Name

In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan (大元 Dà Yuán |w = Ta-Yüan), establishing the Yuan dynasty. "Dà Yuán" (大元) is from the clause "大哉乾元" in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding the first hexagram Qián (乾). The counterpart in the Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus. In Mongolian, Dai Ön (Middle Mongol transliteration of Chinese "Dà Yuán") was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (lit. "Great Mongol State"), which resulted in the form,, meaning "Great Yuan Great Mongol State". As per modern historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" refers exclusively to the realm based in China. However, the Chinese-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" was meant to be applied to the entire Mongol Empire. This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the de facto disintegrated nature of the Mongol Empire.

The Yuan dynasty is also known by westerners as the "Mongol dynasty" or "Mongol Dynasty of China", similar to the names "Manchu dynasty" or "Manchu Dynasty of China" which were used by westerners for the Qing dynasty. Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan", which particularly appeared on some Yuan maps, since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Great Khan. Nevertheless, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.

History

Background

Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu.

Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima (刘黑马, aka Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala (萧札剌) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier, Tabuyir, and Zhongxi, the son of Xiaozhaci commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.

Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a successor. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke, was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates (Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire.

Rule of Kublai Khan

Early years

Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.

Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron. He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three, later four, classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, but their official rank was nebulous.

Founding the dynasty

Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu, now modern Beijing, in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty originated from the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu (大都 Dàdū |l = Great Capital |labels = no) of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Khublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.

Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting the Mongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It wasn't until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation. The Pax Mongolica, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.

Military conquests and campaigns

After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangzi River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou which was recognized by the Song dynasty and Tang dynasty also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty and later by the Ming dynasty. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Shu Han era king Huoji who helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.

Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou in 1276, the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song. Emperor Gong of Song (personal name Zhao Xian) was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song, who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.

The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army".

Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon. Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa, and Java, but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma. The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.

Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.

Successors after Kublai

Temür Khan

Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as Maharajah. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing-era governments, principally in the province of Yunnan. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin, as the Crown Prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, succeeded the throne and ruled as Temür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.

Külüg Khan

Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.

Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan

The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs, which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.

Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür

Emperor Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi, a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide.

Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.

Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür

When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother Kusala, who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.

Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature, first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian. Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism.

Toghon Temür

After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.

Decline of the empire

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in Henan today.

The Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Impact

A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol World Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia, the Ilkhanate, encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, and melons, high-quality granulated sugar, and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.

Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography, geography, and scientific education.

Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre, printing techniques, porcelain, playing cards, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.

Aside from the ancient Roman embassies, the first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique.

The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer Guo Shoujing, who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern Gregorian calendar's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.

The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious." In traditional historiography of China, on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the Song dynasty and the Ming dynasty. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honored prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them posthumous names and temple names. Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Hans were treated as second-class citizens, and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.

The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing). Note that the Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin Dynast's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.

The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.

Government

The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.

The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Hans, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols, and Tibetan Buddhists. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang, Song, as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil, military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.

While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice, did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semuren, who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.

The Kingdom of Qocho, Kingdom of Dali, Chiefdom of Bozhou, other Tusi kingdoms and Goryeo were ruled by kings inside the Yuan empire.

Science and technology

Mathematics

Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249–1314) solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern matrices. Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of Pascal's triangle. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.

Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the Shoushi Li, was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of Song dynasty astronomer Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century.

Medicine

The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.

The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture, moxibustion, pulse diagnosis, and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician Wei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.

Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its humoral system contradicted the yin-yang and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine. No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine.

Printing and publishing

The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry. Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through Kingdom of Qocho and Tibetan intermediaries. Some Yuan documents such as Wang Zhen's Nong Shu were printed with earthenware movable type, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional block printing techniques. The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of Töregene Khatun, Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office. The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China. Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.

Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast. In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing. By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.

One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the Jiaochao, the paper money of the Yuan. Jiaochao were made from the bark of mulberry trees. The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275. The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister Bolad was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of Gaykhatu. The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.

Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called tacuini. The vizier Rashid-al-Din recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.

Ceramics

In Chinese ceramics the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in Jingdezhen ware of underglaze painted blue and white pottery. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.

Society

Imperial lifestyle

Since its invention in 1269, the 'Phags-pa script, a unified script for spelling Mongolian, Tibetan, and Chinese languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master written Chinese, but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda/marriage alliance with Mongol clans, the Onggirat, and the Ikeres, kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of Tugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), whose mother was a Tangut concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Tugh Temür was an example of a Yuan emperor who actively sponsored cultural activities; including in his imperial capacity and in his personal activities such as writing poetry, painting, reading Chinese classical texts, and ordering the compilation of books.

The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly sinicized while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.

Culture

During the Yuan dynasty, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development, including the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the further development of landscape painting as well as the classical joining together of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the Song dynasty and the Yuan dynasty are linked together.

In Chinese painting during the Yuan dynasty there were many famous painters. In the area of calligraphy many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan dynasty era. In Yuan poetry, the main development was the qu, which was used among other poetic forms by most of the famous Yuan poets. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the theater during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the sanqu type of qu. One of the key factors in the mix of the zaju variety show was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer qu form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the qu form of poetry and the zaju variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the Shōsōin, in Japan.

Religion

There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as Buddhism, Islam, Christianity and Manichaeism. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of Muslims in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result, Tibetan Buddhism was established as the de facto state religion. The top-level department and government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to supervise Buddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the Sakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya Imperial Preceptor (Dishi) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power. Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the Jalayir and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized Confucian scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the Mongolian language.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.

Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.

Among all the subject alien peoples only the Hui-hui say 「we do not eat Mongol food」. Qa』an replied: 「By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?」 He thereupon made them eat. 「If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.」 He issued a regulation to that effect ... 1279/1280 under Qubilai all the Muslims say: 「if someone else slaughters animal we do not eat」. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman Muslim Huihui and Zhuhu Jewish Huihui, no matter who kills animal will eat it and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.

The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.

During the Ming conquest of Yunnan, Muslim generals Mu Ying and Lan Yu led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.

Hindu statues were found in Quanzhou dating to the Yuan period.

Social classes

Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial feudalism and the traditional Chinese autocratic-bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese elite were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the Semu people (various allied groups from Central Asia and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream Chinese culture, and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "colonial" coloration. The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the imperial examination in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the Ilkhanate. Later the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them".

The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:

• Mongols. The Mongols were called "Gao-chen" (the citizens of the ruling empire) by the conquered Southern Song population

• Semu, consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and Central Asia, like Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan, Tanguts, Tibetans, Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia

• "Han", or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, including Hans, Khitans, Jurchens in northern China, and other peoples like Koreans

• Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including Hans and minority native ethnic groups in southern China, sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan

Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were Uighur Buddhists, Turkestani and Persian Muslims, and Christians. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the Polo family, were everywhere welcomed.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers. Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih). After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them. The Yuan-appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Khitan from the Qara Khitai, held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.

Han officials and colonists were sent by the Yuan dynasty to areas of Lingbei province including Henning Circuit, Yilan Prefecture, and Qian Prefecture.

Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as Kosher butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way. Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined Hans in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks" and could also mean "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them. During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng. The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.

The Yuan dynasty started passing anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws and getting rid of Semu Muslim privileges towards the end of the Yuan dynasty, in 1340 forcing them to follow Confucian principles in marriage regulations, in 1329 all foreign holy men including Muslims had tax exemptions revoked, in 1328 the position of Muslim Qadi was abolished after its powers were limited in 1311. In the middle of the 14th century this caused Muslims to start rebelling against Mongol Yuan rule and joining rebel groups. In 1357–1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started a revolt against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian. Persian merchants Amin ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din) Saifuding led the revolt. Persian official Yawuna assassinated both Amin ud-Din and Saif ud-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. The Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou two times and failed to take it. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367 after A Muslim rebel officer named Jin Ji defected from Yawuna.

The Muslim merchants in Quanzhou who engaged in maritime trade enriched their families which encompassed their political and trade activities as families. Historians see the violent Chinese backlash that happened at the end of the Yuan dynasty against the wealth of the Muslim and Semu as something inevitable, however anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws had already been passed by the Yuan dynasty. In 1340 all marriages had to follow Confucian rules, in 1329 all foreign holy men and clerics including Muslims no longer were exempt from tax, in 1328 the Qadi (Muslim headmen) were abolished after being limited in 1311. This resulted in anti-Mongol sentiment among Muslims so some anti-Mongol rebels in the mid 14th century were joined by Muslims. Quanzhou came under control of Amid ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din (Saifuding), two Persian military officials in 1357 as they revolted against the Mongols from 1357 to 1367 in southern Fujian and Quanzhou, leading the Persian garrison (Ispah) They fought for Fuzhou and Xinghua for 5 years. Both Saifuding and Amiliding were murdered by another Muslim called Nawuna in 1362 so he then took control of Quanzhou and the Ispah garrison for 5 more years until his defeat by the Yuan.

The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.

The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in. Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.

When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the Kingdom of Qocho over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.

Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four-class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.

Nobility

Many Tusi chiefdoms and kingdoms in southwestern China which existed before the Mongol invasions were allowed to retain their integrity as vassals of the Yuan dynasty after surrendering, including the Kingdom of Dali, the Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou with its seat at the castle Hailongtun, Chiefdom of Lijiang,

Chiefdom of Shuidong, Chiefdom of Sizhou, Chiefdom of Yao'an, Chiefdom of Yongning and Mu'ege. As were Korea under Mongol rule and the Kingdom of Qocho.

The Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters continued possessing their titles in the Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties.

Administrative divisions

The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region (腹里) governed by the Central Secretariat and places under control of various provinces (行省) or Branch Secretariats, as well as the region under the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.

The Central Region, consisting of present-day Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, the south-eastern part of present-day Inner Mongolia and the Henan areas to the north of the Yellow River, was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at Khanbaliq (modern Beijing); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan) held administrative rule over the whole of modern-day Tibet and a part of Sichuan, Qinghai and Kashmir.

Branch Secretariats or simply provinces, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty, and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.

Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the circuit (道), followed by lù (路), fǔ (府) and zhōu (州). These are three kinds of prefecture-like divisions. The lowest political division was the county (县).

Basically, lù is higher than fǔ, and fǔ is higher than zhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. Both lù, fǔ and zhōu could administer counties. Some fǔ and zhōu are directly administered by the province, while some exist inside a lù. A lù usually administers several counties, along with several fǔ and zhōu, and the fǔ or zhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to exactly define how many tiers of divisions there are under a province.

This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Gallery

File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg|Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)

File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png|smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)

File:水轮.jpg|Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)

File:水锤.jpg|Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)

File:纺织机.jpg|Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)

File:水磨齿轮.jpg|water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)

File:农书织布机.jpg|loom (Yuan dynasty)

File:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg|Yuan painting (Zhao Mengfu)

File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg|Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)

File:Skanda detail heart sutra zhao mengfu.jpeg|Military costume.

File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg|Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon.

File:Horse and Groom, after Li Gonglin by Zhao Yong.jpg|Yuan cavalry

File:Jiang Ge.JPG|Yuan Mongol soldier

File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG|Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth

File:元负囊骑马俑.jpg|Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)

File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG|Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from a monastery of Fangshan District in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan Dynasty

国号

元朝的汉文国号「大元」出自《易经·乾卦》「大哉乾元，万物资始，乃统天」，意为「蓬勃盛大的乾元之气，是万物所赖以创始化生的动力资源，统贯于天道运行之中」。1271年12月18日，忽必烈汗公布《建国号诏》，宣布国号为大元。元朝是中国历史上第一个把「大」字加于正式国号之中的统一王朝，除此前仅统治了华北地区的辽金两国外，之前各朝的「大」字均为尊称。

而关于元朝的蒙古文国号，考古发现有多种称呼：

• 正式称呼为「大元的大蒙古国」（ ），此名称见于1362年的《追封西宁王忻都碑》。其中「Dai Ön」系汉语「大元」的蒙古语音译，「Yeqe」是蒙古语「大」的意思，「Mongɣul」是「蒙古」的意思，「Ulus」是「国家」的意思。

• 「被称为大元的大蒙古国」（），其中「qemeqü」是一个书面语联动词，是「说」、「据说」的意思。此名称见于1338年的《达鲁花赤竹温台碑》。

• 「大元国」，蒙古语写作「」（八思巴文：，鲍培转写：，西里尔：）或者「」（鲍培转写：，西里尔：）。其中「Dai Ön」是汉语「大元」一词的在当时蒙古语中的音译。但现今中、蒙两国学者多使用与现代汉语「元」字发音更相近的「」（）一词来替换原有的「」（），将元朝称为「」（），或者「」（）。

历史

元朝历史通常可以分为两个到三个阶段：

• 1206年元太祖铁木真统一蒙古，立国位于漠北的蒙古草原，定国号为「大蒙古国」；到1271年元世祖忽必烈定都元大都，将国号改为大元之际，共六十五年，称为大蒙古国时期，又称蒙古帝国；

• 元世祖忽必烈定都元大都，1271年将国号改为大元后，直到1368年元惠宗出亡为止，共九十七年，才是严格意义上的元朝历史；

• 元惠宗出亡后依旧以大元为国号，至1402年鬼力赤杀顺天帝坤帖木儿去国号为止（一说1388年天元帝脱古思帖木儿被也速迭尔杀害后去国号），称为北元时期。

• 去国号后称蒙古，明廷称鞑靼。

蒙古崛起

辽朝时期，蒙古草原上的诸部归于辽朝统辖。金灭辽后，草原各部归属不一，汪古部等成为金朝的臣属，而乞颜部的合不勒汗乘金军大举南下而无暇北顾之机，建立了早期的蒙古国家，即蒙兀国，此后一直侵袭金朝的边境。合不勒汗死后，俺巴孩汗成为新的大汗。由于塔塔儿人的出卖，俺巴孩汗被金朝皇帝金熙宗钉在木驴上致死，此事件埋下了蒙古对金朝复仇的种子。

在金章宗死后，13世纪初，金朝在卫绍王完颜永济的统治下走向衰落，蒙古乞颜部铁木真开始了统一蒙古草原的征程。先后在克烈部首领王罕以及他的安达扎答兰部首领札木合的军事援助下，打败了蔑儿乞人，夺回了被蔑儿乞人夺取的众多部众（以及其妻孛儿帖），力量逐渐壮大。

