勇无谋故也。」(《三国志·魏书·程郭董刘蒋刘传第十四》)
诸葛亮:「昔项籍总一强众,跨州兼土,所务者大,然卒败垓下,死于东城,宗族如焚,为笑千载,皆不以义,陵上虐下故也。」(《三国志·蜀书·诸葛亮传第五》)
刘劭:「若一人之身,兼有英雄,则能长世;高祖、项羽是也。然英之分,以多于雄,而英不可以少也。英分少,则智者去之,故项羽气力盖世,明能合变,而不能听采奇异,有一范增不用,是以陈平之徒,皆亡归高祖。」
段灼:「秦失其鹿,豪杰竞逐,项羽既得而失之,其咎在烹韩生,而范增之谋不用。假令羽既距项伯之邪说,斩沛公于鸿门,都咸阳以号令诸侯,则天下无敌 矣。而羽距韩生之忠谏,背范增之深计,自谓霸王之业已定,都彭城,还故乡,为昼被文绣,此盖世俗儿女之情耳,而羽荣之。是故五载为汉所擒,至此尚不知觉悟,……甚痛矣哉!」(《晋书·卷四八·列传第十八·段灼》)
蔡谟:「夫以白起、韩信、项籍之勇,犹发梁焚舟,背水而阵。」(《晋书·卷七七·列传第四七·蔡谟》)
李德林:「项羽诛秦摧汉,宰割神州,角逐争驱,尽威力而无就也。」(《隋书·卷四二·列传第七·李德林》)
房彦谦:「故蚩尤、项籍之骁勇,伊尹、霍光之权势,李老、孔丘之才智,吕望、孙武之兵术,吴、楚连盘石之据,产、禄承母弟之基,不应历运之兆,终无帝主之位。」(《北史·列传第二十七》)
魏元忠:「假有项籍之气,袁绍之基,而皆泯智任情,终以破灭,何况复出其下哉。」(《旧唐书·列传第四十二》)
司马贞:「秦鹿走,伪楚狐鸣。云郁沛谷,剑挺吴城。勋开鲁甸,势合砀兵。卿子无罪,亚父推诚。始救赵歇,终诛子婴。违约王汉,背关怀楚。常迁上游,臣迫故主。灵壁大振,成皋久拒。战非无功,天实不与。嗟彼盖代,卒为凶竖。」(《史记·项羽本纪第七》)
唐代才子杜牧有诗《题乌江亭》:「胜败兵家事不期,包羞忍耻是男儿。江东弟子多才俊,卷土重来未可知。」但是杜牧天真的想法被王安石仿此诗格式吐槽:「百战疲劳壮士哀,中原一败势难回。江东子弟今虽在,肯与君王卷土来。」
宋苏洵:「项籍有取天下之才,而无取天下之虑。」
宋苏轼:「项籍唯不能忍,是以百战百胜而轻用其锋。」(《古文观止》)
宋苏辙《虞姬墓》的咏叹是:布叛增亡国已空,摧残羽翮自令穷。艰难独与虞姬共,谁使西来敌沛公。
宋陆游《项羽》叹曰:八尺将军千里骓,拔山扛鼎不妨奇。范增力尽无施处,路到乌江君自知。
宋文天祥:「项籍、关侯、敖曹擒虎之流。」(《文山集·送彭叔英序》)
宋范浚:「若籍则无能有是,得范增不能用,得陈平不能用,得韩信不能用,皆使之怨偾弃去,徒以匹夫小勇,欲决雄雌于挑战间,至力蹙势穷,犹将驰杀一二汉将,以见枝能,此楚所以失天下也。然则籍之亡也,又胡望乎天哉?」
宋何去非:「项羽之于力尝强矣,以其不知真力之所在,此所以亡。彼项羽以百战百胜气盖于一时,手袭天下以王豪杰而宰制之,自以天下莫能抗也。观其所赖以为资,盖有类乎力者矣。虽然,彼之所谓力者,内恃其身之勇,叱吒震怒足以威匹夫;外恃其众之劲,搏捽决战足以吞敌人而已。至于阻河山,据形便,俯首东瞰,临制天下,保王业之固,遗后世之强,所谓真力者,彼固莫或之知也。是以轻指关中天险之势,燔烧屠戮逞其暴,卒举而遗之二三降虏,反怀区区之故楚而甚荣。......惟其知夺而不知其有,此所以亡耳。」
宋代女词人李清照诗赞云:「生当作人杰,死亦为鬼雄,至今思项羽,不肯过江东。」
明太祖朱元璋:「项羽南面称孤,仁义不施,而自矜功伐。高祖知其然,承以柔逊,济以宽仁,卒以胜之。」(《明史·卷第一三五·列传第二三·孔克仁》)
王世贞:「嗟乎!古之有天下者,要必有人君之德,而其佐命以功臣终者,要必有人臣之体,人臣之体在才巨而心小其识不凡,而凡不远而远乃可保也无君德,而其材非人臣者。偏雄,则项羽、袁绍、李密;委质,则韩信及荣也。」(《王弇州崇论卷之四》)
李晚芳:「羽之神勇,千古无二;太史公以神勇之笔,写神勇之人。亦千古无二。迄今正襟读之,犹觉喑嗯叱吒之雄,纵横驰骋于数页之间,驱数百万甲兵,如大风卷箨,奇观也。」
蔡东藩:「惟观于项王之坑降卒,杀子婴,弑义帝,种种不道,死有馀辜,彼自以为非战之罪,罪固不在战,而在残暴也。彼杀人多矣,能无及此乎!天亡天亡,夫复谁尤!」
周恩来:「时势之英雄,固若是其众也,然非吾之所论于项羽、拿破仑也。夫二氏,世界之怪杰也。具并吞八荒之心,叱吒风云之气;勇冠万夫,智超凡俗;战无不胜,攻无不取;敌邦闻之而震魄,妇孺思之而寒胆;百世之下,犹懔懔有生气,岂仅一世之雄哉!是犹其勇之著于外也。若其关系于世界之进退,人类之盛衰,又非一时豪俊、二三学者所可同日而语。虽以帝王之尊、宗教之力、金钱之势,莫以易之。故二氏者,吾之所谓造时势之英雄也。」
