Etymology

The name "Goryeo", which is the source of the name "Korea", was originally used by Goguryeo of the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning in the early 5th century. Other attested variants of the name have also been recorded as Gori and Guryeo. There have been various speculations for the breakdown of Goguryeo as a name, the most common being go meaning "high", "noble" and guri meaning "castle", related to the word gol used during medieval Goryeo meaning "place". In 918, Goryeo was founded as the successor to Goguryeo and inherited its name. Historically, Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD), Later Goguryeo (901–918), and Goryeo (918–1392) all used the name "Goryeo". Their historiographical names were implemented in the Samguk sagi in the 12th century. Goryeo also used the names Samhan and Haedong, meaning "East of the Sea".

History

Founding

In the late 7th century, the kingdom of Silla unified the Three Kingdoms of Korea and entered a period known in historiography as "Unified Silla" or "Later Silla". Later Silla implemented a national policy of integrating Baekje and Goguryeo refugees called the "Unification of the Samhan", referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Silla organized a new central army called the Ku-sŏdang that was divided into 3 units of Silla people, 3 units of Goguryeo people, 2 units of Baekje people, and 1 unit of Mohe people. However, the Baekje and Goguryeo refugees retained their respective collective consciousnesses and maintained a deep-seated resentment and hostility toward Silla. Later Silla was initially a period of peace, without a single foreign invasion for 200 years, and commerce, as it engaged in international trade from as distant as the Middle East and maintained maritime leadership in East Asia. Beginning in the late 8th century, Later Silla was undermined by instability because of political turbulence in the capital and class rigidity in the bone-rank system, leading to the weakening of the central government and the rise of the "hojok" regional lords. The military officer Kyŏn Hwŏn revived Baekje in 892 with the descendants of the Baekje refugees, and the Buddhist monk Kung Ye revived Goguryeo in 901 with the descendants of the Goguryeo refugees; these states are called Later Baekje and Later Goguryeo in historiography, and together with Later Silla form the Later Three Kingdoms.

Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions of Later Silla, which, along with its capital located in modern-day Kaesong, North Korea, were the strongholds of the Goguryeo refugees. Among the Goguryeo refugees was Wang Kŏn, a member of a prominent maritime hojok based in Kaesong, who traced his ancestry to a great clan of Goguryeo. Wang Kŏn entered military service under Kung Ye at the age of 19 in 896, before Later Goguryeo had been established, and over the years accumulated a series of victories over Later Baekje and gained the public's confidence. In particular, using his maritime abilities, he persistently attacked the coast of Later Baekje and occupied key points, including modern-day Naju. Kung Ye was unstable and cruel: he moved the capital to Cheorwon in 905, changed the name of his kingdom to Majin in 904 then Taebong in 911, changed his era name multiple times, proclaimed himself the Maitreya Buddha, claimed to read minds, and executed numerous subordinates and family members out of paranoia. In 918, Kung Ye was deposed by his own generals, and Wang Kŏn was raised to the throne. Wang Kŏn, who would posthumously be known by his temple name of Taejo or "Grand Progenitor", changed the name of his kingdom back to "Goryeo", adopted the era name of "Heaven's Mandate", and moved the capital back to his home of Kaesong. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo and laid claim to Manchuria as its rightful legacy. One of Taejo's first decrees was to repopulate and defend the ancient Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang, which had been in ruins for a long time; afterward, he renamed it the "Western Capital", and before he died, he placed great importance on it in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants.

Unification

In contrast to Kung Ye, who had harbored vengeful animosity toward Silla, Taejo (Wang Kŏn) was magnanimous toward the weakened kingdom. In 927, Kyŏn Hwŏn, who had vowed to avenge the last king of Baekje when he founded Later Baekje, sacked the capital of Later Silla, forced the king to commit suicide, and installed a puppet on the throne. Taejo came to Later Silla's aid but suffered a major defeat at the hand of Kyŏn Hwŏn near modern-day Daegu; Taejo barely escaped with his life thanks to the self-sacrifices of Generals Sin Sung-gyŏm and Kim Nak, and, thereafter, Later Baekje became the dominant military power of the Later Three Kingdoms. However, the balance of power shifted toward Goryeo with victories over Later Baekje in 930 and 934, and the peaceful annexation of Later Silla in 935. Taejo graciously accepted the capitulation of the last king of Silla and incorporated the ruling class of Later Silla. In 935, Kyŏn Hwŏn was removed from his throne by his eldest son over a succession dispute and imprisoned at the temple Geumsansa, but he escaped to Goryeo three months later and was deferentially received by his former archrival. In 936, upon Kyŏn Hwŏn's request, Taejo and Kyŏn Hwŏn conquered Later Baekje with an army of 87,500 soldiers, bringing an end to the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo proceeded to incorporate a major portion of the Balhae people whose links to Goguryeo were shared with Goryeo, accepting most of their royalty and nobility in their fold.

Following the destruction of Balhae by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 927, the last crown prince of Balhae and much of the ruling class sought refuge in Goryeo, where they were warmly welcomed and given land by Taejo. In addition, Taejo included the Balhae crown prince in the Goryeo royal family, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo and, according to Korean historians, achieving a "true national unification" of Korea. According to the Goryeosa jeolyo, the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related. Taejo felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country", and protected the Balhae refugees. This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae. Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident". Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jin that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian. Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against.

Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong. Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeoic population in Goryeo is speculated to have become dominant in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. By the end of the Later Three Kingdoms, territories populated by the original Silla people and considered that of "Silla proper" were reduced to Gyeongju and bits of the vicinity. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the P'aesŏ Region and Balhae. Nonetheless, Goryeo proceeded to peacefully absorbing the ruling class of both countries and incorporated them under its bureaucracy; conducting political marriages and distributing positions according to their previous status in their respective countries. In contrast to Silla's bone-rank system, these open policies implemented by Wang Kŏn enabled Goryeo to enjoy a larger pool of highly skilled bureaucrats and technicians with the addition of those coming from Silla and Baekje; later on instilling a single agenda in terms of identity amongst its people. During the time of its existence, Goryeo also accepted a large amount of skilled workers from Medieval China and Tamna as well.

Political reformation

Although Goryeo had unified the Korean Peninsula, the hojok regional lords remained quasi-independent within their walled domains and posed a threat to the monarchy. To secure political alliances, Taejo married 29 women from prominent hojok families, siring 25 sons and 9 daughters. His fourth son, Gwangjong, came to power in 949 to become the fourth ruler of Goryeo and instituted reforms to consolidate monarchical authority. In 956, Gwangjong freed the prisoners of war and refugees who had been enslaved by the hojok during the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period, in effect decreasing the power and influence of the regional nobility and increasing the population liable for taxation by the central government. In 958, advised by Shuang Ji, a naturalized Chinese official from the Later Zhou dynasty, Gwangjong implemented the kwagŏ civil service examinations, based primarily on the imperial examination of the Tang dynasty. This, too, was to consolidate monarchical authority. The kwagŏ remained an important institution in Korea until its abolition in 1894. In contrast to Goryeo's traditional "dual royal/imperial structure under which the ruler was at once king, emperor and Son of Heaven", according to Remco E. Breuker, Gwangjong used a "full-blown imperial system". All those who opposed or resisted his reforms were summarily purged.

Gwangjong's successor, Gyeongjong, instituted the "Stipend Land Law" in 976 to support the new central government bureaucracy established on the foundation of Gwangjong's reforms. The next ruler, Seongjong, secured centralization of government and laid the foundation for a centralized political order. Seongjong filled the bureaucracy with new bureaucrats, who as products of the gwageo civil service examinations were educated to be loyal to the state, and dispatched centrally-appointed officials to administrate the provinces. As a result, the monarch controlled much of the decision making, and his signature was required to implement important decisions. Seongjong supported Confucianism and, upon a proposal by the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Sŭng-no, the separation of government and religion. In addition, Seongjong laid the foundation for Goryeo's educational system: he founded the Kukchagam national university in 992, supplementing the schools already established in Kaesong and Pyongyang by Taejo, and national libraries and archives in Kaesong and Pyongyang that contained tens of thousands of books.

Goryeo–Khitan War

Following the "Manbu Bridge Incident" of 942, Goryeo prepared itself for a conflict with the Khitan Empire: Jeongjong established a military reserve force of 300,000 soldiers called the "Resplendent Army" in 947, and Gwangjong built fortresses north of the Chongchon River, expanding toward the Yalu River. However an attempt to control the Yalu River basin in 984 failed due to conflict with the Jurchens. The Khitans considered Goryeo a potential threat and, with tensions rising, invaded in 993. The Jurchens warned Goryeo of the invasion twice. At first Goryeo did not believe the information but came around upon the second warning and took up a defensive strategy. The Koreans were defeated in their first encounter with the Khitans, but successfully halted their advance at Anyung-jin (in modern Anju, South Pyongan Province) at the Chongchon River. Negotiations began between the Goryeo commander, Sŏ Hŭi, and the Liao commander, Xiao Sunning. In conclusion, Goryeo entered a nominal tributary relationship with Liao, severing relations with Song, and Liao recognized Goryeo sovereignty to the land east of the Yalu River. Goryeo was left free to deal with the Jurchens south of the Yalu and in 994–996, Sŏ Hŭi led an army into the area and built forts. Afterward, Goryeo established the "Six Garrison Settlements East of the River" in its new territory. In 994, Goryeo proposed to Song a joint military attack on Liao, but was declined; previously, in 985, when Song had proposed a joint military attack on Liao, Goryeo had declined. For a time, Goryeo and Liao enjoyed an amicable relationship. In 996, Seongjong married a Liao princess.