1189年，在经过激烈的争夺之后，铁木真被乞颜贵族推举为部落的可汗。然而，铁木真部族的逐渐强大，危及了援助他的札木合在蒙古草原上的地位，于是札木合联合泰赤乌等部，合兵三万馀人，向铁木真发起进攻。面对来势汹汹的札木合，铁木真将自己的部众3万人组成十三翼。在战斗中铁木真暂时战败，为保存实力退至斡难河的哲列捏山峡，扼险而守。史称「十三翼之战」。札木合虽然取得战役的胜利，但札木合的暴虐受到了其所属部落首领的不满，而铁木真对部众进行笼络，故部众归心于铁木真。于是畏答儿、赤老温、术赤台、晃豁坛等族人纷纷来附。此后，铁木真力量进一步壮大。

1196年，从属于金朝的蒙古部族塔塔儿部叛金，完颜永济派丞相完颜襄率军征讨。铁木真联合克烈部，以「为父亲报仇」的名义，在斡里匝河击溃了塔塔儿部，使塔塔儿一蹶不振。战后，金朝授铁木真糺军统领之职，使他可以用金朝属官名义号令蒙古部众。1200年，铁木真与王汗会于萨里川（今蒙古国克鲁伦河上游之西），大败泰赤乌与蔑儿乞的联军，首领塔里忽台等被杀。

1201年，铁木真又在呼伦贝尔海剌尔河支流帖尼河之野，击败以札木合为首的塔塔儿、弘吉剌、合答斤等十一部联军，史称「帖尼河之战」。宋嘉泰二年，铁木真与王汗联军又在阔亦田击败了札木合同乃蛮、泰赤乌、塔塔儿、蔑儿乞等联军，取得了阔亦田之战的胜利。接著招降了呼伦贝尔一带的弘吉剌惕等部。至此，蒙古高原都被铁木真控制了。最后平定蒙古高原，统一蒙古各部，1206年春，蒙古贵族在斡难河（今鄂嫩河）源头召开库里尔台大会，蒙古部铁木真得到成吉思汗称号，建国大蒙古国（即蒙古帝国），后被尊称元太祖。

伐金与扩张

金朝与蒙古为世仇，成吉思汗有意伐金复仇，然而西南的西夏与金朝联盟，为了避免被西夏牵制，先后三次率军（1205年、1207年与1209年—1210年）进攻之，迫使西夏夏襄宗称臣1210年成吉思汗与金断交，隔年发动蒙金战争，于野狐岭战役大破四十万金军，随后攻入华北地区并四处屠杀。

1214年蒙军包围金朝首都中都（今北京市），金宣宗被迫求和称臣，并在蒙古退兵后迁都北宋故都汴京。隔年5月31日蒙军南下攻占金中都，并且获得名相耶律楚材，这对于巩固华北地区有很大的帮助。

1217年，成吉思汗为了西征花剌子模，命木华黎统领汉地，封为「太师国王」，命他持续进攻金朝。木华黎为了巩度汉地，收降地方自卫势力如真定史天泽、满城张柔、东平严实与济南张宏，史称汉族四大世侯，后来他们也扶佐忽必烈建立元朝。木华黎除了对金朝的战争让金朝疆域萎缩剩河南与关中地区之外，并于1231年派兵进攻高丽，使高丽退到江华岛以南（即今日南韩）。

西域方面，为了建立通往西方的道路，早在1209年—1210年就让新疆东部的畏兀儿与伊犁河谷的哈剌鲁先后归顺。当金朝迁都并将要灭亡之际，中亚新兴大国花剌子模在沙阿摩诃末时期崛起，该国讹答剌地方大臣海儿汗亦纳勒术前后两次屠杀蒙古商队并侮辱蒙古使臣，成吉思汗遂决心发动第一次西征。

1218年蒙将哲别杀死占领西辽并称辽帝的屈出律，攻占塔里木地区，史称蒙古攻西辽之战。隔年六月，成吉思汗亲率蒙古主力军十万西征花剌子模。由于沙阿摩诃末抵挡不了蒙军攻势，畏惧而逃，在屠杀掉花剌子模的40个城镇之后，花剌子模也于1221年亡国。成吉思汗命速不台和哲别追杀摩诃末，摩诃末最后死于里海。其子札兰丁于八鲁湾之战英勇抗敌，最后南逃印度，并于1224年复国于大不里士（今伊朗西北部）。

1230年，札兰丁被蒙古将军绰儿马罕攻灭。速不台和哲别最后于1222年从撒马尔罕出发经过今伊朗高原北部，进攻杀掠高加索三国（亚美尼亚王国、格鲁吉亚、阿塞拜疆）之后，并越太和岭（今高加索山脉），抵达钦察（位于俄南），期间攻占不少国家。于1223年的迦勒迦河之战（今乌克兰日丹诺夫市北）更是击溃基辅罗斯诸国与钦察忽炭汗的联军，并向西进军到今乌克兰西部的德涅斯特河，折转围攻基辅后东返，并于1223年9月攻击伏尔加河中上游的河谷伏尔加保加利亚，最后渡过伏尔加河东返中亚。成吉思汗将新拓展的疆土分封给长子术赤、次子察合台和三子窝阔台，四子拖雷领有蒙古本土，三子窝阔台成为大汗继承人。1225年蒙古回师后，因西夏不配合西征，成吉思汗又率归师灭西夏。1227年，成吉思汗病逝，由幼子拖雷监国。

汗系转移

拖雷监国两年后于1229年举办库里尔台大会，窝阔台被推举为蒙古大汗，后尊称元太宗。1231年窝阔台汗率军南征金朝，并命四弟拖雷自汉中借宋道沿汉水攻打汴京，隔年拖雷在河南三峰山之战击溃金军。1234年蒙宋联军联合攻破蔡州，金哀宗自杀，金朝亡。南宋虽然发起端平入洛以收复河南地，但是华北地区最后全由蒙古占领。

1235年，窝阔台汗定都哈拉和林（今乌兰巴托西南）后，藉此率军南征南宋以报复之，掠夺两淮地区后北返。蒙古为了防止华北的汉人世侯叛变，派探马赤军（振戍军）进驻汉地；进行两次人口调查，将半数汉人分封给蒙古功臣。由于需要人才治理国家，窝阔台汗接受耶律楚材的建议，于1238年命术忽德和刘中举办科举，史称戊戌选试。这次考试录取东平杨奂等名士，为统治华北带来不少人才，但后来以「当世或以为非便，事复中止」。

西线方面，1235年窝阔台汗命术赤次子拔都、贵由与蒙哥、速不台等第二代蒙古王子发起蒙古第二次西征，史称拔都西征，总指挥为拔都与速不台。1236年至1242年间攻占钦察草原、基辅罗斯等各公国并进犯匈牙利、摩尔达维亚、波兰、立陶宛大公国、摩拉维亚原南斯拉夫地区、保加利亚第二帝国、拉什卡等中东欧各国。1241年11月窝阔台汗去世，由皇后乃马真脱列哥那监国，1246年3月的库里尔台大会由其子贵由即位，后追尊称元定宗。1247年吐蕃诸部归附大蒙古，史称凉州会盟。1248年8月贵由汗在远征拔都的途中去世，皇后斡兀立海迷失立孙子失烈门并监国。然而在1251年7月的大会，因为拔都与兀良哈台大力支持拖雷系的蒙哥，使得窝阔台系的失烈失去汗位。蒙哥继承汗位，后尊称元宪宗。

1252年蒙哥即位后推行中央集权化，在汉地、中亚与伊朗等直辖地设置行中书省，分遣拖雷系诸王分守各地，以其弟忽必烈总领漠南汉地大总督以管理汉地。忽必烈统治汉地期间任用了大批汉族幕僚和儒士，巩固了华北地区，并且与兀良合台迂回南灭大理，扩大南宋防线缺口。1258年高丽崔氏政权跨台，高丽成为藩属国。同年蒙哥汗宣布兵分三路南征南宋，蒙哥汗率军攻打四川合州（今重庆）、忽必烈攻打湖北鄂州（今武昌）、兀良合台由云南晏当（今云南丽江北部）直攻经过安南，进攻宋广南西路而直攻荆湖南路，并兵临潭州（今长沙），三军意图在华中会合，再大举下长江围攻临安。隔年蒙哥汗在合州的钓鱼城之战战死，忽必烈等人停止南征，北返夺位。西线方面，蒙哥汗派其弟旭烈兀西征西亚，史称蒙古第三次西征，1256年旭烈兀攻灭伊斯兰教的暗杀组织木剌夷。1258年西征军攻占阿拔斯王朝最后领地美索不达米亚的巴格达。1260年占领大马士革和阿勒颇。然而当旭烈兀得知蒙哥于南征南宋时去世的消息后，立即率大军回师争位。留下的蒙军也在今以色列加利利的阿音札鲁特战役败于埃及马木留克王朝，第三次西征结束。

大哉乾元

蒙哥汗去世后，身在战事的忽必烈立即与南宋和谈，返回华北与留守蒙古本土的七弟阿里不哥争夺汗位。1260年5月5日忽必烈在部分宗王和蒙汉大臣的拥立下于开平（即上都，今内蒙古多伦县北石别苏木）自立为蒙古大汗，年号中统。忽必烈登基后不久，阿里不哥在蒙古帝国首都哈拉和林召开库里尔台大会，被阿速台等宗王和大臣选立蒙古大汗，并获得钦察、察合台与窝阔台汗国的支持。争夺汗位战争最后于1264年8月21日由阿里不哥兵败投降，忽必烈稳固其位。

忽必烈汗为了成为中国皇帝而推行汉法，主要内容有改元建号，1267年忽必烈汗迁都中都（今北京市），并命刘秉忠兴建中都城。1272年改中都为大都（又称汗八里），将上都作为陪都。1271年12月18日，忽必烈汗公布《建国号诏》，采纳汉人儒士刘秉忠的建议，取《易经》中「乾元」之意，宣布新王朝为继承历代中原王朝的中华正统王朝，将国号由大蒙古国改为大元，建立元朝，即元世祖；1260年设立中书省，1263年设立枢密院，1268年设立御史台等等国家机构；设置大司农司并且提倡农业；尊孔崇儒并大力发展儒学等推行汉法的政策。然而为了保留原蒙古制度，最后形成蒙汉两元政治。元世祖虽然于争夺汗位战争获得蒙古大汗的汗位，并且最后成为中国皇帝，但由于汗位取得不合法与崇尚汉法，使得蒙古宗室不承认忽必烈的汗位，四大汗国有三国不奉忽必烈的命令，蒙古帝国完全解体。最后引发窝阔台系的海都出兵争夺汗位，造成漠北地区动荡不安，史称海都之乱。

早在元世祖在与阿里不哥作战与整顿国内之际，因为无暇对付南宋，于是派郝经对南宋提出议和。当时南宋大权由谎称击退蒙古军的贾似道掌握，然而贾似道由于畏惧谎言被击破幽禁郝经。南宋并于1262年拉拢山东汉人世侯李璮，发起李璮叛乱。元军平定叛乱后，元世祖断然废止汉人世侯，以蒙古人直接管理地方事务，并且准备南征南宋。1268年元世祖发起宋元战争，首先派刘整与阿术率军攻打襄阳府，史称襄樊之战。1274年元军攻下襄阳，宋将吕文焕投降，随后中书丞相史天泽和枢密院枢密使伯颜率军顺汉水南下长江，目标建康。1275年降将吕文焕率元水陆联军于芜湖击溃贾似道的南宋水军，史称丁家洲之战。隔年元军攻陷临安（今浙江杭州），谢太后与宋恭帝投降元军。然而陆秀夫等人拥立7岁的宋端宗在福州即位，文天祥、张世杰与陈宜中等大臣持续在江西、福建与广东等地抗元。元军陆续攻下华南各地，1278年南宋朝廷退至广东崖山。隔年3月，张弘范在崖门海战攻灭南宋海军，陆秀夫带著8岁的小皇帝赵昺投海而死，南宋灭亡。元朝统一中国地区，结束自唐朝安史之乱以来520多年的分裂局面。

在此前后，元朝曾要求周边一些国家或地区（包括日本、安南、占城、缅甸、爪哇）臣服，加入元朝的朝贡关系，但遭到拒绝，元世祖于是出兵攻打这些国家，其中以入侵日本的元日战争最为著名，因为范文虎指挥不当与台风来袭而失败。由于元朝廷需要赏赐大量财宝予宗室贵族，加上开支繁重，财政日渐紧张，朝臣为了财政问题发生争执，分裂成以许衡等汉人与汉化蒙古人为首的儒臣派与以阿合马、卢世荣与桑哥等色目人与汉人为首的理财派。儒臣派认为元廷应该节省经费、减免税收。理财派认为南人藏有大量财物，应没收以解决朝廷的财政问题。由于元世祖信任阿合马，设立尚书省解决财政问题。而儒臣则以受汉化更深的太子真金为核心与阿合马抗衡。最后阿合马被刺杀，太子真金也因为得病而死。然而元世祖不信任儒臣派，依旧任用理财派官员来解决财政问题，导致财政恶化。

平定西北

1294年元世祖驾崩后，虽然太子真金早死，但是元世祖曾赐真金的三子铁穆尔「皇太子宝」并且让他镇守和林。随后铁穆尔在库里尔台大会中获得重臣伯颜与玉昔帖木儿等支持，打败真金的长子甘麻剌与次子答剌麻八剌等继位，即元成宗。元成宗主要恪守元世祖时期的成宪，任用其侄海山（答剌麻八剌之子）镇守和林以平定西北海都之乱，并且下令停止征讨日本与安南。在内政方面专力整顿国内政治，减免江南部分赋税。然而，由于元成宗过度赏赐，入不敷出，使国库资财匮乏。1307年正月，元成宗驾崩，由于太子德寿早逝，左丞相阿忽台拥护皇后卜鲁罕与信奉伊斯兰教的安西王阿难答监国，并有意让阿难答称帝。海山之弟爱育黎拔力八达与右丞相哈剌哈孙发动大都政变。他们斩杀阿忽台，控制大都局势，拥护率军南下的海山称帝，即元武宗。皇后与阿难答被元武宗斩杀，其回回部下退入西域吐鲁番地区。