孙中山认为,项羽失败最简单原因,就是项羽专靠武力,刘邦入关之后,便约法三章,事事总是宽宏大量,以得民心为主。
中国共产党领导人毛泽东有词云:「宜将剩勇追穷寇,不可沽名学霸王。」在1964年的一次谈话中,毛泽东进一步指出项羽战败的三个错误:鸿门宴不听范增的话,放走刘邦;机械遵守鸿沟协定;以及建都徐州(当时叫彭城)。
艺术
文化影响
项羽英勇善战但下场悲惨,加之他与虞姬的爱情故事,符合大众对悲剧英雄的观感而受戏剧与创作欢迎。
中国传统戏曲中多有与项羽有关的内容,如近代京剧中有名剧霸王别姬。
由于项羽在江边自尽,世人感念,建庙奉祀,陈朝时甚至尊封为帝。后人则尊为诸「水仙王」之一,希望项羽的英灵可以保佑渔民及水上运输、贸易的安全。
影视形象
• 香港电视剧《楚河汉界》(1985年):由石修饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《淮阴侯韩信》(1991年):由韩再峰饰演项羽。
• 电影《西楚霸王》(1994年):由吕良伟饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《西楚霸王》(1994年):由宁才饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《汉刘邦》(1998年):由张林饰演项羽。
• 香港电视剧《楚汉骄雄》(2004年):由江华饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《楚汉风云》(2005年):由胡军饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《大汉巾帼》(2005年):由臧金生饰演项羽。
• 杭州玄机科技信息技术有限公司制作的中国大陆三维武侠动画《秦时明月》(2007年):由沈达威担任项羽(少年)的配音员。
• 中国电视剧《神话》(2010年):由谭凯饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《大将军韩信》(2010年):由吴毅将饰演项羽。
• 电影《鸿门宴传奇》(2011年):由冯绍峰饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《楚汉争雄》(2011年):由任程伟饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《楚汉传奇》(2012年):由何润东饰演项羽。
• 电影《王的盛宴》(2012年):由吴彦祖饰演项羽。
• 中国电视剧《秦时明月》(2014年):由秦俊杰饰演项羽。
• 杭州玄机科技信息技术有限公司制作的中国大陆3D动画原创电影《秦时明月3D电影龙腾万里》(2014年):由沈达威担任项羽(少年)的配音员。
• 杭州玄机科技信息技术有限公司制作的中国大陆三维武侠动画《秦时明月》第五季君临天下新春特别篇(2016年):由戴超行担任项羽(青年)的配音员。
• 台湾金光布袋戏《金光御九界之战血天道》(2019年):「血神」角色原型为西楚霸王。
动漫
• 《天子传奇3流氓天子》
• 《天子传奇4大唐威龙》
• 《天子传奇5如来神掌》
• 《天子传奇7三国骄皇》
• 《秦汉英雄传》
游戏
• 日本手机游戏《Fate/Grand Order》:由山寺宏一配音,职阶为Berserker,被描述为秦始皇制造的半人马型机关人偶「会稽零式」,宝具是「力拔山兮气盖世」。
• 《王者荣耀》中的角色,职业为坦克
• 《神魔之塔》2020第一张新黑金。
• 种族:人类;属性:光;星数:7星;主动技能为力拔山河,队长技分别为纯色的无双之霸与杂色的盖世之气。
Text | Count |
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史讳举例 | 1 |
新唐书 | 2 |
大越史记全书 | 3 |
资治通鉴 | 126 |
重修琴川志 | 1 |
史记 | 163 |
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