As the Khitan Empire expanded and became more powerful, it demanded that Goryeo cede the Six Garrison Settlements, but Goryeo refused. In 1009, Kang Cho staged a ''coup d'état'', assassinating Mokjong and installing Hyeonjong on the throne. Goryeo sent an envoy to the Khitans telling them that the previous king had died and a new king had ascended the throne. In the following year, some Jurchen tribesmen who had been in conflict with Goryeo fled to the Khitans and told them of the coup. Under the pretext of avenging Mokjong, Emperor Shengzong of Liao led an invasion of Goryeo with an army of 400,000 soldiers. Meanwhile, Goryeo tried to establish relations with Song but was ignored, as Song had agreed to the Chanyuan Treaty in 1005. Goryeo gathered a 300,000 strong army under Kang Cho. In the first battle, the Goryeo forces led by Yang Kyu won a victory against the Liao. The Liao decided to split up their forces with one part heading south. The Goryeo army under the leadership of Kang Cho lost the second battle and suffered heavy casualties. The army was dispersed and many commanders were captured or killed, including Kang Cho himself. Later, Pyongyang was successfully defended, but the Liao army marched toward Kaesong.

Hyeonjong, upon the advice of Kang Kam-ch'an, evacuated south to Naju. Shortly afterward, the Liao won a pitched battle outside Kaesong and sacked the city. He then sent and Ko Yŏnggi to sue for peace, with a promise that he would pay homage in person to the Liao emperor. The Khitans, who were sustaining attacks from previously surrendered districts and the regrouped Korean army which disrupted their supply lines, accepted and began their withdrawal. The Liao army became bogged down in the mountains during the winter and had to abandon much of their armour. The Khitans were ceaselessly attacked during their withdrawal; Yang Kyu rescued from over 10,000 to over 30,000 prisoners of war, but died in battle. According to the Goryeosa, due to continued attacks and heavy rain, the Khitan army was devastated and lost its weapons crossing the Yalu. They were attacked while crossing the Yalu River and many drowned. Afterward, Hyeonjong did not fulfill his promise to pay homage in person to the Liao emperor, and when demanded to cede the Six Garrison Settlements, he refused.

The Khitans built a bridge across the Yalu River in 1014 and attacked in 1015, 1016, and 1017: victory went to the Koreans in 1015, the Khitans in 1016, and the Koreans in 1017. Goryeo lost the Poju (Uiju) region. In 1018, Liao launched an invasion led by Xiao Paiya, the older brother of Xiao Sunning, with an army of 100,000 soldiers. The Liao army tried to head straight for Kaesong. Goryeo gathered an army of 208,000 under Kang Kam-ch'an and ambushed and Liao army, which suffered heavy casualties. The Goryeo commander Kang Kam-ch'an had dammed a large tributary of the Yalu River and released the water on the unsuspecting Khitan soldiers, who were then charged by 12,000 elite cavalry. The Liao army pushed on toward Kaesong under constant enemy harassment. After arriving within the vicinity of the well-defended capital, a contingent of 300 cavalry sent as scouts was annihilated, upon which the Liao army decided to withdraw. The Liao troops soldiered on and headed toward the capital, but were met with stiff resistance and constant attacks, and were forced to retreat back north. During the retreat, 10,000 Liao army troops were annihilated by the Goryeo army under of Goryeo. The retreating Liao army was intercepted by Kang Kam-ch'an in modern-day Kusong and suffered a major defeat, with only a few thousand soldiers escaping.

Shengzong intended to invade again and amassed another large expeditionary army in 1019 but faced internal opposition. In 1020, Goryeo sent tribute and Liao accepted, thus resuming nominal tributary relations. Shengzong did not demand that Hyeonjong pay homage in person or cede the Six Garrison Settlements. The only peace treaty stipulations formalized in 1022 were a "declaration of vassalage" and the release of a detained Liao envoy. A Liao envoy was sent in the same year to formally invest the Goryeo king and upon his death in 1031, his successor Wang Hŭm was also invested as king by the Liao. After 1022, Goryeo did not have diplomatic relations with the Song until 1070, with the exception of an isolated embassy in 1030. The sole embassy was probably related to the rebellion of Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the Khitans, who returned to enforce Goryeo's tributary obligations. Goryeo adopted the reign title of the Liao in the fourth month of 1022. The History of Liao claims that Hyeonjong "surrendered" and Shengzong "pardoned" him, but according to Hans Bielenstein, "shorn of its dynastic language, this means no more than that the two states concluded peace as equal partners (formalized in 1022)". Bielenstein claims that Hyeonjong kept his reign title and maintained diplomatic relations with the Song dynasty.

Kaesong was rebuilt, grander than before, and, from 1033 to 1044, the Cheolli Jangseong, a wall stretching from the mouth of the Yalu River to the east coast of the Korean Peninsula, was built for defense against future invasions. Liao never invaded Goryeo again.

Golden age

Following the Goryeo–Khitan War, a balance of power was established in East Asia between Goryeo, Liao, and Song. With its victory over Liao, Goryeo was confident in its military ability and no longer worried about a Khitan military threat. Fu Bi, a grand councilor of the Song dynasty, had a high estimate of Goryeo's military ability and said that Liao was afraid of Goryeo. Furthermore, regarding the attitude of the Koreans, he said: "Among the many tribes and peoples which, depending on their power of resistance, have been either assimilated or made tributary to the Khitan, the Koreans alone do not bow their heads." Song regarded Goryeo as a potential military ally and maintained friendly relations as equal partners. Meanwhile, Liao sought to build closer ties with Goryeo and prevent a Song–Goryeo military alliance by appealing to Goryeo's infatuation with Buddhism, and offered Liao Buddhist knowledge and artifacts to Goryeo. During the 11th century, Goryeo was viewed as "the state that could give either the Song or Liao military ascendancy". When imperial envoys, who represented the emperors of Liao and Song, went to Goryeo, they were received as peers, not suzerains. Goryeo's international reputation was greatly enhanced. Beginning in 1034, merchants from Song and envoys from various Jurchen tribes and the Tamna kingdom attended the annual Palgwanhoe in Kaesong, the largest national celebration in Goryeo; the Song merchants attended as representatives of China while the Jurchen and Tamna envoys attended as members of Goryeo's tianxia. During the reign of Munjong, the Heishui Mohe and Japan, among many others, attended as well. The Tamna kingdom of Jeju Island was incorporated into Goryeo in 1105.

Goryeo's golden age lasted about 100 years into the early 12th century and was a period of commercial, intellectual, and artistic achievement. The capital was a center of trade and industry, and its merchants developed one of the earliest systems of double-entry bookkeeping in the world, called the ''sagae chi'bubŏp, that was used until 1920. The Goryeosa records the arrival of merchants from Arabia in 1024, 1025, and 1040, and hundreds of merchants from Song each year, beginning in the 1030s. There were developments in printing and publishing, spreading the knowledge of philosophy, literature, religion, and science. Goryeo prolifically published and imported books, and by the late 11th century, exported books to China; the Song dynasty transcribed thousands of Korean books. The first Tripitaka Koreana'', amounting to about 6,000 volumes, was completed in 1087. The was established in 1055 by Ch'oe Ch'ung, who is known as the "Haedong Confucius", and soon afterward there were 12 private academies in Goryeo that rivaled the Kukchagam national university. In response, several Goryeo rulers reformed and revitalized the national education system, producing prominent scholars such as Kim Pusik. In 1101, the Seojeokpo printing bureau was established at the Kukchagam. In the early 12th century, local schools called were established. Goryeo's reverence for learning is attested to in the , or , a book by an envoy from the Song dynasty who visited Goryeo in 1123. The reign of Munjong, from 1046 to 1083, was called a "Reign of Peace" and is considered the most prosperous and peaceful period in Goryeo history. Munjong was highly praised and described as "benevolent" and "holy" (賢聖之君) in the Goryeosa. In addition, he achieved the epitome of cultural blossoming in Goryeo. Munjong had 13 sons: the three eldest succeeded him on the throne, and the fourth was the prominent Buddhist monk Uicheon.

Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture, such as Koryŏ celadon, which was highly praised in the Song dynasty, and the Tripitaka Koreana, which was described by UNESCO as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world", with the original 81,258 engraved printing blocks still preserved at the temple Haeinsa. In the early 13th century, Goryeo developed movable type made of metal to print books, 200 years before Johannes Gutenberg in Europe.

Goryeo-Jurchen War

The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918–943), who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje. The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens.

The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of the Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region.

As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Im Kan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Im Kan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan, but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace.

Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban ("Special Warfare Army") be created. It existed apart from the main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch'ong set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue, the Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan. It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of the region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju (Uiju), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain.

Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). When the Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The Jin went on to conquer the Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 (Jingkang incident). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Chagyŏm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself a Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable.