元武宗因爱育黎拔力八达有功，册封他为皇太弟（即未来的元仁宗），相约武宗系与仁宗系交替称帝，即武仁之约。元武宗时期，加封孔子为「大成至圣文宣王」，并给予孔子的家族与弟子一些称号。为了解决元成宗时期的财政危机，元武宗设置常平仓以平抑物价，下令印制至大银钞，然而反而使银钞严重贬值。此外他将中书省宣敕与用人权划归给尚书省。1311年元武宗因沉耽淫乐、酗酒过度而逝，由皇太弟爱育黎拔力八达继位，是为元仁宗，这次是元朝首次和平继承帝位。

西北地区方面，早在元世祖时期，由于他的大汗之位不受四大汗国的承认，使得当时窝阔台汗海都有意夺回蒙古汗位。海都统辖叶密立（今新疆额敏东南）一带且与钦察汗国友好。元世祖为了避免在南征南宋时被海都背刺，遂扶持八剌获得察合台汗位以牵制海都。然而在1268年，海都、八剌和钦察汗忙哥帖木儿以元世祖过度汉化、违背祖宗成法为由，在塔拉斯河招开库里尔台大会结盟反元。他们以海都为盟主，共同瓜分中亚行省，联合对抗元朝与伊儿汗国，史称海都之乱。元世祖派伯颜北上平乱，海都与新任察合台汗笃哇采用游击战的方式回避决战。1287年海都联军夥同镇守辽东的东道诸王乃颜与哈丹袭击和林（今蒙古国哈尔和林），元世祖亲率大军击败之，派伯颜、玉昔帖木儿与李庭平定东北乃颜，主持西北军事。1289年海都再犯和林，最后其势力被驱出阿尔泰山以西。而哈丹于辽东高丽一带游击，至1292年败亡。

元成宗即位后，任命其侄海山（后继位为元武宗）总领漠北诸军。1301年海都联军被海山和晋王甘麻剌击溃，史称铁坚古山之役。海都于战后去世，其子察八儿继位，窝阔台汗国被笃哇掌控。1303年由于笃哇被钦察汗脱脱蒙哥击溃，就与察八儿共同派使者向元廷请和，脱脱蒙哥也向元廷请和，而伊儿汗本来就支持元廷，至此四大汗国皆承认元朝的宗主地位，双方广设驿路，解除封禁。不久之后，窝阔台汗国被察合台汗笃哇与元朝元武宗先后攻灭而亡，察八儿投降元朝。

汉化与政变

元仁宗力图改变元武宗时造成的财政枯竭、政制混乱的局面，他推行「以儒治国」政策，并且减裁冗员、加强中央集权以整顿朝政。他曾令王约将《大学衍义》译为蒙文，赐臣下说「治天下，此一书足矣。」并将《贞观政要》和《资治通鉴》等书摘译为蒙文，令蒙古人与色目人诵习。1312年元仁宗将其儒师王约特拜集贤大学士并将王约「兴科举」的建议「著为令甲」，至此恢复科举制度。本次科举以程朱理学为考试的内容，史称延佑复科，最后录取护都答儿、张起岩等56人为进士。他还倚重汉人文臣，处死蒙丞相脱虎脱等，排除朝中异己。财政方面，仁宗取消武宗的经济措施，并且于1314年在江浙、江西、河南等地查清地方田产，史称延佑经理。任用床兀儿统军，击败察合台汗王也先不花以平定西北地区。然而元仁宗未能制止太后答己干预朝政，也无力制裁备受太后重用的重臣铁木迭儿贪赃枉法。在继承问题方面，元仁宗以王约辅助皇太子硕德八剌，并且听从铁木迭儿的建议，废除武仁之约。他将元武宗长子周王和世琜外放镇守云南、次子图帖睦尔放逐海南岛。同年冬天，元武宗旧臣皆感愤怒而拥护和世琜叛变，最后败走漠北，依附察合台汗国。1320年元仁宗驾崩后，皇太子硕德八剌即位为元英宗。

元英宗继续实行元仁宗的以儒治国、加强中央集权和官僚体制的政策，并于1323年下令编成并颁布元朝正式法典——《大元通制》，共2539条，他还下令拔除权臣铁木迭儿在朝廷的势力。然而支持铁木迭儿的蒙古与色目保守派厌恶英宗的新政，有意发动政变。1323年铁木迭儿的义子铁失趁英宗去上都避暑之际，在上都以南15公里的南坡地刺杀英宗及宰相拜住等人，史称南坡之变，仁宗系自此未能再夺得皇位。晋王甘麻剌的长子，镇守和林的也孙铁木儿率兵南下，杀掉行刺元英宗的叛臣并称帝，即元泰定帝。

泰定帝召回被放逐到海南岛的武宗系图帖睦尔为怀王。泰定帝于1328年七月崩于上都，丞相倒剌沙拥立七岁的阿速吉八为帝，是为元天顺帝。而镇守大都的燕帖木儿与伯颜拥立周王和世琜于漠北、怀王图帖睦尔于江陵，同年图帖睦尔先至大都继位，是为元文宗。燕帖木儿率军攻入上都，天顺帝不知所终。隔年和世琜于漠北和林称帝，即元明宗。元文宗放弃帝位，派燕帖木儿迎元明宗继位，并且被立为皇太子。然而燕帖木儿毒死元明宗，元文宗复位，改元天历，史称天历之变。

元文宗时期大兴文治，1329年设立了奎章阁学士院，掌进讲经史之书，考察历代治乱。又令所有勋贵大臣的子孙都要到奎章阁学习。于奎章阁下设艺文监，专门负责将儒家典籍译成蒙古文字，以及校勘。同年下令编纂《元经世大典》，两年后修成，为元朝一部重要的记述典章制度的巨著。然而丞相燕帖木儿自恃有功，玩弄朝廷，导致朝政更加腐败。1333年元文宗去世后，为洗刷毒死元明宗的罪行，遗诏立年仅七岁的明宗次子懿璘质班为帝，是为元宁宗。但元宁宗仅在位不到两个月即去世，不久后燕帖木儿也去世。元明宗的长子妥欢贴睦尔被文宗皇后卜答失里从静江（广西桂林）召回并立为帝，是为元惠宗，又称元顺帝。元朝在二十六年内，换了八个皇帝。

惠宗失国

元惠宗（元顺帝）在位之初，1335年燕帖木儿的儿子唐其势阴谋推翻，另立元文宗义子答剌海。幸右丞相伯颜粉碎叛乱，但属于保守派的他掌握朝政，权力盛大。他禁止汉人参政并取消科举，这些都与元惠宗发生冲突。1340年元惠宗在伯颜之侄脱脱的帮助下，终于废黜伯颜。脱脱为相与元惠宗亲政前期时，元廷推行一系列改革措施如颁行《至正条格》法规，使得革新政治，社会矛盾缓和，史称至正新政。1343年元惠宗下令修撰《辽史》、《金史》、《宋史》三史，由右丞相脱脱（后改由阿鲁图）主持，两年后修成。然而元惠宗后期怠于政事，以至于在1350年发生天灾人祸后引来民变。

元朝后期，特别是1340年代中后期至1350年代期间，乾旱、瘟疫 ( 欧洲黑死病传至中国 ) 与水灾时常发生，且自北宋末年杜充挖开黄河大堤以致夺淮入海后，黄河地区水患尤其严重。与此同时，元廷财政体系崩溃，通货膨胀严重，不断收取各种赋税，使百姓的生活更加艰苦，使得白莲教逐渐流行，并成为对抗元廷的势力。早在1325年就发生过河南赵丑厮、郭菩萨领导的武装起事。1338年江西袁州（今江西宜春）彭和尚、周子旺等白莲教徒起义失败，彭和尚逃至淮西。1350年元廷下令变更钞法，铸造「至正通宝」钱，并大量发行新「中统元宝交钞」，导致物价迅速上涨。隔年元惠宗派贾鲁治黄河，欲归故道，动用民夫十五万，士兵二万。而官吏乘机敲诈勒索，造成不满。白莲教首领韩山童、刘福通等人决定在5月率教众起事，但事泄，韩山童被捕杀。刘福通再立韩山童之子韩林儿杀出重围，指韩山童为宋徽宗八世孙，打出「复宋」旗号，以红巾为标志。其后郭子兴于安徽濠州起事，芝麻李等人占领徐州，此为东系红巾军。西系红巾军方面，彭莹玉、邹普胜与徐寿辉在湖北蕲州起事，国号天完。红巾军势力遍布河南江北、江南、两湖与四川等地，还有非红巾军的张士诚等部的起事，民变揭开元朝灭亡的序幕。于元末民变期间，士人多不屑参加叛军，叛军也很少利用士人。

元廷派兵镇压各地红巾军，丞相脱脱亲自率军南下攻陷徐州芝麻李军，一度压制民变军。然而脱脱在1354年南攻高邮张士诚军之际，被元廷大臣弹劾而功亏一篑。徐寿辉部最后分裂成两湖的陈友谅与四川的明玉珍。两淮郭子兴的部下朱元璋于1356年以南京为根据地开始扩充地盘；1363年与据有两湖的陈友谅作战，最后于鄱阳湖之战获得胜利；1365年占领两湖后于同年冬东进攻打据有江苏沿海的张士诚；1367年平定张士诚后，继续南下压制浙江的方国珍，至此江南无一人反抗朱元璋。另外，福建于1357年至1366年间发生亦思巴奚兵乱。福建地方为抵御反元势力筹建民团自守，但色目商人雇用的亦思巴奚军割据泉州并向福建各地扩大势力，最后被元将陈友定平定。与此同时，元朝在察罕帖木儿和李思齐等率领元军反击北方红巾军，1363年北方红巾军最后在安丰之役中败给降元后的张士诚，刘福通战死，韩林儿南下投奔朱元璋，随后被杀。朱元璋统一江南后于1367年下令北伐，他派徐达、常遇春率明军分别攻打山东与河南，并且封锁潼关以防止关中元军进援中原。明军于1368年八月攻陷元大都，元惠宗北逃，史书称此为元朝结束之年。然而元廷仍在上都，往后史书称之为北元。而明廷认为元惠宗顺天明命，谥号为元顺帝。

元明之际有士人奉元朝为正朔，对元朝皆有故国之情，对于张士诚则有深厚的同情，而对于农民朱元璋则多表厌恶，当时江南士人，不论是否参加张吴政权，或参加朱明政权，乃至独立人士，都相当怀念元朝。元明之际，由于元代的汉化色彩，汉人文士的华夷之辨观念极为淡薄，而他们又不满朱明所为，因而呈现强烈的遗民情结。朱明统治者凭藉红巾武装取得政权，在当时正统士大夫看来是「取天下非其道」，难逃僭伪之名，而且元末红巾运动还带有浓重宗教色彩，正统士人不仅视其为「贼」、「寇」，而且视之为「妖」。正如红巾军于汝阳起事，时人郑元佑作诗称「近者汝阳妖贼起，挥刀杀人丹汝水」，1359年，朱元璋部攻杭州，时人陈基记称「妖寇犯杭」，洪武元年，明军克大都，戴良作诗感慨「王气幽州歇，妖氛国步屯」。

明初，不愿仕官和不愿效忠新朝廷的地主文人为了逃避徵辟而采取自杀、自残、逃往漠北、 隐居深山等方法，誓不出仕（中国古代铨选，有「身言书判」四方面标准，身体有残疾者不能任官）。为应对元遗民对明政权的鄙夷与漠视，朱元璋设立深受后人诟病的新刑罚，宣告「士大夫不为君用」律，大规模徵辟前朝遗老、搜罗岩穴隐士，并且杀害许多不愿效忠明朝以及为新朝当官的学者：「率土之滨，莫非王臣。寰中士大夫不为君用，是自外其教者，诛其身而没其家，不为之过」，导致「才能之士，数年来幸存者百无一二，今所任率迂儒俗吏」。

而居于中原的蒙古人则大量留于中原，在明代做官或参军，史称「达官」和「达军」。

北元时期

1368年元廷退回蒙古草原，元惠宗退至上都，隔年又至应昌。他继续使用「大元」国号，史称北元。当时北方除了元惠宗据有漠南漠北，关中还有元将王保保驻守甘肃定西，此外元廷还领有东北地区与云南地区。明太祖为了占领北方，采取兵分二路，各个击破的方式，此即第一次北伐。元惠宗战败后于1370年在应昌去世，元昭宗即位后北逃至漠北和林。明将冯胜夺取了甘肃地区。然而元将王保保仍然在漠北多次与明将徐达等人作战。明太祖曾多次写信招降，但王保保从不理会，被朱元璋称为「当世奇男子」。1378年四月，元昭宗去世，继位的元天元帝继续和明朝对抗，屡次侵犯明境。

至于北元领有的东北地区与云南地区方面：1371年，元朝辽阳行省平章刘益降明，明朝占领辽宁南部。然而其馀东北地区仍由元朝太尉纳哈出控制，纳哈出屯兵二十万于金山（今辽宁省昌图金山堡以北辽河南岸一带），自持畜牧丰盛，与明军对峙了十几年，多次拒绝明朝的招抚。1387年冯胜、傅友德、蓝玉等人发动第五次北伐，目标是攻占纳哈出的金山。经过多次战争，1387年10月，纳哈出投降蓝玉，明朝占领东北地区，最后还成立了兀良哈三卫。镇守云南的元朝梁王把匝剌瓦尔密，在元廷退回草原后仍然继续忠效之。1371年明太祖派汤和等人领兵平定据有四川的明玉珍，并且劝降梁王未果。1381年12月，明军攻入云南，1382年梁王逃离昆明并自杀，随后明军攻克大理，明军平定云南地区。

明太祖为了彻底扫除北元势力，于1388年5月命蓝玉率领明军十五万发动第六次北伐。明军横跨戈壁至捕鱼儿海（今中蒙边境之贝尔湖）击溃元军，俘虏八万馀人，元天元帝和他的长子天保奴逃走，但是幼子地保奴被明军擒住，至此北元国势大衰。1388年元天元帝被阿里不哥后裔也速迭尔杀害（此后去年号，一说去国号），1402年鬼力赤杀元帝坤帖木儿后去国号，明人称为鞑靼，北元亡。