Power struggles

The Inju Yi clan married women to the kings from the time of Munjong to the 17th King, Injong. Eventually the Inju Yi clan gained more power than the monarch himself. This led to the coup of Yi Chagyŏm in 1126. It failed, but the power of the monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility.

In 1135, Myoch'ŏng argued in favor of moving the capital to Sŏgyeong (now Pyongyang). This proposal divided the nobles. One faction, led by Myoch'ŏng, believed in moving the capital to Pyongyang and expanding into Manchuria. The other one, led by Kim Pusik (author of the Samguk sagi), wanted to keep the status quo. Myoch'ŏng failed to persuade the king; he rebelled and established the state of Taewi, but it failed and he was killed.

Military regime

Although Goryeo was founded by the military, its authority was in decline. In 1014, a coup occurred but the effects of the rebellion did not last long, only making generals discontent with the current supremacy of the civilian officers.

In addition, under the reign of King Uijong, military officers were prohibited from entering the Security Council, and even at times of state emergency, they were not allowed to assume commands. After political chaos, Uijong started to enjoy traveling to local temples and studying sutra, while he was almost always accompanied by a large group of civilian officers. The military officers were largely ignored and were even mobilized to construct temples and ponds.

Beginning in 1170, the government of Goryeo was de facto controlled by a succession of powerful families from the warrior class, most notably the Ch'oe family, in a military dictatorship akin to a shogunate.

In 1170, a group of army officers led by Chŏng Chung-bu, Yi Ŭi-bang and Yi Ko launched a coup d'état and succeeded. King Uijong went into exile and King Myeongjong was placed on the throne. Effective power, however, lay with a succession of generals who used an elite guard unit known as the Tobang to control the throne: military rule of Goryeo had begun. In 1179, the young general Kyŏng Taesŭng rose to power and began an attempt to restore the full power of the monarch and purge the corruption of the state.

However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by Yi Ŭimin, who came from a nobi (slave) background. During this period, despite nearly three centuries of Goryeo rule, loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. There were multiple rebellions by the Silla restoration movement to overthrow Goryeo's rule over the Sillan people. Yi's unrestrained corruption and cruelty led to a coup by general Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn, who assassinated Yi Ŭimin and took supreme power in 1197. For the next 61 years, the Ch'oe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining the Kings as puppet monarchs; Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn was succeeded in turn by his son Ch'oe U, his grandson Ch'oe Hang and his great-grandson Ch'oe Ŭi.

When he took control, Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with King Sinjong. What was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister Yi Kyu-bo who was a Confucian scholar-official.

After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to the throne as Huijong. After 7 years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable King Gojong instead.

Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by the Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and also the power of the military regime waned.

Mongol invasions and Yuan domination

Fleeing from the Mongols, in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and defeated the Korean armies multiple times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were defeated by Korean general Kim Ch'wiryŏ who pushed them back north to Pyongan, where the remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219.

Tension continued through the 12th century and into the 13th century, when the Mongol invasions started. After nearly 30 years of warfare, Goryeo swore allegiance to the Mongols, with the direct dynastic rule of Goryeo monarchy.

In 1231, Mongols under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against the Khitans in 1219. The royal court moved to Ganghwado in the Bay of Gyeonggi in 1232. The military ruler of the time, Ch'oe U, insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259.

Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla. There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under Möngke Khan's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions against Korea at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean Peninsula.

Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol invasions caused havoc, loss of human lives and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered the recreation of the Tripitaka Koreana, which was destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day.

In March 1258, the dictator Ch'oe Ŭi was assassinated by Kim Chun. Thus, dictatorship by his military group was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent Crown Prince Wonjong to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Khubilai, who became khan of the Mongols and emperor of China in 1260, did not impose direct rule over most of Goryeo. Goryeo Korea, in contrast to Song China, was treated more like an Inner Asian power. The dynasty was allowed to survive, and intermarriage with Mongols was encouraged, even with the Mongol imperial family, while the marriage between Chinese and Mongols was strictly forbidden when the Song dynasty was ended. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean Peninsula.

Late period

After 1270, Goryeo became a semi-autonomous client state of the Yuan dynasty. The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo tied with marriages and Goryeo became khuda (marriage alliance) vassal of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years and monarchs of Goryeo were mainly imperial sons in-law (khuregen). The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty, Empress Gi, was a daughter of a Goryeo lower-ranked official; Empress Gi was sent to Yuan as one of the many kongnyŏ (貢女; lit. 'tribute women', who were in effects slaves sent over as a sign of Goryeo submission to the Mongols) and became empress in 1365. Empress Gi had great political influence both the Yuan and the Goryeo court, and even manage to significantly increase the status and influence of her family members, including her father who was formally made into a king in the Yuan and her brother Ki Ch'ŏl who at some point manage to get more authority than the Goryeo king. In 1356, King Gongmin purged the family of Empress Gi. The kings of Goryeo held an important status like other important families of Mardin, the Uyghurs and Mongols (Oirats, Khongirad, and Ikeres). It is claimed that one of Goryeo monarchs was the most beloved grandson of Kublai Khan.

The Goryeo dynasty survived under the Yuan until King Gongmin began to push the Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back in the 1350s. By 1356 Goryeo regained its lost northern territories.

Last reform

When King Gongmin ascended to the throne, Goryeo was under the influence of the Mongol Yuan China. He was forced to spend many years at the Yuan court, being sent there in 1341 as a virtual prisoner before becoming king. He married the Mongol princess Princess Noguk (also known as Queen Indeok). But in the mid-14th century the Yuan was beginning to crumble, soon to be replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. King Gongmin began efforts to reform the Goryeo government and remove Mongolian influences.

His first act was to remove all pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officers from their positions. Mongols had annexed the northern provinces of Goryeo after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as the Ssangseong and Dongnyeong Prefectures. The Goryeo army retook these provinces partly thanks to defection from Yi Chach'un, a minor Korean official in service of Mongols in Ssangseong, and his son Yi Sŏnggye. In addition, Generals Yi Sŏnggye and Chi Yongsu led a campaign into Liaoyang.

After the death of Gongmin's wife Noguk in 1365, he fell into depression. In the end, he became indifferent to politics and entrusted that great task to the Buddhist monk Sin Ton. But after six years, Sin Ton lost his position. In 1374, Gongmin was killed by Hong Ryun, Ch'oe Mansaeng, and others.

After his death, a high official Yi Inim assumed the helm of the government and enthroned eleven-year-old, King U, the son of King Gongmin.

During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Ch'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Mongol tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Ch'oe Musŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.

Fall

In 1388, King U (son of King Gongmin and a concubine) and general Ch'oe Yŏng planned a campaign to invade now Liaoning of China. King U put the general Yi Sŏnggye (later Taejo) in charge, but he stopped at the border and rebelled.

Goryeo fell to Yi Sŏnggye, who put to death the last three Goryeo kings, usurped the throne, and established in 1392 the Joseon dynasty.

Government

Goryeo positioned itself at the center of its own "world" called "Haedong". Haedong, meaning "East of the Sea", was a distinct and independent world that encompassed the historical domain of the "Samhan", another name for the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The rulers of Goryeo, or Haedong, used the titles of emperor and Son of Heaven. Imperial titles were used since the founding of Goryeo, and the last king of Silla addressed Wang Geon as the Son of Heaven when he capitulated. Posthumously, temple names with the imperial characters of progenitor and ancestor were used. Imperial designations and terminology were widely used, such as "empress", "imperial crown prince", "imperial edict", and "imperial palace".

The rulers of Goryeo donned imperial yellow clothing, made sacrifices to Heaven, and invested sons as kings. Goryeo used the Three Departments and Six Ministries imperial system of the Tang dynasty and had its own "microtributary system" that included Jurchen tribes outside its borders. The military of Goryeo was organized into 5 armies, like an empire, as opposed to 3, like a kingdom. Goryeo maintained multiple capitals: the main capital "Kaegyŏng" (also called "Hwangdo" or "Imperial Capital") in modern-day Kaesong, the "Western Capital" in modern-day Pyongyang, the "Eastern Capital" in modern-day Gyeongju, and the "Southern Capital" in modern-day Seoul. The main capital and main palace were designed and intended to be an imperial capital and imperial palace. The secondary capitals represented the capitals of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

The Song, Liao, and Jin dynasties were all well informed of, and tolerated, Goryeo's imperial claims and practices. According to Henry Em, "at times Song reception rituals for Koryŏ envoys and Koryŏ reception rituals for imperial envoys from Song, Liao, and Jin suggested equal rather than hierarchical relations". In 1270, Goryeo capitulated to the Mongols and became a semi-autonomous "son-in-law state" of the Yuan dynasty, bringing an end to its imperial system. The Yuan dynasty demoted the imperial titles of Goryeo and added "''ch'ung''", meaning "loyalty", to the posthumous names of Goryeo kings, beginning with Chungnyeol. This continued until the mid-14th century, when Gongmin declared independence.

Military

The military comprises both the army and the navy. Military leaders were appointed by Kings/Emperors.

Regional administration

Foreign relations

Goryeo affiliated itself with the successive short-lived Five Dynasties beginning with the Shatuo Later Tang dynasty in 933, and Taejo was acknowledged as the legitimate successor to Dongmyeong of Goguryeo.

In 962, Goryeo entered relations with the nascent Song dynasty. Song did not have real suzerainty over Goryeo, and Goryeo sent tribute mainly for the sake of trade. Later, Goryeo entered nominal tributary relations with the Khitan Liao dynasty then the Jurchen Jin dynasty while maintaining trade and unofficial relations with the Song dynasty. The Korean missions to China were intended to seek knowledge on fields such as Confucianism, Buddhism, history, and other subjects, conduct diplomacy, and trade. Missions to the Song in 976, 986, and after 1105 stayed there for study. Goryeo requested texts from the Song in 991, 993, 1019, 1021, 1073, 1074, 1092, and after 1105. They also brought texts to China. Diplomatic missions were conducted to announce birthdays, deaths, and successions. Trade, in particular, was an important aspect of all the missions. Annual tribute was expected to be exchanged for proper payment. In 1093, Su Shi suggested that Goryeo envoys should stick to trade in commercial products such as silk and hair instead of books. Sometimes missions were sent even though they would not be received to conduct trade.

The Five Dynasties, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty pretended that Goryeo was a tributary vassal. However this was a fiction. The Five Dynasties and the Song did not share a border with Goryeo and had no way to assert supremacy over it. The Liao invasions of Goryeo from 993 to 1020 were successfully repelled. The Jin made no similar effort against Goryeo. Goryeo was not a vassal to these powers and successfully stood up to Liao and Jin through clever diplomacy and minimal appeasement. Goryeo was autonomous until Mongol rule. Sinologist Hans Bielenstein described the nature of Goryeo's nominal tributary relations with the dynasties in China:

In 1270, Goryeo capitulated to the Yuan dynasty, which exercised a powerful influence over Goryeo affairs and the succession of Goryeo kings. Goryeo remained under the Yuan dynasty until the mid-14th century.

Goryeo used multiple calendars. In 938, it used the Later Jin calendar, in 948 Later Han, in 952 Later Zhou, in 963 Song, in 994 Liao, in 1016 Song, and in 1022 Liao. In 1136, Goryeo was presented with a Jin calendar. It is possible that Goryeo used different calendars simultaneously depending on which country they dealt with.

Society

Nobility

At the time of Goryeo, Korean nobility was divided into 6 classes.

• Kukkong, duke of a nation

• ''Kun'gong, duke of a county

• Hyŏnhu, marquis of a town

• Hyŏnbaek, count of a town

• Kaegukja or hyŏnja, viscount of a town

• Hyŏnnam'', baron of a town

Also the title t'aeja was given to sons of monarch. In most other east Asian countries this title meant crown prince. T'aeja was similar to taegun or gun of Joseon.

Religion

Buddhism

Buddhism in medieval Korea evolved in ways which rallied support for the state.

Initially, the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various "nine mountain" monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court of the Kyo schools. The struggles which ensued continued for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand. The position that was generally adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the efforts of Jinul, did not claim clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, but rather declared the intrinsic unity and similarities of the Seon and Kyo viewpoints. Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward the end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a "religion of the state," receiving extensive support and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful members of the court. Although Buddhist predominated, Taoism was practiced in some temples, as was shamanism.

Although most of the scholastic schools waned in activity and influence during this period of the growth of Seon, the Hwaeom school continued to be a lively source of scholarship well into the Goryeo, much of it continuing the legacy of Uisang and Wonhyo. In particular the work of Kyunyŏ (; 923–973) prepared for the reconciliation of Hwaeom and Seon, with Hwaeom's accommodating attitude toward the latter. Gyunyeo's works are an important source for modern scholarship in identifying the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom.

Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was Ŭich'ŏn. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with the Hwaeom school. He later traveled to China, and upon his return, actively promulgated the Cheontae (, or Tiantai in Chinese) teachings, which became recognized as another Seon school. This period thus came to be described as "five doctrinal and two meditational schools". Ŭich'ŏn himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died at a relatively young age without seeing a Seon-Kyo unity accomplished.

The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (; 1158–1210). In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefore, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period.

Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the "samādhi and prajñā society", whose goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye. Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chinese Seon, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Zongmi (780–841) and Dahui (; 1089–1163), Jinul created a "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa method into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Kyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism.

The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produce some of Korea's most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were contemporaries and friends: ''Gyeonghan Baeg'un (; 1298–1374), Taego Bou (; 1301–1382) and Naong Hyegeun (; 1320–1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the Linji ( or Imje in Korean) gwanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned, and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti-scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional Tongbulgyo tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of confucianism and taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the foundation of official education. From this time, a marked tendency for Korean Buddhist monks to be "three teachings" exponents appeared.

A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, called the Tripitaka Koreana. Two editions were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by Mongol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years.

Confucianism

Gwangjong created the national civil service examinations. Seongjong was a key figure in establishing confucianism. He founded Kukchagam, the highest educational institution of the Goryeo dynasty. This was facilitated by the establishment in 1398 of the Sungkyunkwan – an academy with a Confucian curriculum – and the building of an altar at the palace, where the king would worship his ancestors.

Islam

According to Goryeosa, Muslims arrived in the peninsula in the year 1024 in the Goryeo kingdom, a group of some 100 Muslims, including Hasan Raza, came in September of the 15th year of Hyeonjong of Goryeo and another group of 100 Muslim merchants came the following year.

Trading relations between the Islamic world and the Korean peninsula continued with the succeeding Goryeo kingdom through to the 15th century. As a result, a number of Muslim traders from the Near East and Central Asia settled down in Korea and established families there. Some Muslim Hui people from China also appear to have lived in the Goryeo kingdom.

With the Mongol armies came the so-called Saengmokin (Semu), or "colored-eye people", this group consisted of Muslims from Central Asia. In the Mongol social order, the Saengmokin occupied a position just below the Mongols themselves, and exerted a great deal of influence within the Yuan dynasty.

It was during this period satirical poems were composed and one of them was the Sanghwajeom, the "Colored-eye people bakery", the song tells the tale of a Korean woman who goes to a Muslim bakery to buy some dumplings.

Small-scale contact with predominantly Muslim peoples continued on and off. During the late Goryeo period, there were mosques in the capital Kaesong, called Ye-Kung, whose literary meaning is a "ceremonial hall".

One of those Central Asian immigrants to Korea originally came to Korea as an aide to a Mongol princess who had been sent to marry King Chungnyeol of Goryeo. Goryeo documents say that his original name was Samga'' but, after he decided to make Korea his permanent home, the king bestowed on him the Korean name of Jang Sun-nyong. Jang married a Korean and became the founding ancestor of the Deoksu Jang clan. His clan produced many high officials and respected Confucian scholars over the centuries. Twenty-five generations later, around 30,000 Koreans look back to Jang Sunnyong as the grandfather of their clan: the Jang clan, with its seat at Toksu village.

The same is true of the descendants of another Central Asian who settled down in Korea. A Central Asian named Seol Son fled to Korea when the Red Turban Rebellion erupted near the end of the Mongol's Yuan dynasty. He, too, married a Korean, originating a lineage called the Gyeongju Seol that claims at least 2,000 members in Korea.

Soju

Soju was first distilled around the 13th century, during the Mongol invasions of Korea. The Mongols had acquired the technique of distilling Arak from the Muslim world during their invasion of Central Asia and the Middle East around 1256, it was subsequently introduced to Koreans and distilleries were set up around the city of Kaesong. Indeed, in the area surrounding Kaesong, Soju is known as Arak-ju. Under the reign of King Chungnyeol, soju quickly became a popular drink, while the stationed region of Mongolian troops came to produce high-quality soju, for instance in Andong.

Culture

Literature

The official histories of early Korea such as the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa, written in Classical Chinese, remain some of the most important historical works in Korean historiography.

Various writing systems that utilized the phonetic value of Hanja characters were used to transcribe Old Korean, Idu being the most notable of them as it was used for administrative purposes and recordkeeping. This script originates in Goguryeo and was designed for a very specific sort of syntax that made use of postpositional particles, such as the Old Korean accusative marker *-ul/*-ur ending represented by 'corpse' and '2nd Heavenly stem'. It was eventually phased out once it became too impractical upon the invention of Hangeul.

Gugyeol was used to gloss Middle Chinese poems so Koreans could read them, with two versions having been used limited by their timeframes. Interpretative Gugyeol was predominant up to the 12th century and was supposed to tell the reader the meaning of the text and was meant to be read in Old Korean. The later form of Gugyeol appearing in the 13th century was meant to make it possible to spell out the Middle Chinese poem for the average reader, who would not know how Chinese sounded, by inferring the Koreanized pronunciation on it instead.

Hyangga poetry, which made use of Hyangchal, another writing system used to write Old Korean, was contrary to common belief still widespread during Goryeo and a number of the surviving poems that were attributed to the Unified Silla period have been revealed to have been created during Goryeo. The Cheoyongga is one of these examples, a story about a man and his unfaithful wife.

The Goryeo aristocracy emphasized engaging with high literature and court poetry in Classical Chinese. Learning Chinese poetry as well as composing poetry in Classical Chinese was a popular leisure activity for the aristocracy.