疆域

元朝的前身为蒙古帝国，1206年元太祖成吉思汗成立时领有大漠南北与林木中地区（今贝加尔湖一带）。经由成吉思汗等蒙古诸汗的经营，以及三次西征之后，蒙古帝国东达日本海与高丽、北达贝加尔湖、南与南宋对峙、西达东欧、黑海与伊拉克地区。成吉思汗时期分疆裂土给东道诸王与西道诸王，东道诸王是成吉思汗的弟弟，大多分封于塞北东部与东北地区，从属性很高。西道诸王是成吉思汗的儿子，独立性很好，其中分封长子术赤于咸海、里海以北的钦察草原，后由拔都成立钦察汗国；封次子察合台于锡尔河以北的西辽旧地，史称察合台汗国；三子窝阔台分封于乃蛮旧地，后由海都建立窝阔台汗国；蒙古本部由幼子拖雷获得，后由蒙古大汗直辖。至于又称汉地的华北地区、阿姆河与锡尔河之间的河中地区、伊朗地区与吐蕃由蒙古大汗直辖。1252年拖雷系的蒙哥即位后，命其弟旭烈兀西征西亚，最后建立伊儿汗国，与其他西道诸王合称四大汗国。命忽必烈经营汉地、最后南灭大理。然而蒙哥于攻宋之役去世，随后忽必烈与阿里不哥争位使四大汗国纷纷不受蒙古大汗管制，蒙古帝国至此分裂。

元世祖忽必烈鉴于四大汗国不服于他，于是将西亚地区大汗直辖地割让给旭烈兀（后来建立伊儿汗国），河中地区大汗直辖地割让给察合台汗阿鲁忽，以换取他们的支持。1279年元世祖在建立元朝后南灭南宋，一统中国地区，当时的疆域是：北到西伯利亚南部，越过贝加尔湖，南到南海，西南包括今西藏、云南，西北至今新疆东部，东北至外兴安岭、鄂霍次克海、日本海，包括库页岛，总面积超过1300万平方千米。自灭亡南宋后虽然多次对日本、缅甸与爪哇等国有所冲突，然而疆域大体趋于稳定。1309年元武宗时期，元朝和察合台汗国先后攻灭窝阔台汗国，元朝取得窝阔台汗国东部部分领土，领土达1400万平方公里（如果北方领土延伸至北冰洋，则为2200万平方公里）。元朝的藩属国有高丽、缅甸、安南、占城、爪哇及钦察汗国、察合台汗国、与伊儿汗国等国。北有漠北诸部、南有南洋诸国、西有四大汗国。其中有两个直属的藩属国，即高丽王朝与缅甸蒲甘王朝，分别建立征东行省与缅中行省。

西北方面，1268年窝阔台汗国的海都意图夺回汗位而联合钦察汗国与察合台汗国反元，史称海都之乱。直到1304年元成宗时期，元廷与这三大汗国达成和议，并与伊儿汗国一同承认元朝的宗主地位，成为元朝的藩属国，而元朝设立的行政机构（如行中书省和宣政院）也未包括这些领土。而且元成宗并赐伊儿汗国君主刻有「真命皇帝和顺万夷之宝」等汉文印玺，实质上也承认其独立性。到1309年元武宗时期，元朝和察合台汗国先后攻灭窝阔台汗国，于元文宗年间编纂《经世大典》时，将钦察汗国、察合台汗国与伊儿汗国作为元朝的藩属国。

行政区划

元朝行政区划大致上承袭金朝与宋朝制度，然而有两个不同之处：元朝时的路统辖的面积减少，一路仅辖二州；元廷在路上设有行省等中书省外派单位，最后行省取代路成为一级行政区，形成行省制，这是中国历史上首次正式在全国实行行省制度。元朝行政区划由高至低依序分为行省、路、府、州与县，另有等同行省的宣政院辖地、归中书省直辖的「腹里」以及等同州的土司。

腹里是由中书省直辖的路府，宣政院（初名总制院）辖地主管吐蕃地区。行政首长以蒙古人为主、汉人为副。每省设置丞相一员，其下有平章、左右丞相即参知政事官，名称大略与中书省相同。元代在行省以下各行政区均设置达鲁花赤作（断事官）为地方首长，并以汉人或当地土人为副，以利蒙古人控制地方区域。每路以达鲁花赤为主、总管为副各一员。而府州县均以达鲁花赤为主、尹为副。州、县均分上中下三等，中下州改州尹为知州。土司分有宣慰使、宣抚使与安抚使，于湖广行省境内设置十五个安抚司，又于湖广、四川行省分至四个军。边区的安抚司和军，约当内地的下州，也置达鲁花赤为主，其副为地方人士。县以下基层行政区划设有城关的坊里制与农村的村社制。坊里制于城内分若乾片，名曰隅（如东西隅、西南隅之类）。隅下设坊，置坊官、坊司。坊下设里或社，置里正、社长；有的设巷而不设里，置巷长。村社制又称村疃制度，于县下设乡，置乡长，有的改设里正。乡之下设都，置主首。都之下设村社，社设社长。

行中书省全称为「某某等处行中书省」，简称「某某行中书省」或「某某行省」，源自金朝的行尚书省。这是基于新征服之地的文化差异太大，所以中央政府就专门设置外派单位来管辖之。由于战争等需求，行省除了负责行政之外也负责军事，最后逐渐形成一级行政区。早在蒙古时期就设有燕京（华北汉地）、别失八里（西辽等今新疆地区）、阿母河（中亚河中地区）等三断事官或行尚书省。元朝初年的行省管辖范围很大，改变也比较频繁，主要由中书省宰执带相衔临时到某一地区负责行政或征伐事务。1260年，元世祖于国内设置十路宣抚司，次年罢之。隔年改设十路宣慰司，渐成定制，并且设置陕西四川行省。往后直到灭宋为止，大多采行宣慰司与行省并行的制度。行省大多依据西夏、大理疆域与南宋新失之地设置，称为「中书省臣出行省事」，灭南宋将全国分为中书省直辖的腹里、宣政院辖地与十多个行中书省，并设置专司征讨外国的行省。1321年元英宗时期共设置十一个行省（包含在藩属国高丽设置的征东行省）。至元朝末年，行省增至十五个。

• 一级行政区分布：

• 腹里：由中书省直辖首都大都附近的中心之地，约今河北、山东、山西及内蒙古部分地区。

• 宣政院辖地：宣政院除了管理全国佛教事务外，尚管辖吐蕃地区军政事务，约今青海、西藏。

• 行中书省：元世祖至元成宗时期设有十个，陕西、辽阳、甘肃、河南江北、四川、云南、湖广、江浙、江西、岭北行中书省。

• 另外甘肃行省之西的哈密力（今哈密地区）、北庭都元帅府（别失八里）与火州之地不属任何行省管辖。

• 征讨行省分布：

• 征宋行省：如中统和至元前期的陕西四川行省、河东行省、北京行省、山东行省、西夏中兴行省、南京河南府等路行省、云南行省、平宋战争前后的荆湖行省、江淮行省等。灭宋后定型为一般的行中书省。

• 征外行省：于高丽设置征东行省（又称征日本行省）、于缅甸（蒲甘王朝）设置缅中行省（又称征缅行省）、于安南（陈朝）设置交趾行省（又称安南行省）、于占城设置占城行省（蒙越战争失败后撤销）。这些都是临时性的建置，事毕即罢。只有徵东行省，到元朝中期之后，稳定成高丽王的头衔。行省丞相分别由该国国王或远征军主将担任，自辟官属，且财赋不入都省，视作藩属国，故与其他行省性质不同。

• 平乱行省：元末民变时，元廷为便于镇压民变军，先后于腹里地区的济宁（今山东巨野）、彰德（今河南安阳）、冀宁（今山西太原）、保定、真定（今河北正定）、大同等地置中书分省。又分别设立淮南江北行省（至正十二年设于扬州）、福建行省（至正十六年设于福州，后分省泉州、建宁）、山东行省（至正十七年）、广西行省、胶东行省（至正二十三年）和福建江西行省（至正二十六年）。

另外元末民变的群雄也设置行省以便于统治，如天完之江南行省、汴梁行省、陇蜀行省、江西行省，韩宋之江南行省、益都行省，以及朱元璋所置江西行省、湖广行省、江淮行省、江浙行省等。

元代行省之下的政区划分十分复杂且时常变化，简单时只存在行省、府州、县三级，复杂时则会出现行省、道（宣慰司）、路（总管府）、府州、县五级的情况。这跟元代「投下封邑」制度息息相关，具体政区分级可能有：

• 道（宣慰司）

元代的道的直接来源即宋金的道路制度。中统三年李璮之乱爆发后，元廷为监察境内汉族世侯，开始仿照宋制设立临时且辖区不定的宣慰司，此时宣慰司多数兼行省相副衔。随著中国的统一，过于庞大的行省已经无法有效处理省内事务，且也有外重内轻之嫌，故至元十五年以后，对宣慰司进行大量的改革，裁撤了宣慰使相副衔并改任行省下属，使之成为辖区固定的行省分支机构及分管区域，其辖区划分也大致与宋金的道路级政区重合。同时由于行省首府附近的地域不设宣慰司，因此产生了直属省部的路州以及分属诸道的路州，但性质上这些都属于「直隶路州」。

• 直隶路州与封邑型政区

元代直隶于省部或宣慰司道的路州中存在大量的投下封邑型政区，这也是造成元代行政区划层级严重混乱的主要原因。基本上，直隶省部或宣慰司道的路州政区除少数冲要繁盛之地外，都是分封予汉族世侯和蒙古宗室的投下封邑。根据其规模户口的大小，可以分为总管府路、府、州三类，其关系则可参考吴澄所云「皇元因前代郡县之制损益之。郡之大者曰路。其次曰府若州……府若州，如古次国、小国。路设总管府，如古大国之为连率」。

• 总管府路：总管府路的设置与宣慰司道相似，也是源于宋金的道路制度，但目的性质不尽相同。蒙古初入主中原，以四大世侯为首的汉族地方军阀向蒙廷效忠，蒙廷则依仿金代制度，授予「某路都元帅」「某路都总管」的头衔，确认其在地方的高度世袭自治权，从而建立在汉地的政权机构，是为总管府路之滥觞，此时诸路规模建制与金代诸路相仿，四大世侯为首的有力总管其辖区更大。李璮之乱爆发后，元世祖为削弱地方割据势力，不但开始设置流官监察的宣慰司道，同时也对这类具有封邑性质的总管府路进行拆分，使一路仅辖三至四府州，但并没有改变总管府路封邑的政区性质，而是把它们转封给蒙古宗室，转封过程遵从「画境之制」，尽量使一王之封自成一路。灭宋后，置路以封诸侯的制度也在旧宋属地推行，这次的划分则更加零散，甚至到了「一州自成一路」的状况。

• 直隶府：除了总管府路的属府属州，一些府因为地处冲要或者以一府为封邑（主要在北方）而直隶于省部或宣慰司。少数人口众多地域广大的直隶散府（如南阳府、汝宁府、归德府等）经过后世的属区调整后更辖属州。直隶府与总管府路相比数量非常稀少，并非投下封邑的主要形态。

• 直隶州：与直隶府相似，极少数一些地处冲要或以一州为封邑的州（主要在北方）也直隶于省部或宣慰司。比较特殊的状况是，假如一些宗王的封地只有一县（比如蒙古开国功臣畏答儿之孙忽都虎郡王的封邑阳山县）的话，该县一般会升格为直隶州（升为桂阳州）。直隶州的数目比直隶府稍多，但仍远不及总管府路。

封邑型政区与其他直隶路州的最大区别在于达鲁花赤的设置，封邑型政区的达鲁花赤最早不由中央简任，而是由封君选任，作为封君在其封邑的代理人，行使最高决策权，保证封君在封邑的利益，而为了强化中央集权，一般上实际负责路州行政的总管、知府等为朝廷选任。

• 统县型政区

统县型政区即直接统领县级政区的中层政区，同样分为路（实质上为总管府路之首府即总府，总府所辖县在史料中多记述为直辖于路）、府、州三类，这些政区或作为投下封邑的一部分隶属于总管府路或部分直隶府（称为属府、属州），或作为独立的封邑直隶于省部或宣慰司道。其中属府的数量非常少，主要的统县型政区依然是属州。

政治制度

元朝与蒙古帝国的皇位继承异于中国历代王朝，采取库力台大会推举的制度，由王室贵族公推大家的领袖。而元朝皇帝也是兼任蒙古帝国的可汗，由于元世祖的汗位没有经过库力台大会的认可，使得四大汗国纷纷不奉正朔，直到元成宗方恢复宗主关系。元世祖建立元朝后，有意立真金为太子，定传子之局，可惜真金早死而使继承问题又浮现。元朝而后常因皇太子早死或兄弟争位而动荡不安，中期又有武仁之约的协定，武宗系与仁宗系交替继承皇位，然而又因元仁宗废除协定而再度混乱。元朝的继承问题直到元惠宗方稳定，但也进入元朝末期。元朝政治制度与金朝一样承袭宋朝制度，采取文武分权的制度，以中书省总理政务，枢密院掌管兵权。然而元朝的中书省已成为中央最高行政机关，元朝不设置门下省，尚书省时设时不设，仅元世祖时期与元武宗时期有设置，所以门下省与尚书省的权力皆交给中书省。中书省统领六部，主持全国政务，形成明清内阁制的先驱。其组织架构继承南宋体制，宰相的称呼共有中书令、司统率百官与总理政务等，常以皇太子兼任。下分左右丞相，中书令缺则总领中书事务。平章政事又居次，凡军国重事，无不参决。副相方面有左右丞、参政等。六部共有吏部、户部、礼部、兵部、刑部与工部，内有尚书、侍郎。尚书省主要负责财政事务，不过时置时废。枢密院执掌军事，御史台负责督察，与宋朝制度大致相同，然而在地方设有行中书省、行枢密院与行御史台。此外又有掌管学校的集贤院、掌管御膳的宣徽院、掌管驿传的通政院，其他还有太常礼仪院、太史院、太医院与将作院，略前代的九寺诸监。最后新成立的是宣政院（初名总制院），负责佛教及吐蕃（今西藏）地区军政事务，这是前代所没有的。

元朝在推行汉人的典章制度与维护蒙古旧法之间，时常发生冲突，并且分裂成守旧派与崇汉派。早在元太祖成吉思汗攻占汉地后，有赖耶律楚材与木华黎推行汉法以维护其典章制度。当时近臣别迭建议将汉人驱赶并把中原变成大牧场以收取财富，遭到耶律楚材的反对，他认为可用徵税的方式获得财富，因此保留了汉地的典章制度。他积极改变蒙古军以往「凡攻城邑，敌以矢石相加者，即为拒命，既克，必杀之。」的作风，努力兴科祟儒、整顿吏治，实为汉法推行之祖。木华黎为了便于管理汉地，也于汉族四大世侯合作，逐渐巩固了对河北、山西等地的治理。