Tripitaka Koreana

Tripitaka Koreana is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka of approximately 80,000 pages. The wooden blocks that were used to print it are stored in Haeinsa temple in South Gyeongsang Province. The second version was made in 1251 by Gojong in an attempt invoke the power of Buddhism to fend off the Mongol invasion. The wooden blocks are kept clean by leaving them to dry outside every year. The Tripiṭaka Koreana was designated a National Treasure of South Korea in 1962, and inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 2007.

Art

Goryeo celadon

The ceramics of Goryeo are considered by some to be the finest small-scale works of ceramics in Korean history. Key-fret, foliate designs, geometric or scrolling flowerhead bands, elliptical panels, stylized fish and insects, and the use of incised designs began at this time. Glazes were usually various shades of celadon, with browned glazes to almost black glazes being used for stoneware and storage. Celadon glazes could be rendered almost transparent to show black and white inlays.

While the forms generally seen are broad-shouldered bottles, larger low bowls or shallow smaller bowls, highly decorated celadon cosmetic boxes, and small slip-inlaid cups, the Buddhist potteries also produced melon-shaped vases, chrysanthemum cups often of spectacularly architectural design on stands with lotus motifs and lotus flower heads. In-curving rimmed alms bowls have also been discovered similar to Korean metalware. Wine cups often had a tall foot which rested on dish-shaped stands.

Lacquerware with mother of pearl inlay

During the Goryeo period, lacquerware with mother-of-pearl inlay reached a high point of technical and aesthetic achievement and was widely used by members of the aristocracy for Buddhist ritual implements and vessels, as well as horse saddles and royal carriages. Inlaid lacquers combine texture, color, and shape to produce a dazzling effect in both large and small objects. Although Korean lacquerware of the Goryeo period was highly prized throughout East Asia, fewer than fifteen examples are known to have survived, one of which is this exquisite box in the Museum's collection. This paucity of material is largely attributable to the fragility of lacquer objects and, to a certain extent, to wars and raids by foreign powers, notably those launched from Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598) in the late sixteenth century.

More info on Goryeo lacquerware

Construction techniques

These ceramics are of a hard porcellaneous body with porcelain stone as one of the key ingredients; however, it is not to be confused with porcelain. The body is low clay, quartz rich, high potassia and virtually identical in composition to the Chinese Yueh ceramics which scholars hypothesize occasioned the first production of celadon in Korea. The glaze is an ash glaze with iron colourant, fired in a reduction atmosphere in a modified Chinese-style 'dragon' kiln. The distinctive blue-grey-green of Korean celadon is caused by the iron content of the glaze with a minimum of titanium contaminant, which modifies the color to a greener cast, as can be seen in Chinese Yueh wares. However, the Goryeo potters took the glaze in a different direction than their Chinese forebears; instead of relying solely on underglaze incised designs, they eventually developed the sanggam technique of inlaying black (magnetite) and white (quartz) which created bold contrast with the glaze. Scholars also theorize that this developed in part to an inlay tradition in Korean metalworks and lacquer, and also to the dissatisfaction with the nearly invisible effect of incising when done under a thick celadon glaze.

Modern celadon

A revival of Goryeo celadon pottery began in the early 20th century. Playing a leading role in its revival was Yu Geun-hyeong, a Living National Treasure whose work was documented in the 1979 short film, Koryo Celadon.

Technology

It is generally accepted that the world's first metal movable type was invented in Goryeo during the 13th century by Ch'oe Yun-ŭi. The first metal movable type book was the Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun that was printed in 1234. Technology in Korea took a big step in Goryeo and strong relation with the Song dynasty contributed to this. In the dynasty, Korean ceramics and paper, which come down to now, started to be manufactured.

Cotton was introduced in the 1370s.

During the late Goryeo Dynasty, Goryeo was at the cutting edge of shipboard artillery. In 1356 early experiments were carried out with gunpowder weapons that shot wood or metal projectiles. In 1373 experiments with incendiary arrows and "fire tubes" possibly an early form of the Hwacha were developed and placed on Korean warships. The policy of placing cannons and other gunpowder weapons continued well into the Joseon dynasty and by 1410, over 160 Joseon warships had cannons on board. Ch'oe Musŏn, a medieval Korean inventor, military commander and scientist who introduced widespread use of gunpowder to Korea for the first time and creating various gunpowder based weapons.

References

• Goryeo (Wikipedia)

國號

高麗國號取自高句麗的簡稱，成宗時期的大臣徐熙曾明確表示：「我國即高勾麗之舊也，故號高麗。」高麗經阿拉伯人介紹，為西方世界所知。今日朝鮮半島國家的外文名稱，如英文名「」等，就是「高麗」韓語發音的變形。在一些場合，高麗國號前會冠中國名號，如「有唐高麗國」、「有晉高麗國」、「有（大）宋高麗國」、「有（大）元高麗國」等，但臣事遼、金時則無此習慣，向單稱「高麗國」。

歷史

早期歷史

建國

9世紀以後，新羅國日益腐朽，再加上貴族及農民起義，國家統治機構趨向衰落，地方封建集團乘機擴張勢力範圍。公元900年，新羅海防軍裨將甄萱在完山州（今全羅北道全州）割地自立，建立後百濟國。 901年，新羅王族弓裔在鐵圓（今江原道鐵原）成立以複興高句麗為目的的後高句麗政權，904年改國號「摩震」，年號「武泰」。朝鮮半島形成新羅、後百濟和後高句麗三國鼎立的「後三國」。

918年，弓裔手下的幾位大將擁立王建推翻弓裔，改國號為「高麗」，年號「天授」，次年遷都至松岳（今開城）。後百濟與新羅都遣使到高麗與其建交。920年，後百濟攻打新羅，高麗出兵相救。後百濟從此與高麗斷交，于924年和925年兩次攻打高麗，雙方後相互以親戚為人質議和。926年，後百濟人質甄萱外甥在高麗病故。甄萱認為是被高麗所殺，于是殺死了高麗在後百濟的人質王建的堂弟。927年，高麗聯合新羅與後百濟大戰。同年9月，甄萱攻進新羅國都慶州，逼迫新羅景哀王自殺後，立金傅為王，是為敬順王。931年，太祖王建應敬順王之邀訪問新羅共商征討後百濟之策。934年高麗太祖大敗後百濟後，後百濟發生王子爭奪王位的內亂，甄萱被其子軟禁于金山寺，脫逃後歸順高麗。935年，敬順王主動將新羅江山讓給太祖王建，並娶王建長女為妻，成為高麗駙馬。936年9月，高麗滅後百濟 ，實現朝鮮半島統一。930年和938年，芋陵（鬱陵島）和耽羅（濟州島）先後主動臣服于高麗。

鞏固中央集權

高麗建國後開始致力于中央集權的鞏固。為了遏制地方貴族的勢力，高麗太祖一方面鼓勵地方貴族移居開京，另一方面修複已經荒蕪的昔日高句麗國都平壤，希望將其建成高麗王室獨占的西京。王建強化中央集權的建國理念可見于其留給繼承人的《訓要十條》、《政戒》一卷和《戒百僚書》八篇中。

光宗時期，高麗為消弱地方貴族勢力于956年頒布《》，釋放了地方貴族勢力所占有的大量奴婢。958年，光宗開始推行科舉制度，兩年後改革官服和品級體制，通過文治壓制貴族勢力。景宗時期，高麗對太祖以來實行的「役分田」制進行了改革，開始推行根據官位高低分配田租的田柴科制，為中央集權的進一步鞏固提供了經濟基礎。成宗時期，崔承老上《時務策二十八條》，中央集權體製得到強化。983年，高麗在全國設置12牧，由中央派遣官員出任地方官。中央政府建立起三省六部和中樞院，並設立國子監。成宗15年（996），高麗發行鑄幣乾元重寶，整治貨幣流通秩序。此外，成宗還開始在西京平壤建立與開京一樣的官僚機構為副都，以擺脫貴族勢力的牽制。

中期歷史

高麗契丹戰爭

成宗十二年（993），契丹遼滅定安國後，開始攻打高麗。遼駙馬蕭遜寧率80萬大軍攻下蓬山郡。高麗上下驚恐。前去營救蓬山郡的高麗大將徐熙察覺遼只想讓高麗臣服而非為擴張領土而來，于是返程與成宗商議與遼議和。與此同時，遼軍在安州受阻。高麗以少勝多，大敗蕭遜寧。徐熙請命與蕭遜寧談判。蕭遜寧認為高麗以新羅建國。鑑於遼已攻占高句麗舊土，高麗應交出所占高句麗舊土，臣服于遼，否則兵戎相見。徐熙則反駁說高麗都高句麗舊都平壤，以高麗為國號，高句麗舊土為高麗所有。他表示高麗並非不願臣服，只是兩國被女真相隔。經過談判，蕭遜寧在得到遼聖宗的批准後與高麗最終達成協議。遼將鴨綠江左岸女真之地讓給高麗，高麗與宋斷交，奉遼為正朔，使用遼的年號統和。此後，高麗在鴨綠江東修築了興化、龍州、通州、鐵州、郭州、龜州6城。