后来管理汉地的元世祖忽必烈也积极推动汉法，任用了大批汉族幕僚和儒士等创设典章制度，如刘秉忠、许衡和姚枢等，并提出了「行汉法」的主张。积极推动了学习汉文的热潮。如元世祖就非常熟悉汉文典籍、礼仪制度，并能用汉文创作诗歌，并且还以法律的形式规定，太子必须学习汉文。接受儒士元好问和张德辉提议的「儒教大宗师」称号。忽必烈最后在大都建元称帝，创建中国式的元朝，建立了一套以传统中国中央集权作蓝本的政治体制，例如设立了三省六部和司农司等一系列专司机构，使用中原的统治机构来统治人民，任刘秉忠等人的规划建立首都大都。然而，元世祖在李璮叛乱后，对汉人的信任下降。而四大汗国以及守旧派蒙古王室都不满元世祖行汉法的举动，或叛变或疏远之。元世祖晚年也渐与儒臣疏远，任用阿合马、卢世荣与桑哥等色目人与汉人为首的理财派，汉法最后未成为一套完整的体系。后来的元仁宗、元英宗、元文宗与元惠宗等人更是可以纯熟地运用汉文进行创作。一些入居中原的蒙古贵族，羡慕汉文化，还请了儒生当家庭教师教育子女。为了学习方便还翻译了许多汉文典籍，诸如《通鉴节要》、《论语》、《孟子》、《大学》、《中庸》、《周礼》、《春秋》、《孝经》等。但崇汉派与守旧派时常发生冲突与政变，例如南坡之变等。

在人才选用方面，元朝虽然许多制度都沿袭了宋朝，但关于科举，元朝前期并没有常态化的定期举办科举，因此高级官僚的录用端看与元廷关系远近而决定，主要采取世袭、恩荫与推举制的方式。此外尚有循胥吏（小公务员）升进为官僚的方式，这与宋朝制度大异。宋朝官与吏的界限分明，胥吏大多以胥吏为终，然而元朝因为缺乏科举取才，就以推举或考试胥吏的方式晋升为官，这打破官吏屏障，使官吏成为上下的关系。科举选材方面，窝阔台汗听从耶律楚材建议，召集名儒讲经于东宫，率大臣子弟听讲。又置「编修所」于燕京，「经籍所」于平阳，倡导学习汉族古代文化，又在1234年设「经书国子学」，以冯志常为总教习，命侍臣子弟 18人入学，学习汉文化。并且于1238年以术忽德和刘中举办戊戌选试，此次科举取士录取4030人，并且建立儒户以保护士大夫。但最后仍废除科举，改采推举制度，往后于1252年与1276年两次共入选3890儒户。元世祖忽必烈即位后，正式设立了国子学，以河南许衡为集贤大学士兼国子祭酒，亲择蒙古子弟使教之，遍学儒家经典文史，培养统治人才。1289年元世祖下诏登记江南人口户籍，次年正式施行推举制度，此次登记成为后来户计的依据。直到1313年，提倡汉化运动的元仁宗下诏恢复科举，元仁宗恢复科举，由程钜夫、李孟、许师敬拟定元朝科举制度。1314年八月在全国的17处考场，举行乡试，1315年二月和三月相继在大都举行会试和殿试（廷试），因为是在延佑年间举行的，史称「延佑复科」，本次科举以程朱理学为考试的内容。榜分左右两榜，官位相同，第一名从六品，第二名以下及第二甲，皆正七品，进士三甲以下都能授正八品官员，如1238年戊戌选试的状元杨奂，1315年的乙卯科左榜状元张起岩。元朝前后共举行过16次，选举蒙古、色目、汉人、南人进士约 1100馀人。蒙古、色目人应举者远远少于汉人、南人。然而为了保障蒙古人与色目人的名额，实行难度不同的「分榜取士」，并且给蒙古人与色目人保留了超过其应举比例的名额，这也让蒙古与色目子弟失去了学习汉族文化的积极性和进取精神。《元统元年进士录》的记载称四等人名额相等，各25人，但读书人总数确实南人、汉人要远多于蒙古、色目，因此也有破例，如延佑首科的录取名额给左榜的要远多于右榜。虽然是聊胜于无的科举，但在形式上已经恢复，且持续坚持下去。原来放弃科举的士子重新获得了入仕机会，因此汉族士大夫莫不对元廷忠心耿耿。在元朝灭亡之际，舍身殉国的就有很多是科举出身者，可见科举复办对怀柔汉族士大夫有一定效果。

外交

元朝时与各国外交往来频繁，各地派遣的使节、传教士、商旅等络绎不绝，其中威尼斯商人尼可罗兄弟及其子马可波罗成为得到元朝皇帝宠信，在元朝担任外交专使的外国人。元廷曾要求周边一些国家或地区（包括日本、安南、占城、缅甸、爪哇）臣服，接受与元朝的朝贡关系，但遭到拒绝，故派遣军队进攻攻打这些国家或地区，其中以元日战争最为著名，也最惨烈。

东北地区

东北方面有高丽王朝与日本镰仓幕府。高丽王朝领有朝鲜半岛，之后被崔氏政权统治，高丽王变成傀儡。高丽先后臣服于辽朝与金朝，蒙古兴起后与高丽共同伐金，并约为兄弟之国。1225年蒙古要求高丽向其朝贡，蒙古使节抵达义州边境时，被高丽所害，当时蒙古忙于西征，无暇征讨。1231年窝阔台汗派撒礼塔率兵入侵高丽，崔氏政权领袖崔瑀抵御失败，高丽首都松都（今开城）被攻陷，史称高丽蒙古战争。蒙军设置多位达鲁花赤以监督高丽政事。隔年崔瑀杀死达鲁花赤，拥护高丽王高丽高宗从松都迁往江华岛，并且长期抗蒙，另外三别抄军抵抗蒙军至1273年。然而高丽朝廷分裂成反战的文派，与抗蒙的崔氏政权。贵由、蒙哥时又四次讨伐掠夺高丽地，1258年崔氏政权被颠覆后，高丽高宗遣子称臣，正式成为蒙古的藩属国。1283年元世祖为了讨伐日本，于高丽国设置征东行省，高丽王为行省的左丞相，内政受蒙古人控制。高丽君主从忠烈王开始娶蒙古公主为妻，高丽君主继承人按照约定，必须在元大都以蒙古人的方式长大成人后，方可回高丽。高丽成为元朝的藩属国后，元世祖六次遣使者要求日本朝贡，均告失败，于是发起元日战争。1274年元军发动第一次侵日战争，，日本史书称为「文永之役」，元廷派三万二千馀人东征日本，最后因为台风侵袭而伤亡惨重。1281年七月，忽必烈又发动第二次侵日战争，日本史书称为「弘安之役」，由范文虎、李庭率江南军十馀万人，到达次能、志贺二岛，因日军积极抵抗，且元军又遇到台风，最后再度惨败。通常认为台风（日本人称之为「神风」）与元军不擅水战是造成失败的最大原因（另一方面，高丽和南宋工匠故意制作式样错误的战船）。而后元世祖又准备第三次东征，因大臣劝阻，再加上出兵安南的缘故而罢。而后元世祖多次遣使均遭日本拒绝，通使关系一直未能建立，但是元朝与日本的经济和文化交流仍然十分繁盛，来元日本人以商人与禅僧最多。元廷令沿海官司通日本国人市舶，主要港口是庆元（今宁波）。

南洋诸国

南洋诸国有安南（陈朝）、占城与爪哇（满者伯夷）等国。安南国据有今越南北部，于五代北宋时期独立于中华。蒙古大汗蒙哥于1257年派兀良哈台南攻安南，蒙越战争爆发。越南陈太宗被蒙军击败，上表称臣，蒙哥封为安南国王，而越南陈圣宗继位后不愿向元朝称臣。当时在安南南方还有占城国，1282年占城国王因陀罗跋摩六世遣使朝贡，元世祖因此设置荆湖占城行中书省，以阿里海牙为该行省的平章政事。由于占城王扣留元使，元世祖藉此发兵分水陆攻打占城与安南。他以唆都率水军由广州渡海攻打占城。隔年蒙古水军攻下占城国王据守的木城，占城国王因陀罗跋摩六世求和，但于蒙古退军后杀使者。1284年元世祖再派镇南王脱欢、阿里海牙与唆都率陆军借道安南南征占城，被时任太上皇的陈圣宗反抗而爆发战争。元军大举入侵，占领安南国都。但陈圣宗、陈兴道率领的陈军积极抵抗，并且瘟疫四窜。最后元军于1285年撤退，途中遭安南军袭击，损失过半。而后1288年又南征失败，随后安南请和。这场战争至元成宗才废止，安南与占城相继入贡元廷。当时南洋群岛诸国，也多贡于元朝。有名的有马兰丹（今马六甲）、苏木都拉（今苏门答腊）等。1292年元世祖命亦黑迷失、史弼与高兴率福建水军南征爪哇满者伯夷王国，并降其邻国葛郎（爪哇岛以东），但中计受突击，战败而还，以后爪哇仍然派使朝贡。此外元世祖亦派使者招降琉求国，然使者仅至澎湖而返。

西南地区

西南地区有大理国、吐蕃、缅甸（蒲甘王朝）、八百媳妇国（兰纳泰王国）与暹逻。大理源自唐朝的南诏，937年由段思平灭南诏建国，占有现今云南地区，后由高升泰等高氏政权掌控。1252年蒙哥汗命忽必烈与兀良合台自四川迂回南灭大理，原大理国王段氏被任为大理世袭总管。吐蕃自晚唐就走向衰退，但其境内藏传佛教（又被汉人贬称为喇嘛教）日渐兴盛，喇嘛的势力超过赞普（吐蕃王）的地位。1247年窝阔台汗次子阔端召请喇嘛班智达来凉州，史称凉州会盟，此后吐蕃喇嘛与蒙古大汗形成了布施关系（详见元朝治藏历史）。忽必烈南征大理时，分兵伐吐蕃，喇嘛班智达与赞普同时投降，吐蕃亡。元世祖封班智达的继承人八思巴为「帝师」，兼任总制院（后改为宣政院）院使，取得了统治乌思藏地区的权力，使西藏统治者由赞普转为喇嘛。缅甸为唐朝的骠国，宋朝以后称缅，国内部落称甸，所以又称缅甸。元朝初期缅甸为蒲甘王朝，其王朝西并阿剌干（今孟加拉湾一带），南并勃固（今仰光以北），并进占暹罗。元世祖派使招降不从，缅甸反派军入侵云南，元缅战争爆发，而后元兵又多次进攻缅甸。1283年元世祖派军入侵缅甸，两年后缅甸王请和。1287年缅甸内乱，元军乘机进攻缅甸，蒲甘城破，缅甸成为元朝的藩属，缅甸王那罗梯诃波帝失去王位，元廷建缅中行省，而后以蒲甘国王任行省左丞相，成为元朝傀儡。1368年掸族于缅甸东部阿瓦建立阿瓦王国，首领为阿散哥。孟族建都于马达班，1369年迁都勃固，建立勃固王朝，二王国南北交战。掸族阿散哥挟持缅甸王，使元成宗派元军讨伐，最后迫使阿散哥派使朝贡。兰纳泰王国（元人称八百媳妇国）位于掸族东边的金三角，曾联合阿散哥抵抗元军，元廷多次讨伐未果，直到元泰定帝时才内附。暹罗地区原有素可泰王朝（元人称暹国）、大城王国（元人称罗斛）以及其他小国。暹国曾扩张其势力于马来半岛，元成宗后遣使进贡八次。罗斛自元世祖末年就开始进贡，并于元末时期并吞暹国等小国，统一为暹罗国。

欧洲与非洲地区

蒙古帝国的三次西征的同时，正值教宗提倡十字军东征西亚的伊斯兰国家以收复耶路撒冷。由于教宗急需外援以抗衡伊斯兰教徒，而欧洲基督教国家刚刚经历蒙古第二次西征，再加上东西交通十分便利，纷纷派使者东行了解这个东方大国。教宗于1245年曾派柏朗嘉宾经钦察汗国到和林谒见贵由汗，返国著成《柏朗嘉宾蒙古行纪》。1253年法国国王路易九世派鲁布鲁克以传教为名到和林进见蒙哥汗，返国著有《鲁布鲁克东行纪》。1316年义大利人鄂多立克经海路至元大都，参加了元泰定帝的宫廷庆典，回国著成《鄂多立克东游录》，范围远达西藏，对元大都及宫廷的描写较细。最著名的是义大利探险家马可波罗，他随经商的父亲、叔父于1275年到元朝进见元世祖，直至1291年才离去。他担任元廷官吏，历游元朝各地，其著写的《马可波罗游记》对元朝进行多角度反映，吸引欧洲人东行中国。另外元朝与非洲地区诸国也有来往，汪大渊在1330年和1337年二度飘洋过海亲身经历的南洋和西洋二百多个地方的地理、风土、物产，最后著成《岛夷志略》，影响明代初期的郑和下西洋。

军事

元朝军队按照亲疏关系分成蒙古军、探马赤军、汉军与新附军等四个等级。蒙古军与探马赤军主要是骑兵。汉军、新附军大多为步军，也配有部分骑兵。水军编有水军万户府、水军千户所等。炮军由炮手和制炮工匠组成，编有炮手万户府、炮手千户所，设有炮手总管等。一部分侍卫亲军中，还专置弩军千户所，管领禁卫军中的弓箭手。

蒙古军是元朝军队的骨干，主要由蒙古族组成。蒙古军早在成吉思汗统一蒙古时即创立，平时分布在草原上驻牧，战时临时招集。采用兵民合一的万户制，按十进制编组成十户、百户、千户。只要是十五岁至七十以内的人皆服兵役，其童子稍微年长者也组成「渐丁军」。元朝时期在汉地和江南军户中签发丁男应役。探马赤军又名签军，随著战争的发展，统治者需要一支蒙古军队长期留守被征服地区，于是从蒙古各部中「签发」了部分士兵，组成专门用于镇戍的探马赤军。自1217年木华黎讨伐金朝时建立，由弘吉剌、兀鲁兀、忙兀、札剌亦儿及亦乞烈思五部组成，西征花剌子模后回族、维吾尔族与突厥族等族成为探马赤军的一部分。探马赤军精于火炮与西方的回回炮，攻城力强。「下马则屯聚牧养，上马则备战」。

汉军是蒙古帝国占领汉地后发民为兵，主要由金朝女真与契丹降军、早期降蒙的南宋军、汉地的地方汉族武装势力与签发汉地百姓等所组成。窝阔台汗于1229年收编金朝女真与契丹降军，在汉地民户中大规模签发士兵，补充汉军兵员，将蒙古军的编制和官称用于汉军系统强。各汉军万户统军人数不等，「大者五、六万，小者不下二、三万」。汉军有「旧军」与「新军」的区别。旧军主要指敌国降军和地方武装势力，新军指从汉地百姓签发的新兵。元世祖忽必烈即位后，蒙元帝国的统治重心由漠北草原移到了中原汉地。元世祖对军队体制进行改革，逐步建成中央宿卫军和地方镇戍军两大系统，确定了元军的编制和隶属关系，在元朝对外战争中，汉军发挥了重要的作用。新附军主要是元朝南征南宋期间收边的降军，又被称为新附汉军、南军等。新附军内名号繁杂，而是元廷因士兵所具不同特点而起的名称，如券军、手号军与盐军等等。估计当时新附军的数量在二十万人上下，元帝将新附军分编到元军的侍卫军和镇戌军中；或以蒙古、汉人、南人建立新的军府，管领新附军人。每当有战事发生，首先调发各军中的新附军出征，其馀则从事屯田和工役造作。经过多年的战争消耗和自然减员，新附军数量日益减少，最后式微。

元朝的防卫分宿卫和镇戍两大系统。宿卫军由怯薛和侍卫亲军构成，其中怯薛军保留自成吉思汗创立的四怯薛番直宿卫，常额在万人以上，元朝功臣博尔忽、博尔术、木华黎、赤老温或其后人充任怯薛长。在战争中，怯薛则是全军的中坚力量，被称之为「也客豁勒」（大中军）；侍卫亲军则是忽必烈在华北汉人世侯的建议下所置，在初期蒙制怯薛未形成战斗力之时负责宿卫之职以及与阿里不哥争夺权力。其后，侍卫亲军用于保卫大都，卫设都指挥史或率史，隶属于枢密院。镇戍军由蒙古军和探马赤军守卫靠近京畿的要地，华北、陕西、四川的蒙古军、探马赤军由各地的都万户府（都元帅府）统领，隶属于枢密院。南方以蒙古军、汉军、新附军共同驻守，防御重点是江淮地区，隶属于各行省。镇戍诸军，有警时由行枢密院统领，平时日常事务归行省，但调遣更防等重要军务则归属枢密院决定。

元朝水军原是为了元灭宋之战而准备，1270年命刘整建造大量水军。襄樊之战时元朝水军与陆军协同包围襄阳，攻下后降将吕文焕又率元水军与河岸陆军协同于丁家洲之战击溃南宋水军精锐，至此领有全部长江水域。而后张弘范又率元朝水军（平底船）渡海南下追击南宋海军，最后于崖山海战包围歼灭之，元朝水军在灭宋之战有重要的功能。元朝融合了南宋和阿拉伯航海技术，使海军技术更加成熟，然而在对外战事中，元日战争与元爪战争均以失败结束，而且对日战争两次均被台风所毁，只有对占城的战役获胜而已。

人口

早在蒙古时期，北方人口就不断的南逃，总人数约占北方人口的十分之一，这种现象到惠宗时都还持续发生，元廷屡禁而不能止。在大蒙古国征服金朝期间在战地进行了大规模屠杀和掠夺。随后的瘟疫与饥荒导致东亚地区大量人口消失，其中又以金朝的华北和南宋的川陕四路十分严重。这是导致「湖广填四川」移民运动发生的重大原因。

1234年3月9日金灭亡后，华北地区约有110万户与600万人，只有1208年的金朝人口5353万的13%。蒙古宋战争期间，南宋境内因战争总计消灭了大约1500万人口，主要集中在川陕四路地区。1279年元军完全剿灭四川的抗元势力后，在1280年的户口调查仅为9万馀户与50万馀人，只有1231年蒙古入侵川陕四路地区前的4%。大蒙古国时期有过两次户口统计，先有1235年窝阔台汗推行的乙未籍户，获得华北地区如燕京（今北京）、顺天（今河北保定）等三十六路的人口资料，后有1252年蒙哥汗完成的壬子籍户，显示华北人口略有增加。1271年元世祖建国号为大元。虽然在元成宗到元惠宗至正初年期间政治动荡不安，尽管每年也成百上千次人民起义，但社会上基本处于安定状态，经济大体上也是呈现增长的状态，这些都促使人口增长，大约在惠宗至正十年（1351年）达到高峰。元惠宗至正年间（1341年－1370年）全国发生多次大规模的灾荒饥馑疾病和瘟疫，最终促使红巾军起义爆发。红巾军起义之后又造成人口大量减少。明太祖建国后论到：「前代革命之际，肆行屠戮，违天虐民，朕实不忍。」

元代户口统计并不是准确，无法涵盖的人口包括逃户、因土地兼并而荫蔽的隐户、流民以及私属人口等。朝廷不纳入户口统计的人口包括：岭北等处行中书省、云南等处行中书省、西南土司地区和宣政院辖地的居民；蒙古诸王、贵族、军将的大量私属人口（驱口、投下户，怯怜口、打捕鹰房人户）；独立于州县以外的诸色户计（军户、站户、匠户、民屯户、释、道、儒户、游食者）等。现在历史学者只能根据史书的原始数据与他们掌握的历史资料的来推断，所以差异甚大，仅作参考。人口逃亡的现象很严重，如1241年，忽都虎等元籍诸路民户1,004,656户，逃户即达280,746户，占全部人户的28％。另外，随著民族关系日益密切，往来与杂居也相当普遍。从蒙金战争时期就陆续有大批汉人被迁往蒙古草原以及天山南北、辽阳等处行中书省与云南等处行中书省各地；蒙古与色目官员、军户、商人等也大量移居中原内地；云南地区居住的蒙古人约十万人左右；大都、上都等政治城市及杭州、泉州、镇江等商业城市都居住许多蒙古人、畏兀儿（维吾尔祖先）、穆斯林、党项人、女真人与契丹人等，促成民族之间经济文化的交流。

「四等人制」

有说法认为由于蒙古人与汉人的人数比例极不平均，元廷为了保护蒙古人地位，主张蒙古至上主义，推行蒙古人、色目人（包括西域各族和西夏人）、汉人（原金朝统治下的人民）、南人（南宋统治下的汉人）等四个阶级的制度，但该制度并不见于官方文告及档案。有学者认为，元廷给蒙古人与色目人极大的权利，并让汉人与南人负担较大的赋税与劳役，民族压迫和阶级压迫十分沉重。尽管学术界迄今并没有发现元代有把臣民明确划分为四等的专门法令，但元廷对于各民族的不平等态度却反映在一些政策和规定中，例如汉人打死怯薛需要偿命，而怯薛打死汉人只需「断罚出征，并全征烧埋银」（原文为怯薛歹蒙古人，怯薛歹为元代一特权阶级）。此外汉人做官也往往只能做副贰（虽然实际上存在很多例外情况，终元一代朝廷仍任用不少汉人为官，如元初的史天泽、元末的贺惟一等曾官拜丞相）。

「九儒十丐」

有说法认为「九儒十丐」是元朝的定制，显示出在蒙古统治下儒士在社会的下等地位。此「九儒十丐」的说法来自南宋遗民谢枋得，其〈送方伯载归三山序〉云：「滑稽之雄，以儒为戏者曰：『我大元制典，人有十等：一官、二吏；先之者，贵之也，贵之者，谓有益于国也。七匠、八娼、九儒、十丐；后之者，贱之也，贱之者，谓无益于国也。』嗟乎卑哉！介乎娼之下，丐之上者，今之儒也。」及同样是南宋遗民的郑思肖〈大义略序〉曰：「鞑法，一官、二吏、三僧、四道、五医、六工、七猎、八民、九儒、十丐。」但因其政治立场，并不能完全尽信，或作为元朝儒士社会地位低下的佐证。中外史学界已有学者对元代儒士的地位问题进行过深入的研究，否定了元代儒人地位低落的说法。

经济

元代经济呈现多元格局，经济活跃发达，大致上以农业为主，有学者认为其整体生产力虽然不如宋朝，但在生产技术、垦田面积、粮食产量、水利兴修以及棉花广泛种植等方面都取得了较大发展。蒙古人原来是游牧民族，草原时期以畜牧为主，经济单一，无所谓土地制度。蒙金战争时期，大臣耶律楚材建议保留汉人的农业生产，以提供财政上的收入来源，这个建议受到铁木真的采纳。窝阔台之后，为了巩固对汉地统治，实行了一些鼓励生产、安抚流亡的措施，农业生产逐渐恢复。特别是经济作物棉花的种植不断推广，棉花及棉纺织品在江南一带种植和运销都在南宋基础上有所增加。经济作物商品性生产的发展，就使当时基本上自给自足的农村经济，在某些方面渗入了商品货币经济关系。但是，由于元帝集中控制了大量的手工业工匠，经营日用工艺品的生产，官营手工业特别发达，对民间手工业则有一定的限制。

由于蒙古对商品交换依赖较大，同时受儒家轻商思想较少，故元朝比较提倡商业，使得商品经济十分繁荣，使其成为当时世界上相当富庶的国家。而元朝的首都大都，也成为当时闻名世界的商业中心。为了适应商品交换，元朝建立起世界上最早的完全的纸币流通制度，是中国历史上第一个完全以纸币作为流通货币的朝代，然而因滥发纸币也造成恶性通货膨胀。商品交流也促进了元代交通业的发展，改善了陆路、漕运，内河与海路交通。

农业

农业方面，宋真宗时推行的占城稻在元朝时已经推广到全国各地。农业生产继续发展，1329年，南粮北运多达三百五十多万石，说明粮食生产的丰富。这一阶段，经济作物也有较大发展，茶叶、棉花与甘蔗是重要的经济作物。江南地区早在南宋时已盛产棉花，北方陕甘一带又从西域传来了新的棉种。1289年元廷设置了浙东、江东、江西、湖广、福建等省木棉提举司，年征木棉布十万匹。1296年复定江南夏税折征木棉等物，反映出棉花种植的普遍及棉纺织业的发达。元朝水利设施以华中、华南地区比较发达。元初曾设立了都水监和河渠司，专掌水利，逐步修复了前代的水利工程。陕西三白渠工程到元朝后期仍可溉田七万馀顷。所修复的浙江海塘，对保护农业生产也起了较大作用。元朝农业技术继承宋朝，南方人民曾采用了圩田、柜田、架田、涂田、沙田、梯田等扩大耕地的种植方法，对于生产工具又有改进。关于元朝的农具，在王祯的《农书》中有不少详细的叙述。

元世祖为了清查土地徵收赋税曾实行过土地所有者自报田地的经理法，由于未能确实执行，1314年元仁宗又派大臣往江浙、江西、河南三地实施经理法，但实施结果仍然弊端极多，人民纷起反抗，以至仁宗不得不下诏免三省自实田租二年，最后不了了之。

元朝土地仍可分为官田和私田两种。官田主要来自宋、金的官田，两朝皇亲国戚、权贵、豪右的土地，掠夺的民田，以及经过长期战乱所形成的无主荒地。元廷把所掌握的官田一部分作为屯田，一部分赏赐王公贵族和寺院僧侣，馀下的则由政府直接招民耕种，收取地租。其屯田的数量极大，遍及全国，其中以河北、河南两省最多。其中民屯是役使汉人屯垦收租，军屯则分给各军户，强迫相当于奴隶的「驱丁」耕种。私田是蒙古贵族和汉族地主的占地以及少量自耕农所有的田地。元朝以大量土地赏赐寺院，例如1316年元仁宗曾赐给上都开元寺江浙田二百顷、华严寺百顷。元朝也有一定数量的自耕农，然而地位很低下，生活十分困苦。

畜牧业

元朝的畜牧政策以开辟牧场，扩大牲畜的牧养繁殖为主，尤其是孳息马群。畜牧业发展趋势不稳定，由元世祖时的盛况渐渐趋向衰退，到了元惠宗时，畜牧业的衰败更为严重，其原因最大的是自然灾害。元朝完善了养马的管道，设立太仆寺、尚乘寺、群牧都转运司和买马制度等制度。元朝在全国设立了14个官马道，所有水草丰美的地方都用来牧放马群，自上都、大都以及玉你伯牙、折连怯呆儿，周回万里，无非牧地。元朝牧场广阔，西抵流沙，北际沙漠，东及辽海，凡属地气高寒，水甘草美，无非牧养之地。当时，大漠南北和西南地区的优良牧场，庐帐而居，随水草畜牧。江南和辽东诸处亦散满了牧场，早已打破了国马牧于北方，往年无饲于南者的界线。内地各郡县亦有牧场。除作为官田者以外，这些牧场的部分地段往往由夺取民田而得。

牧场分为官牧场与私人牧场。官牧场是12世纪形成的大畜群所有制的高度发展形态，也是大汗和各级蒙古贵族的财产。大汗和贵族们通过战争掠夺，对所属牧民徵收贡赋，收买和没收所谓无主牲畜等方式进行大规模的畜牧业生产。元朝诸王分地都有王府的私有牧场，安西王忙哥剌，占领大量田地进行牧马，又扩占旁近世业民田30万顷为牧场。云南王忽哥赤的王府畜马繁多，悉纵之郊，败民禾稼，而牧人又在农家宿食，室无宁居。1331年以河间路清池、南皮县牧地赐斡罗思驻冬。元世祖时，东平布衣赵天麟上《太平金镜策》，云：今王公大人之家，或占民田近于千顷，不耕不稼，谓之草场，专放孳畜。可见，当时蒙古贵族的私人牧场所占面积之大。

岭北行省作为元朝皇室的祖宗根本之地，为了维护诸王、贵族的利益和保持国族的强盛，元帝对这个地区给予了特别的关注。畜牧业是岭北行省的主要经济生产部门，遇有自然灾害发生，元朝就从中原调拨大量粮食、布帛进行赈济，或赐银、钞，或购买羊马分给灾民；其灾民，也常由元廷发给资粮，遣送回居本部。元帝对诸王、公主、后妃、勋臣给予巨额赏赐，其目的在于巩固贵族、官僚集团之间的团结，以维持自己的皇权统治。皇帝对蒙古本土的巨额赏赐，无形中是对这一地区畜牧业生产的投资。