1009年，高麗發生康兆政變。高麗將軍康肇殺死高麗穆宗，擁立王詢為王，是為顯宗。1010年，高麗尚書、左司郞中河拱辰攻擊東女真，兵敗後懷恨在心，與和州防禦郞中柳宗一起殺死了95名來高麗朝貢的女真人。女真後求契丹為其出氣。同年11月，遼聖宗耶律隆緒趁機以為穆宗報仇為由，率40萬契丹大軍攻打高麗。遼的入侵遭到高麗頑強抵抗，但耶律隆緒最終于1011年1月1日攻克高麗開京，並放火焚燒了開京。不過顯宗早已南下。由于後方興化、龜州、通州和西京的高麗軍民仍在奮力反擊遼軍，耶律隆緒無力南下追殺顯宗，于1月11日撤兵。後退之時，「所降諸城皆叛」，龜州、通州和郭州等地高麗軍民對撤退的遼軍發起猛烈攻擊，遼軍傷亡甚重。

1011年，高麗遣使謝遼班師，但耶律隆緒要顯宗親自來朝覲。高麗以「王病不能親朝」為由拒絕。此後，遼開始要求高麗歸還鴨綠江南岸的6城。之前耶律隆緒從高麗撤軍時遭到6城猛烈襲擊，險些全軍覆沒。高麗擁有這6城後，東北女真各部紛紛來高麗朝貢與高麗建立友好關係。耶律隆緒因此決意收回6城。幾番外交周旋無果後，遼先後于1014年10月、1016年1月、1017年8月和1018年10月四次大規模入侵高麗，企圖以武力奪取6城，但都被高麗擊退。耶律隆緒原本打算發動一次更大規模的戰爭，但雙方都疲憊于常年征戰，最終議和。1022年，遼冊封顯宗為高麗國王，送食邑萬戶、食實封千戶，以及很多禮品。1029年，興遼國謀求聯合高麗攻打契丹。高麗並未響應。1031年，顯宗和遼聖宗相繼去世。1033到1044年，高麗德宗下令在朝鮮半島北部修建千里長城。

中期繁榮

遼聖宗耶律隆緒去世後，遼國開始逐漸走向衰弱。文宗時期，宋與遼的實力幾近相當，遼、宋、高麗三國和平相處。高麗同時與遼和宋保持著良好的關係。1071年，高麗與宋恢復了高麗契丹戰爭後中斷的外交關係。文宗統治前後，高麗經濟、文化等各方面出現繁榮複興的局面。

貴族政治的瓦解與武臣當政

高麗仁宗即位之初，高麗外戚當道。自文宗中書令李子淵三女嫁文宗為妃後，李氏家族7代歷80餘年權傾高麗朝野。1122年，李子淵之孫睿宗的國舅李資謙在睿宗升遐後，擁立其外孫睿宗之子高麗仁宗為王，並逼迫仁宗娶其三女和四女為后妃。李資謙與及其黨羽拓俊京把持高麗朝政，引起仁宗厭惡。1126年，仁宗近臣欲密謀誅殺李資謙黨羽拓俊京的弟弟和兒子，以剷除李資謙勢力。但李資謙和拓俊京得卻藉機反叛，火燒王宮，殺死仁宗親信，逼迫仁宗將王位讓給李資謙。由于高麗大臣們的反對，李資謙並未得逞。之後，李資謙企圖投毒殺死仁宗，但由于仁宗王妃的保護，也未成功。此後，李資謙與拓俊京之間出現矛盾。仁宗通過拉攏拓俊京，除掉李資謙勢力，並將之流配至全羅道靈光。數個月後，李資謙病死于流配地。拓俊京在勤王有功後，卻仗著功勳而日益囂張跋扈，仁宗五年（1127年），被流配至岩墮島（現今智島）。

李資謙之亂後，開京殘破。西京平壤貴族希望藉機讓仁宗遷都。西京僧人妙清在鄭知常的引薦下，以風水地理之說勸仁宗離開王氣已盡的開京，到西京稱元建帝，複興王室，北伐金國。1129年2月，位于西京林原驛的宮殿正式落成。但是，遷都計劃遭到了開京貴族的強烈反對。1135年1月，妙清與趙匡等人在西京起事，自立國號「大為」，年號「開天」，史稱「」。同年，妙清之亂被金富軾平定。

毅宗時期，高麗重文輕武的政策達到極致。1170年8月，鄭仲夫，李義方和李高等幾位高麗武臣因不滿毅宗和文臣的欺壓發動政變，建立明宗傀儡政權, 史稱「武人之亂」。高麗從此進入武人統治時代。1208年，以崔忠獻為代表的武臣政權正式形成。

後期歷史

蒙古入侵

高宗十八年（1231），攻打金國的窩闊台命撒禮塔率師攻打高麗。由于高麗軍民奮力反擊，蒙古軍在龜州、忠州、慈州等地受阻後與高麗議和。蒙古人留下72名達魯花赤後，于次年1月撤軍。這72名達魯花赤為擄掠錢財在高麗橫徵暴斂。1232年7月，高麗武臣政權統治者崔瑀處死了達魯花赤。利用蒙古人不善水戰的弱點，崔瑀將高宗及其王室轉移到江華島，將其設為戰時國都（江都），並發表「入保山城，入避海島」的全國令，備戰蒙古再次入侵。1232至1259年，蒙古又先後5次大規模入侵高麗，使高麗經濟、文化遭到極大破敗。保存于大邱符仁寺的《高麗大藏經》初版，慶州的皇龍寺都在戰火中被蒙古人燒毀。但在高宗在位的40餘年間，蒙古人始終未能攻下江都。

高宗四十五年（1258），主張繼續抵抗蒙古入侵的武臣政權統治者崔竩被殺。蒙古人趁機再度入侵高麗。次年3月，高麗與蒙古議和。1260年高宗去世後，傾向附元的元宗即位，高麗正式成為蒙古藩屬國。不過武臣政權的三別抄部隊仍然繼續反擊蒙古入侵，直到1273年4月被元朝和高麗的聯合討伐所滅。忠烈王即位後，高麗開始與元朝聯姻。高麗君主娶元朝公主為王后，元朝則通過嫁到高麗的公主控制、幹涉高麗朝政。1275年，元朝聯合高麗攻打日本，兵敗。1280年，元朝為再度攻打日本在高麗設征東行省，次年再度聯合飽受倭寇侵擾的高麗攻打日本，但再度失敗。

滅亡

1356年，高麗以評理印（王當），同知密直司事姜仲卿為西北面兵馬使，司尹辛王旬、俞洪，前大護軍崔瑩、前副正崔夫介為副使，率軍攻鴨綠江以西八站。六月癸丑，引兵渡鴨綠江攻婆娑府等三站破之。並一度停用至正年號，又命樞密院副使柳仁雨為東北面兵馬使，率軍進攻雙城總管府（今黑龍江省雙城市東京道的南端雙城堡）。雙城總管趙小生、千戶卓都卿逃走。高麗攻占「和、登、定、長、預、高、文、宜及宣德、寧仁、輝德、靜邊等鎮。」至此，1258年後歸屬元朝的部分土地被高麗收回。高麗又繼續北進，攻占曷懶甸之戰時設立的咸州，即元之合蘭府（今咸鏡南道咸興）至三散（今咸鏡南道北青）的土地，勢力達至伊板嶺（即朝鮮摩天嶺）。1362年元朝納哈出率軍攻打三散、忽面等地，逼近咸興，被高麗東北面將領李成桂擊敗。高麗向元朝呈文聲稱：不僅雙城，三散等地也是高麗「舊疆」，但是咸州以北地區自渤海國時期起，先後屬于渤海、遼、金、元管轄，從來不屬于新羅、高麗。

1363年，崔瑩成功戰勝殘留在濟州島、平壤等地的蒙古軍隊，收複這些地區的主權。1370年高麗又發動也頓村之戰。

1382年，明朝命故元降將胡拔都深入到東女真地區，招撫當地的女真人等。翌年八月，胡拔都又率部進抵端州（今端川市），女真首領金同不花降附，高麗命令其大將李成桂率兵出擊，雙方戰于吉州平，女真敗退。

明洪武二十一年（1388年），明朝在原雙城總管府之地設置鐵嶺衛，移文告知高麗。高麗國王王禑、門下侍中崔瑩密議進攻遼東，守門下侍中李成桂反對無效。是年四月，王禑派左軍都統使曹敏修、右軍都統使李成桂出兵攻遼東。五月，曹敏修、李成桂渡過鴨綠江後，發覺行軍困難、糧餉不濟，上書要求班師，王禑不聽。于是在威化島回軍，回師松都，流放崔瑩。六月，王禑退位，其子王昌即位。以李成桂為東北面朔方、江陵道都統使，賜忠勤亮節宣威同德安社功臣之號；八月，都總中外諸軍事；十月，兼判尚瑞司事。明洪武二十二年（1388年）十一月，王禑意圖複闢，事敗，李成桂以明朝稱王昌非恭愍王之後而不許入朝為藉口，廢王昌為庶人，改立高麗宗室王瑤，是為恭讓王。王禑流放江陵，王昌流放江華，十二月被誅。恭讓王以李成桂為奮忠定難匡複燮理佐命功臣，爵和寧君、開國忠義伯，食邑一千戶，食實封三百戶，田二百結、奴婢二十口，稱中興功臣，父母妻封爵，子孫蔭職。