手工业

元朝手工业生产也有些进步，丝织业的发展以南方为主，长江下游的绢，在产量上居于首位，超过了黄河流域。元朝的加金丝织物称为「纳石矢」金锦，当时的织金锦包括两大类：一类是用片金法织成的，用这种方法织成的金锦，金光夺目。另一类是用圆金法织成的，牢固耐用，但其金光色彩比较暗淡。棉纺织业到宋末元初起了变化，棉花由西北和东南两路迅速传入长江中下游平原和关中平原。加上元朝在五个省区设置了木棉提举司，「责民岁输木绵（棉）十万匹」，可见长江流域的棉布产量已相当可观。但当时由于工具简陋，技术低下，成品尚比较粗糙。1295年前后，妇女黄道婆把海南岛黎族的纺织技术带到松江府的乌泥泾，提升了纺织技术，被尊称为黄娘娘。

元朝的瓷器在宋代的基础上又有进步，著名的青花瓷就是元代的新产品。青花瓷器，造型优美，色彩清新，有很高的艺术价值。造船业十分发达，还有起碇用的轮车，并已经使用罗盘针导航。元朝的印刷技术，又比宋朝更有进步。活字印刷术不断改进，陆续发明了锡活字和木活字，并用来排印蒙文和汉文书籍。自1276年以来，已使用小块铜版铸印小型的蒙文和汉文印刷品，如纸币「至元通行宝钞」。套色版印刷术应用于刻书，如中兴路刊印的无闻和尚注《金刚经》。1298年王祯用木活字来印他所纂修的《大德旌德县志》，不到一月百部齐成，其效率很高。他又发明了转轮排字架，使用简单的机械，提高排字的效率。最后他总结成《造活字印书法》。

元朝行会组织还有应付官府需索、维护同业利益的作用，其组织的内部还更日趋周密。在元朝，「和雇」及「和买」，名义上是给价的，实际上却给价很少，常成为非法需索。虽然各行会多由豪商把持，对中小户进行剥削，但是由于官府科索繁重，同业需要共同来应付官府的需求，同时官府也要利用行会来控制手工业的各个行业。

商业

元朝透过专卖政策控制盐、酒、茶、农具、竹木等一切日用必需品的贸易，影响国内商业的发展。可是元朝幅员广阔，交通发达，所以往往鼓励对外贸易政策，因而终元之世对外贸易颇为繁盛。元朝的对外贸易主要采取官营政策，并禁止汉人往海外经商。但实际上私商入海贸易的仍然很多，政府始终无法禁绝。元代海外贸易输出入商品，大体上与宋代相同。但奴隶贸易却有相当规模，贩运进口的有「黑厮」和「高丽奴」。

在生产发展的基础上，物资交流频繁，从而促进了商业城市的发展。元朝时临安仍改名杭州，其繁荣并不因南宋覆灭而衰退多少。由于北方人纷纷南迁，城厢内外人口更加稠密，商业繁荣。杭州是江浙行省的省会，地位重要，水陆交通便利，驿站最多，不但是南方国内商业中心，也是对外贸易的重要港口之一。江浙行中书省居各行中书省徵收的商税和酒醋课的第一位，城内中外商民荟萃，住有不少埃及人和突厥人，还有古印度等国富商所建的大厦。泉州在宋元时期是东方第一大港，货物的运输量十分巨大，泉州的税收仅次于前朝首都杭州。然而在元朝末年色目军爆发亦思巴奚兵乱，导致外侨大量撤离，对外贸易中断而衰。大都（今北京）是元朝的首都，在原来中都城的东北方建立新城，规模宏大，是全国政治、军事中心，也是陆路对外贸易和国内商业中心。达官贵人、富商大贾多在此聚居，人口稠密，城厢内外街道纵横，商肆栉比鳞次，工商业很繁荣，是世界闻名的大城市。州县以上的城市，商业比较发达的还有：

• 长江下游和苏浙闽等地区的建康（南京）、平江（苏州）、扬州、镇江、吴江、吴兴、绍兴、衢州、福州等城市；

• 长江中游地区的荆南、沙市、汉阳、襄阳、黄池、太平州、江州、隆兴等城市；

• 长江上游川蜀地区的成都、叙州、遂宁等城市；

• 沿海对外贸易城市的广州、泉州、明州、秀州、温州和江阴等等。

货币制度

元朝为了加强对经济的统制，以使用纸币为主，铸造钱币比其他朝代为少。1260年元世祖发行了以丝为本位的宝钞与以白银或金为本位的中统钞（中统钞没有设定流通期限），钞币持有者可以按照法令比价兑换银或金，虽然其后曾一度废除，但持续使用到元朝末期，成为元朝货币的核心的纸币。全国各路都设有兑换的机关——「平准库」。兑换基金充足，准许兑现,兑换的时候徵收两到三分的手续费（工墨钞）。1276年由于元廷大肆搜括，增发纸币，并将各路准备金银运往大都，引起物价上涨，纸钞贬值。1280年，纸币贬值成为原来的十分之一。1287年物价已经「相去几十馀倍」了。为了稳定物价，元廷发行「至元宝钞」和中统钞并行。1350年元惠宗又发行「至正宝钞」，发行不久，贬值严重，物价暴涨。事实上，民间的日常交易、借贷、商品标价等多有用银的。这时使用的白银，主要是银锭和元宝。

赋税与徭役

元代的赋税依旧包括田赋、开采矿产的岁课、盐税等。但由于元代商业发达，商税亦成为了政府的重要收入之一

关于元朝的田赋，《元史·食货志一》说：「元之取民，大率以唐为法。其取于内郡者曰丁税，曰地税，此仿唐之租庸调也；取于江南者曰秋税，曰夏税，此仿唐之两税也。」这段话虽然并不确切，但至少说明了南北田赋制度的差异。中原田赋的徵收大概始于耶律楚材辅政以后。在这之前蒙古帝国根本没有赋税之制。元朝行于江南的田赋制度基本上沿用了宋代的两税制。

元朝人民还有一项很沉重的财政负担，即科差，是徭役向赋税转化的一种形式。

文化

元朝统治中原，对中原传统文化的影响大过对社会经济的影响。像辽朝、金朝与西夏等征服王朝，他们为了提升本国文化，积极的吸收中华文化，进而逐渐汉化，然而蒙元对汉文化却不甚积极。他们主要是为了维护本身文化，同时采用西亚文化与汉文化，并且提倡蒙古至上主义，来防止被汉化。例如他们提倡藏传佛教高过于中原的佛教与道教，在政治上大量使用色目人，儒者的地位下降以及长时间没有举办科举。由于士大夫文化式微，意味宋朝的传统社会秩序已经崩溃。这使得在士大夫文化低下，属于中下层的的庶民文化迅速的抬头。这个现象在政治方面是重用胥吏，在艺术与文学方面则是发展以庶民为对象的戏剧与艺能，其中以元曲最为兴盛。

思想

元朝的思想上也是兼收并用的，他们对各种思想几乎一视同仁，都加以承认与提倡，「三教九流，莫不崇奉」。然而元廷在一定程度上尊重儒学，特别是于宋朝形成的理学，更是尊为官学，使得理学得以北传。元仁宗初年恢复科举，史称延佑复科，在「明经」、「经疑」和「经义」的考试都规定用南宋儒者朱熹等人的注释，影响后来明朝的科举考试皆采用朱熹注释。理学在元朝还有一些变化，南宋时期即有调和程朱理学的朱熹与心学的陆九龄等两家学派的思想，元代理学家大多舍弃两派其短而综汇所长，最后「合会朱陆」成为元代理学的重要特点。当时有名的理学家有黄震、许衡与刘因与调和朱陆学的吴澄、郑玉与赵偕。朱学的后继者为了配合元帝的需求，更注重在程朱理学的伦理道德学说，其道德蒙昧主义的特徵日趋明显。从而把注意力由学问思变的道问学转向对道德实践的尊德性的重视，这也促成朱、陆思想的合流。元代理学的发展，也为明朝朱学与阳明心学的崛起提供某些思想的开端。

江南统一后，元朝崇尚儒学的政策有新发展，汉蒙官员上书建议兴举和重视学校，于是元政府在推广有关儒学教育政策的同时，亦更加注意优待和勉励儒学。从元世祖到元世宗时期，元朝的重视、勉励学改的政策已经完备。元成宗以后，这些政策基本上得到历代皇帝的实行。例如为了维护儒学的正常运行，元世祖于至元二十五年下圣旨：「（江淮等处）仍禁约使臣人等勿得于庙学安下，非礼骚扰」，此后元政府两次重申这一禁令，对元朝儒学教育的正常运作起到了保护作用。另外，元朝亦实行宋朝以来的学田政策，允许学校支配学田收入。元朝政府还将儒学推广至边远地区，在云南、两广、海南、西部地区如原西夏政权控制的范围和原宋朝和吐蕃的边境地区、北部和东北地区（岭北行省和辽阳行省）建立、推广和发展儒学。元朝的统一对儒学教育向中国边远地区的扩散作出了推动作用，并且取得了明显的成绩。

由于元朝由蒙古人所统治，汉族士大夫基于异族统治的考量，在蒙元初期大多分成合作派与抵抗派。合作一派是华北儒者如耶律楚材、杨奂、郝经与许衡等人。他们主张与蒙古统治者和平共存，认为华、夷并非固定不变，如果夷而进于「中国」，则「中国」之。如果蒙古统治者有德行，也可以完全入主中原。他们提倡安定社会，保护百姓，将中华的典章制度带进蒙元，以教感化蒙古人。另一派是江南南宋遗民的儒者如谢访、郑思肖、王应麟、胡三省、邓牧、马端临等人。他们缅怀南宋故国，为了消极抵抗元廷，采取隐遁乡里，终生不愿意出仕的方式。并且以著述书籍为业，将思想化为书中主旨。到元朝后期，由于元仁宗实行延佑复科，恢复科举，及第者都感谢天子的恩宠，纷纷愿意为元廷解忧。元朝后期国势大墬，政治腐败、财政困难，使得当时士大夫如赵天麟、郑介夫、张养皓与刘基等人纷纷提出各种政治主张，或从弊端中总结经验教训。他们大多提倡勤政爱民、廉洁公正、任用贤才等措施。元末民变的爆发使得南方有不少士大夫出于卫身、保乡、勤王之目的，纷纷组织义兵护国，有些士大夫甚至舍身殉国。在明朝建立后，部分元朝遗老纷纷归隐不出。

文学、史学与语文

元朝文学以元曲与小说为主，对于史学研究也十分兴盛。相对的元朝的诗词成就较少，内容比较贫乏，但文以虞集为长，诗以刘因为著。明朝王世贞说「元无文」，但叙事文学如戏曲、小说第一次有主导地位。元朝使华北诞生元曲，江南则出现以浙江为中心的文人阶层，孕育出《三国演义》和《水浒传》等长篇小说，自由奔放的文人如杨维桢、倪瓒等人，在城市发放出市民文化的花朵。

元曲分成散曲与杂剧，散曲具有诗独立生命，杂剧则具有戏剧的独立生命。当时城市经济兴盛，元廷不重视中国文学与科举，当时社会提倡歌舞戏曲作为大众的娱乐品，这些都使宋、金以来的戏曲升华为元曲。散曲是元代的新体诗，也是元代一种新的韵文形式，以抒情为主，主要给舞台上清唱的流行歌曲，可以单独唱也可以融入歌剧内，与唐宋诗词关系密切。；杂剧是元代的歌剧，产生于金末元初，发展和兴盛于元代至元大德年间。根据《太和正音谱》中所记，大约有五百三十五本，创作十分巨大而辉煌。元朝后期，杂剧创作中心逐步南移，加强与温州发扬的南戏的交流，到元末成为传奇，明清时发展出昆剧和粤剧。当时散曲四大名家有关汉卿、马致远、张可久与乔吉，有名的《南吕‧一枝花》（《不伏老》）反映作者乐观和顽强精神；《恁阑人》（《江夜》）追求文字技巧，脱离散曲特有风格；描写景物的《水仙子》（《重观瀑布》）雅俗兼备，以出奇制胜；其中描写自然景物的曲子《天净沙》（《秋思》）刻划出一幅秋郊夕照图，情景交融，色彩鲜明，被称为「秋思之祖」。杂剧五大名家除了关汉卿与马致远之外，还有白朴、王实甫与郑光祖，有名的作品有《窦娥冤》、《拜月亭》、《汉宫秋》、《梧桐雨》、《西厢记》与《倩女离魂》，主要表现社会与生活情况、歌颂历史人物与事件，强调人物的情感。元曲的兴盛，最后成为与汉赋、唐诗、宋词并称的中国优秀文学遗产。

元朝长篇小说源自戏曲说白的平话，这些话本最后写成书的即是小说，以《三国演义》和《水浒传》最有名，与明朝的《西游记》、清朝的《红楼梦

》合称中国古典四大文学名著。《三国演义》的作者是罗贯中，叙述三国时期曹操、刘备与诸葛亮等人物，小说通篇精巧叙述谋略，虽与史实多有出入，仍誉之「中国谋略全书」；《水浒传》一般认为是施耐庵所著，而罗贯中负责整理。其内容讲述梁山泊以宋江为首的绿林好汉，由被迫落草，发展壮大，直至受到朝廷招安。现存宋元平话共约八种，包括《大唐三藏取经诗话》。

元代的历史研究也十分兴盛。胡三省潜心研究历史巨著《资治通鉴》，1286年《资治通鉴音注》全部成编，公认是对《资治通鉴》的注释最佳者。马端临在历史文献的收集和整理方面有很深的造诣，著有《文献通考》，记载上古至宋宁宗嘉定末年历代典章制度的政书，十通之一。苏天爵、欧阳玄、虞集与赵世延一同编写的《经世大典》。脱脱主编，由欧阳玄等人编写《辽史》、《宋史》与《金史》。元朝还有记述大蒙古国立国至窝阔台汗时期的《蒙古秘史》。

元朝的文字与语言方面，一般是通用蒙古语与汉语，然而一些说法认为入声字最早被认为在元朝官话消失。文字通用汉文与蒙古的八思巴字。八思巴文是元世祖时由国师八思巴根据当时的吐蕃文字而制定的一种文字，用以取代标音不够准确的粟特语蒙古文字。然而此时横跨欧亚的蒙古帝国已经析为元朝和四大汗国：蒙古钦察汗国、察合台汗国、窝阔台汗国、伊儿汗国，因此八思巴文一直只有元朝采用，并主要用作为汉字标音符号。元朝灭亡后，仍然推行于北元，到了16世纪末期，蒙古高原的蒙古人受其他蒙古民族同化，转而重新采用蒙古文字。