明洪武二十五年（1392年）七月十二日，右侍中裴克廉等脅迫恭愍王妃廢黜恭讓王。十七日丙申，在右侍中裴克廉、判三司事趙浚、奉化郡忠義君鄭道傳、同知密直司事南訚等親信的勸進下，權知高麗國事李成桂在松都壽昌宮即位，時年五十八歲。高麗王朝滅亡。

政治制度

高麗國剛成立時，採用了「外王內帝」政策，在國內自稱「皇帝」，受中原王朝冊封「高麗國王」。高麗光宗十一年稱首都為皇都，高麗成宗十四年又改成開城府，首都的皇宮被稱為「皇城」。同時採用了與中國近似的皇室制度，皇帝的命令稱為「詔」；皇帝的繼任人被稱為「皇太子」； 皇帝的母親被稱為「皇太后」。與中國不同的是高麗君主除了被稱為「皇帝」，也被稱為「海東天子」，敬稱「陛下」。1275年高麗向元朝稱臣後，高麗忠烈王從元大都返回開城即位，不再以皇帝自稱，改稱國王，敬稱「殿下」。政府機關的尚書省和中書門下省改為僉議府，樞密院改為密直司，御史台改為檢察司，吏部和禮部改為典理司，刑部改為典法司。宰相頭銜的侍中改為中贊，平章事改為贊成事，高麗的廟號制度也從元宗後廢止。

高麗的官員分為不同的班，文班任文職，武班任武職，南班任宮中差役，軍班任軍中官職。

高麗前期仿效宋朝的政治體制，設立了主管行政的三省六部，主管軍事的樞密院和主管財政的三司。其中三省的中書省和門下省合稱中書門下省，尚書省亦稱「尚書都省」。三省長官為尚書令、中書令、侍中，品秩均為從一品，地位僅次虛位三師和三公。尚書令和中書令不常設，多以門下侍中為宰相，加「平章事」銜者亦為宰相。高麗忠烈王時期，將都兵馬使改製成「都評議使司」，成員包括僉議府和密直司的高級官員，成為最高權力機關。

1280年，元朝為攻打日本在高麗建立征東行省。在王京（今朝鮮開城）設達魯花赤管理征東事務及監管高麗國政；高麗忠烈王王椹後成為第一個在元朝機構里兼任達魯花赤的高麗國王。

對外關係

與遼朝

契丹於926年滅渤海國後，高麗太祖吸納渤海遺民並打算北伐。942年，契丹送給高麗50匹駱駝，但遭高麗太祖拒絕。 契丹來使被放逐到孤島，所送駱駝也都被餓死（萬夫橋事件）。以後的高麗國王都對契丹採取敵對的政策並與宋朝結盟。為了防止高麗與宋聯合對付契丹，契丹先後于983年，985年，989年小規模偷襲高麗。 993年，80萬契丹大軍越過鴨綠江大舉入侵高麗西北部。高麗軍隊與契丹在鳳山郡展開激烈的鬥爭，最終將契丹大軍阻擋在清川江。 契丹意識到以武力征服朝鮮半島的代價較大，于是契丹開始與高麗進行談判。在高麗同意斷絕與宋的聯盟並臣服契丹後，契丹軍撤退。1009年高麗發生軍變。主張抗遼的大將康肇殺死高麗穆宗，擁立高麗顯宗為王。 契丹趁機以平叛為由，發動40萬大軍再次入侵高麗。康肇率軍奮力抵抗，但最終不敵契丹而戰死沙場。顯宗逃離皇城。契丹軍占領開城後，由于戰線拉的太長擔心會受到高麗反擊，開始撤退。高麗趁勢反攻，給予契丹沉重打擊。1018年，契丹派10萬大軍捲土重來。雙方之後議和，以後契丹再也沒有入侵高麗。

與女真

朝鮮半島東北部的一些女真部落曾為高麗的臣屬，向高麗朝貢。 女真氏族首領接受高麗授予的武官官職有將軍、寧塞將軍、歸德將軍、柔遠將軍、懷化將軍等；文官官職有大相、大匡、元甫、正甫、大丞等。 由于這些女真部落位于高麗東北部而稱為「東女真」或「東北女真」。

完顏部統一了女真後，女真變得強大，開始向高麗挑釁並最終入侵高麗。面對女真的入侵，高麗肅宗下令讓高麗所有軍人上陣抵抗侵略，但卻不敵入侵的女真。不過在尹瓘的說服下，女真後來撤退。女真撤退後，尹瓘感到高麗缺乏一支精實的部隊，于是重組高麗軍隊並培訓一支精銳部隊。1107年，尹瓘率領一支1萬7千人的重組部隊攻打女真並最終取勝。勝利後尹瓘在朝鮮半島東北部修建了9座城堡（九城）。1108年，高麗宮廷大臣爭鬥。高麗新君主睿宗令尹瓘撤兵。1115年，女真建立起金國，不久滅了遼國。金國的崛起，割斷了高麗與中國宋朝和其它鄰國的聯繫。由于受到孤立，高麗國力開始削弱。

與蒙古

1231年蒙古軍進攻高麗，高麗王室從松都（今開城）遷往江華島，其後蒙古數征高麗，進行擄掠，但仍對江華島沒有辦法。高麗三別抄義軍抵抗蒙古和元朝軍隊至1273年。蒙古入侵高麗期間，高麗大藏經被蒙古人破壞。高麗高宗下令重新修複大藏經，以期待佛祖能夠保佑高麗的平安。

高麗內部對蒙古的入侵存在兩派。文派反對與蒙古交戰，而以崔氏家族為首的武派則堅持繼續抗蒙。1258年崔氏政權首領被文派殺害後，蒙古與高麗達成和平協議，同意保留高麗的國家主體，高麗首都則遷回開城。忽必烈即位後，高麗成為其藩屬，後設征東行省，高麗國王兼任行省達魯花赤。高麗君主從忠烈王開始娶蒙古公主為妻，高麗君主繼承人按照約定，必須在元大都（今北京）長大成人後，方可回高麗。

文化

教育

高麗官學由國子監、學堂和鄉校構成。太祖十三年（930年），西京平壤和一些地區出現了鄉校。成宗六年（987年），高麗開始向地方十二州派經學博士和義學博士，高麗中央開始管理地方教育。鄉校作為高麗官學的地方教育機構也在這一時期在高麗得到普及。958年，高麗開始建立科舉制度，把儒學經典列為考試科目。成宗十一年（992年），高麗將國學改稱為國子監。文宗時期（1047-1083年），國子監除設有國子學、太學、四文學等儒家學部外，還增設了書學、算學、律學等技術學部，擁有完善的「京師六學」。睿宗四年（1109年），國子監增設了「七齋」。一到六齋為儒學齋，即學習《周易》的麗澤齋、學習《尚書》的待聘齋、學習《毛詩》的輕德齋、學習《周禮》的求仁齋、學習《戴禮》的服膺齋、學習《春秋》的養正齋。第七齋為武學齋（講藝齋）。忠烈王時期國子監被改名為「成均館」。學堂是高麗中期在開京設立的中等教育機構，主要向私學書堂的進修者傳授經典、技術、宗教等。

高麗私學興起于文宗時期（1047-1083年），由高麗重臣崔衝首創。文宗七年，崔衝辭去官職，後在松岳山下創建以九經三史為中心的九齋私學堂。其弟子在高麗科舉考試表現不凡，頗具影響。文宗九年（1055年），開京先後又出現了11個由出身官僚文人設立的私學。這十二家私學被稱為「十二功道」或「十二公徒」除了十二功道，高麗私學還有在高麗中期仁宗時出現的書堂。書堂是面對平民子女設立的初等教育機構，專注于教育大眾化。朝鮮王朝時期書堂得到了巨大的發展。

文學

三國時期出現的鄉歌在高麗前期得到繼續發展。僧人均如為了用通俗語言向民眾解說佛理，在光宗十八年以《華嚴經》中的「普賢十願」為基礎創作了鄉歌《普賢十願歌》。宋朝君臣見其漢文譯詩後稱「願王歌主必是一佛出世。」高麗時期還出現了一種形式更為靈活的國語詩歌體裁「長歌」（「俗謠」、「別曲」）。現存的高麗長歌有《西京別曲》、《青山別曲》、《雙花店》、《動動》（咚咚）、《處容歌》、《滿殿春》、《履霜曲》、《鄭石歌》、《思母曲》、《嘎西里》、《井邑詞》11首。武臣當權時期，高麗文人開始嘗試融合國語詩歌和漢詩，從而出現了「景幾體」歌。在其影響下，高麗文人最終創作出了具有朝鮮民族代表性的正統詩歌體裁「時調」。時調是朝鮮文學史上存在時間最長的國語詩歌形式，其地位相當于中國詩歌中的近代詩地位。

高麗前期漢文詩歌的代表人物主要有樸寅亮、金富軾、鄭知常等。金富軾與鄭知常是高麗最早寫七律的人。金富軾的詩歌一般較為凝重，帶有說教色彩。鄭知常的詩歌則唐詩韻味十足，風格獨特。他的七律是高麗近體詩成熟的標誌。武臣專政，高麗詩壇出現了文學史上的第一個漢詩流派「海左七賢」。高麗後期的李奎報與李齊賢並稱高麗漢詩雙壁。李奎報早期作有長篇敘事詩《東明王篇》，做官後創作了許多反映農民疾苦，批評腐敗政治的現實主義作品，晚年蒙古入侵高麗期間創作了一些愛國主義抒情詩，留有《東國李相國集》41卷和《東國李相國集後集》12卷。李奎報曾是忠宣王在元大都的侍臣，廣交中國名士，是朝鮮文學史上為數很少的詞人。他在元朝創作的詩詞不僅在朝鮮文學史上創作出新的高度，而且在元朝詩壇、詞壇也占有重要地位。李齊賢留有文集《益齋亂稿》和稗說集《櫟翁稗說》 。

高麗散文體裁豐富，有傳記、賦、古文、駢文、應用文、擬傳體、稗說體等。高麗官修正史《三國史記》在寫法上與中國的《史記》一樣，通過塑造人物，以達到教化的目的，有著其它一般正史所不能及的文學價值。其「本紀」部分塑造了仁義的赫居世、儒雅的真興王、先知的善德王等性格豐滿、層次豐富的君主形象。列傳部分更具文學價值，其中以《金庾信傳》最具代表性。賦是高麗科舉考試的主要內容之一。最為流行的賦體是駢賦。崔滋的《三都賦》是篇愛國大賦，通過描繪開京、西京和蒙古入侵高麗時期臨時國都江華島（江都），批判高麗統治者依仗江華島天險消極應戰，不顧民生疾苦橫徵暴斂以滿足自己享樂的腐敗行徑，與中國西晉左思的名篇《三都賦》相比具有更為複雜的內涵。武臣執政時期，高麗文人對政治敢怒不敢言，擬體散文作為文人表達對社會不滿的一種方法得到蓬勃發展。高麗後期還出現了類似筆記文學的稗說體散文，為後世小說的出現起到了推動作用。

藝術

高麗青瓷

統一新羅時期從中國引進的制瓷技術，特別是青瓷的製作在高麗時期得到長足發展並形成高麗獨特風格。12世紀初，高麗純色青瓷發展到頂峰，出現了釉色接近翡翠色的「翡色青瓷」。北宋徽宗年間到訪高麗的使臣隨員徐兢在其《宣和奉使高麗圖經》卷三十二器皿條如是讚賞翡色高麗青瓷：「陶器色之青者，麗人謂之翡色。近年以來製作工巧，色澤尤佳……狻猊出香，亦翡色也。上為蹲獸，下有仰蓮以承之。諸器為此物最精絕。」宋代太平老人所著的《袖中錦》將高麗青瓷稱為「高麗秘色」，並將其列為天下第一的物品之一：「監書、內酒、端硯、徽墨、洛陽花、建州茶、蜀錦、定瓷、浙漆、吳紙、晉銅、西馬、東絹、契丹鞍、夏國劍、高麗秘色……皆為天下第一，他處雖效之，終不及。」

12世紀中葉，高麗青瓷的發展出現了第二個高峰。鑲嵌青瓷隨著高麗鑲嵌技法的日趨成熟開始進入全盛時期。這一時期的高麗青瓷釉色透亮，並出現開片。器形方面顯示出流暢、柔和的高麗風格，擺脫了稜角犀利的中國陶瓷的影響。12世紀後半期，鑲嵌青瓷已發展成為高麗代表性陶瓷，被大量批量生產。與此同時，高麗青瓷的鑲嵌方法與紋樣也日趨繁多，主紋與從屬紋開始一起使用，傳統的印花雲鶴紋、折枝紋以及牡丹唐草紋等紋樣也鑲嵌得更加精巧，從而形成高麗青瓷獨有的風格。

繪畫

高麗繪畫在統一新羅的基礎上得到進一步的發展，題材與風格更加多樣化，佛教、人物、山水、花鳥等一應俱全。高麗設有掌管繪畫的機構「繪畫院」，王室、貴族、僧侶都熱衷于繪畫，出現了諸如、、、徐九方等畫家。李寧在出使北宋時曾得到宋徽宗的高度評價。宋徽宗還令翰林待詔向李寧學習繪畫。李寧之子李光弼亦是位深受高麗明宗褒獎的畫家。高麗山水畫代表作品主要有李寧的《禮成江圖》和《天壽寺南門圖》，無名氏的《金剛山圖》、《晉陽山水圖》、《松都八景圖》，恭愍王的《狩獵圖》，李齊賢的《騎馬渡江圖》等。高麗的佛教繪畫一般以大山大水為背景，主要代表作包括魯英的《地藏菩薩圖》，慧虛的《楊柳觀音圖》等。人物畫和肖像畫在高麗時期也很盛行，並出現了用于懸掛王族肖像畫的建築物。代表性肖像畫作品是《安珦肖像畫》。傳入中國的高麗繪畫得到了很高的評價。宋代繪畫評論家郭若虛在其《圖畫見聞錄》中稱：「惟高麗國敦尚文雅，漸染華風，至于技巧之精，他國罕比。故有丹青之妙。」元人湯厚所著的《古今畫鑒》說：「高麗畫觀音像甚工」。

宗教

宋朝版本的《大藏經》傳入高麗後，促進了高麗佛教文化的發展。在高麗顯王時，開始雕印《高麗大藏經》，至宋仁宗趙禎天聖七年(1029年)完成，其內容主要根據宋朝《開寶藏》複刻。

高麗大藏經，是13世紀高麗高宗用16年時間雕刻成的世界上最重要和最全面的大藏經之一。 高麗大藏經內容全面、準確，做工精美，為韓國第32號國寶。其保存地韓國海印寺為聯合國教科文組織指定的世界遺產。

科技

金屬活字印刷術

高麗從中國引進畢昇發明的泥活字印刷術後，研製了金屬活字印刷術，先後用銅活字印刷術印製了《詳定古今禮文》（1234年），《南明和尚頌証道歌》（1239-1242年）。1377年青州牧（今韓國忠清北道清州市）興德寺印製的《白雲和尚抄錄佛祖直指心體要節》是2001年聯合國教科文組織認定的現存世界上最古老的金屬活字本，並被其列入世界記憶遺產名錄。

醫學

建國初期，高麗設立了醫學教育與行政機關體系。太醫監主管全國醫療行政和醫生教育及任用，尚藥局負責王室的醫療事務，此外還有東宮醫官、翰林醫官、食醫、軍醫、獸醫、獄醫等以及東西大悲院、濟危寶、恵民局、救濟都監等救療機構。在醫學教育方面，高麗在建國初設有醫學院，主要邀請宋醫教授醫生。958年，高麗開始通過科舉考試任用醫官。成宗和穆宗時期，高麗醫療制度得到進一步的完善。

高麗中期在繼承唐宋醫學和綜合印度及阿拉伯醫學的知識後，高麗醫學開始創立。宋醫帶來的《太平聖恵方》、《聖濟總錄》、《証類本草》、《神醫普救方》、《太平惠民和劑局方》等醫學典籍得到普及。受宋醫的影響，高麗改變了原始的治療方法，開始以陰陽五行為中心展開醫學理論探討，辯証論治的思想開始發展。在本草方面，宋《本草要括》、《証類本草》的傳人使高麗新藥的知識更加豐富。高麗《鄉草救急方*方中鄉藥目草部》記載有180餘種藥物。高麗與中國的醫學交流達到空前水平。高麗使節來華大多有醫官相隨。中國醫事制度、醫藥著作、藥材大量輸出到高麗。中國醫生到高麗也不絕于途。1078年，翰林醫官邢等去高麗帶去100種藥材，並贈送了龍腦、硃砂、麝香、牛黃等。1118年，曹誼率醫官楊宗立、藍茁、徐競等7人攜帶藥材赴高麗教授內外科。此後，高麗設立藥局，置太醫、醫學、局生之職。

高麗中後期的醫學自主性得到增強，雖然依然遵循中醫理、法、方，但在藥物的使用上形成了使用鄉藥的風氣。鄉藥的理論基礎是「在本國發生的疾病應以本國藥材進行治療」的宜土性理論。相對于「鄉藥」，從中國輸入的藥材被稱為「唐藥」。高麗代表性的醫學著作有金永錫的《濟眾立效方》（約1146-1166年）、崔宗俊的《御醫撮要方》（1226年）。脈診在高麗很被重視，但辨証論還不成熟，仍處于對症治療的階段，以藥物治療為主。《鄉藥救急方》、《三和子鄉藥方》、《鄉藥古方》、《東方經驗方》、《鄉藥惠民經驗方》、《鄉藥簡易方》等許多鄉藥方書的出現，顯示高麗自主醫學已經過渡到以唐宋醫學為基礎，適當結合經驗醫術的階段。高麗末期，由于戰亂，高麗內憂外患，但高麗的自主醫學卻有了飛躍的發展，逐漸擴充了鄉藥的醫藥知識。在醫學理論方面，高麗醫學對《黃帝內經》、《甲乙經》、《難經》等有了新的理解與詮釋，並整理編撰了《黃帝八十一難經注義圖序論》，對《難經》各條文進行註解，並對全部理論輔以圖表加以解釋。

注釋

延伸閱讀

參考資料

• 高麗 (維基百科)