宗教

元朝与四大汗国（钦察汗国、察合台汗国、窝阔台汗国、伊儿汗国）横跨欧亚大陆，幅员辽阔，其疆土内的种族也十分繁多，这些都使得元朝的宗教呈现多元化，各类佛教（含汉传佛教与藏传佛教）、道教、白莲教等都取得了较大的发展；东西方的商旅、教士亦来往频繁，自西方传来的伊斯兰教、基督教（含景教和天主教）与犹太教的影响力也逐渐增加。由于元朝对境内各种宗教基本采取自由放任的态度，对信仰宗教的问题采取兼容并包的政策，甚且优容礼遇之，这种环境自然有利于宗教的传播与发展。元朝僧人有免税免役特权，致使一些不法之徒投机为僧，甚至干预诉讼，横行乡里，成为元代的一个社会问题。不过，元世祖曾在礼节上歧视伊斯兰教，例如不尊重其宰羊方法，伊斯兰教徒被逼吃死肉，此法令亦适用于基督教徒。元朝对宗教管制较为宽松，使得民间如白莲教、明教等藉此建立秘密组织，进行抗元起事。

各类佛教中以藏传佛教最为兴盛. 藏传佛教约唐中期自吐蕃传入唐朝，专以祈祷禁咒为事。汉传佛教在唐武宗时遭受打击，宋朝时只剩禅宗慢慢恢复，然敌不过道教与理学。藏传佛教中，萨迦派（花教）自窝阔台汗至元世祖期间逐渐获得蒙元朝廷的尊重。忽必烈早在攻击吐蕃时即于萨迦派的喇嘛扮底达讲和，而后扮底达的继承人八思巴被元世祖奉为国师（后升为帝师），赐玉印，任中原法王，命统天下佛教，并兼任总制院（后改名为宣政院）使来管理吐蕃（今西藏）事务，这是以宗教领袖统治西藏地区之始。八思巴还为元朝建立八思巴文。藏传佛教在元朝皇帝的推崇下，在社会与政治上均有极高的地位。诸位元朝皇帝均受藏传佛教的戒律，藏传佛教也逐渐推广到蒙古各部。然而皇室用于佛事之钱要占国家财政支出一半（皇帝即位前要灌顶），寺院也拥有庞大的产业，部分喇嘛也骄纵不法，危害社会。例如元世祖时，江南佛教总统喇嘛杨琏真珈喜好掘墓，曾挖掘宋朝诸陵与诸大臣坟墓百馀所；包庇平民不输租赋者，达两万三千户，其馀如夺人产业，奸污妇女等类之事，更为常见。

道教自宋朝即十分兴盛，金朝与南宋时期即有全真教、太一教与大道教三派。全真教由王喆创立，主张修孝仅存一之德，然后学道。成吉思汗于西征时邀请全真教道士丘处机西行中亚，十分礼遇他，并且他掌管天下道教。丘处机后来与其弟子李志常写成《长春真人西游记》一书，具有重要的史料价值。大道教主张苦节危行，不妄取于人，不苟奢于自，从创教教主刘德仁五传至郦希诚，被蒙哥册封为太玄真人，掌管教务。太一教以传授太一三元法籙之术为主，从创教教主萧抱珍五传至李居寿时，元世祖兴建太一宫，并让他居之，获得太一掌教宗师印。然而元朝以藏传佛教为国教，元世祖曾命烧去一些「捏合不实」的道经如《老子化胡经》等，然而仍然册封各派宗师以安抚之。

元朝的基督教（即天主教）称为也里可温教，唐朝时基督教的分支景教（聂斯脱里派）因唐武宗的禁止而式微，到元朝时基督教再度传入中国。当蒙古人数度西征时，欧洲频繁发动数次十字军东征，征伐西亚的伊斯兰教徒，因此欧洲人有意和蒙古结盟，共抗伊斯兰教徒。贵由汗时，教宗曾派使者到和林见贵由汗；元世祖时圣座又派方济各会教主由海道抵大都，元世祖同意其传教，而景教教徒分布在扬州、杭州、镇江与泉州等地，最后分布到华北、西北与西南。然而基督教时常与佛道两教冲突，方聂两派也自相牵制。元朝晚期，教宗有意派主教来华整顿教务，然而主事者漠不关心，元朝灭亡后东西交通断绝，基督教再度式微。犹太教称为术忽或主吾，犹太人大多定居开封、杭州、大都与和林等城市。由于犹太商人擅长理财，元廷视为财政来源之一。

元朝的伊斯兰教（又称回教）称为木速蛮教，也是于唐武宗后式微于中国，而后流行于西域中亚各国如畏吾儿、花剌子模等国。成吉思汗西征时降服许多西域回教国家，使得伊斯兰教徒仕于蒙古朝廷甚多。由于色目人（即西域各族）擅长理财，元世祖统一中国后更任用色目人，给予极大的权力。这些都使得伊斯兰教盛行于中国西部、云南地区等，部分色目商人也有定居于沿海广州、泉州、杭州与扬州等地区，渐渐形成大分散、小集中的特色，几乎覆盖全国。1357年至1366年间更在福建发生色目军乱，史称亦思巴奚兵乱。当时蒙古王公大臣也有信奉伊斯兰教，其中安西王阿难答更是虔诚的伊斯兰教徒。他于元成宗驾崩后担任监国，并且很有机会继承为皇帝。如果他担任皇帝，可能使元朝国教改为伊斯兰教。

艺术

元朝经济发达，城市文化兴起，又因为交通发达，东西文化交流，使得元朝艺术呈现多元化。绘画方面，文人画成为主流，著重个人及书法表现，风格与元代强调装饰的宫廷绘画迥然不同。元初赵孟俯、高克恭等人提倡复古，回归唐朝和北宋的风格，并且将书法入画，创造出重气韵、轻格律，注重主观抒情的元画风格。元朝中晚期以黄公望、王蒙、倪瓒、吴镇等元代四大家为主，其中又以黄公望为冠。他们寄托清高人格的理念于绘画上，以隐逸山水与梅、兰、竹、菊、松、石等为象徵。黄公望创始「浅降山水」，先以水墨钩勒皴染为基础，加上以赭石为主色的淡彩山水画。由于元人以较乾的笔法在纸上作画，这不同于宋人绘于绢上。山水画除了皴法以外，增多擦的效果，犹如中国书法一样。为了使画面的上方可以题上诗句，所以故意留出一角，题上自己作的诗句，使诗、书、画三者合成一体，影响明清国画至今。元代的花鸟，以钱选最为有名，他学习宋人赵昌的画风，具有宋人厚重典雅的趣味。其他如赵孟、赵雍、陈琳与刘贯道等均以兼善花鸟出名。

元朝书法的核心人物是赵孟俯，他的书法深受东晋书法家王羲之的影响，所创立的楷书赵体与唐楷之欧体、颜体与柳体并称四体，成为后代规摹的主要书体，表现为「温润闲雅」「秀研飘逸「的风格面貌。审美观趋向飘逸的超然之态获得一种精神解脱有一定联系。鲜于枢与赵孟俯齐名，但影响略小，尤其擅长行、草书。与他们同时代的书法家邓文原则擅长章草，是研习这种古书体不多见的名家之一。康里巙巙稍晚于赵孟俯，也以草书名世，是少数民族书法家的代表人物。 　

元朝的工艺美术十分发达，在传统的工艺美术上吸收了藏族等其他民族文化，对元代工艺美术带来了新的发展。官办手工业人材荟萃，技艺精湛，生产出了大量高级手工艺品和消费品，最明显的如陶瓷工艺、织绣工艺等。元朝瓷器及漆器等实用艺术常有创新。元朝是景德镇真正驰名的时期，最著名的瓷器即为青花瓷和釉里红。受到中东文化影响，瓷器有丰富的蓝白色装饰，中东商人也会订制大量的龙泉青瓷。元朝也完成许多佛教雕刻，其中，密宗多手佛像显示蒙古人对尼泊尔、西藏地区藏传佛教艺术的爱好。银器工艺家朱碧山知名的银器的雕造技术也是在此时发展。此外元代也制作生产雕漆工艺品。

科技

由于元朝朝廷与社会提倡思想多元，经济发达提供可靠的物质保证，交通发达与中外交往空前活跃又为吸收世界各地科技创造条件，使得科学技术有很高的成就，主要表现在天文历法、数学、农牧业、医药学与地理学等方面。中国古代的发明印刷术及火药等出现了印刷活字盘与火铳等技术，西传西方后促进欧洲国家的进步。波斯、阿拉伯素称发达的天文、医学等成就，也在元朝被大量传至中国。由于东西贸易的兴旺，西域的玉石、纺织品、食品及珍禽异兽等也源源不断输入中国。中外的科技交流，促进了各自的科技进步，元朝正好为这种交流提供了比以前历代都优越的条件。

元朝在天文历法方面十分发达，元世祖邀请阿拉伯的天文学家来华，吸收了阿拉伯天文学的技术，并且先后在上都、大都、登封等处兴建天文台与回回司天台，设立了远达极北南海的27处天文观测站，在测定黄道和恒星观测方面取得了远超前代的突出成就。元朝有名的天文学家有郭守敬、王恂、耶律楚材、扎马鲁丁等人。耶律楚材曾编订有《西征庚午元历》，1267年扎马鲁丁撰进《万年历》，郭守敬等人修改历法，以近世截元法主持编订了《授时历》，《授时历》于1280年颁行，延用了400多年，是人类历法史上的一大进步。扎马鲁丁与后来的郭守敬研制出了简仪、仰仪、圭表、景符、闚几、正方案、候极仪、立运仪、证理仪、定时仪、日月食仪等十几种天文仪器，当时在天文台里工作的还有阿拉伯天文学家可马剌丁、苫思丁等人。回回司天台一直存在到元末明初，仍由回回司天监黑的儿、阿都剌、司天监丞迭里月实等修定历数。元朝数学涌现出了一批杰出数学家及其著作。如李冶及其《测圆海镜》、《益古演段》；朱世杰及其《算学启蒙》、《四元玉鉴》；李冶提出的天元术（即立方程的方法）及朱世杰提出的四元术（即多元高次联立方程的解法），是具有世界性影响的新成就。算盘在元代也初具规模。

元代的农业技术主要可见于《农桑辑要》、《王祯农书》与《农桑衣食撮要》等三部书。《农桑辑要》由元廷主持编纂，全书分七卷十篇，对元及其以前的作物栽培、牲畜饲养做了总结，并保存了大量古农书资料，对推广农牧业技术，指导农牧业生产有重要作用。《农书》为著名农学家王祯所著，，全书分「农桑通诀」、「百谷谱」、「农器图谱」三大部分，总结了古代的农业生产经验，又介绍了当时的新技术，是继北魏贾思勰的《齐民要术》之后又一部重要的农业科学著作。王祯认为要不违农时、适时播种、因地制宜、及时施肥、兴修水利才是取得农业丰收的保证，其中关于棉桑种植具有现实意义。《农桑衣食撮要》为鲁明善所著，此书重在实用，按月记载农事活动，特别还涉及到游牧生产，可补《农桑辑要》及其它古农书之不足。

医药学方面，史称金元四大家中有两位生活在蒙元时期。李杲师承张元素，强调补脾胃，创立了「补土派」，著有《脾胃论》、《伤寒会要》等。朱震亨拜罗知悌为师，发展刘完素火热学说，主张以补阴为主，多用滋阴降火之剂，后人称其为「滋阴派」，著有《格致余论》、《局方发挥》、《伤寒辨疑》等书。外科骨伤科方面成就更为突出，危亦林在麻醉与骨折复位手术上有创新。萨德弥实的《瑞竹堂经验方》很注意北方的寒冷气候及蒙古族游牧生活实际，有不少治疗骨伤及风寒湿痹的方剂，有的时至今日仍为医家所使用。元廷太医忽思慧的《饮膳正要》反映了当时国内各少数民族及中外人民的饮食文化交流。

地理学方面《元一统志》的编纂、河源的探索、《舆地图》的问世及大批游记类著作的出版是其主要成就。《元一统志》由政府主持，扎马鲁丁、虞应龙具体负责。该书对全国各路府州县的建置沿革、城郭乡镇、山川里至、土产风俗、古迹人物均有详细描述，具有较高史料价值。1280年元世祖命女真人都实探求黄河河源，认为星宿海（火敦脑儿）即河源，比较接近实际。潘昂霄还据此撰成《河源志》。道士朱思本考察了今华北、华东、中南等广大地区地理形势，参阅《元一统志》等地理学著作，以「计里划方」法，绘制成《舆地图》，成为元朝地理学及中国地图史上划时代的人物。游记类地理学著作有耶律楚材《西游录》，李志常整理的《长春真人西游记》，周达观《真腊风土记》，汪大渊《岛夷志略》等，对元朝国内外的地理地貌、风土人情、贸易来往等颇多描绘。

交通

元代水陆交通的发达，使中外交往范围空前扩大。当时，东西方使臣、商旅的往来非常方便。元人形容说：「适千里者如在户庭，之万里者如出邻家。」同时代的欧洲商人也说，从里海沿岸城市到中国各地，沿途十分安全。这对发展中外各国之间，国内各民族之间的科技文化交流是十分有利的。元朝与中亚、西亚地区的蒙古势力保持著来往关系，东西方海运及陆路交通十分畅通，使得西方与元朝中国的交往更加频繁，技术交流更加迅速。其中主要分陆路和水路两部分。

陆路有发达的驿道，主要递送朝廷、郡县的文书。早在成吉思汗时代，就在西域地区新添了许多驿站。著名的长春真人丘处机在兴都库什山觐见元太祖成吉思汗时，即曾经过这些驿站。元世祖忽必烈统一中原后，在辽阔的国土上，建立了严密的驿传制度（蒙古语「站赤」），使邮驿通信十分有效地发挥效能。元朝的驿路分为三种：一称帖里干道，蒙古语意为车道；二称木怜道，蒙语意为马道；三为纳怜道，蒙语意为小道。从地区讲，帖里干和木怜道，多用于岭北至上都、大都间的邮驿；纳怜道仅用于西北军务，大部分驿站在今甘肃省境内，所以亦称「甘肃纳怜驿」。驿道国内可达吐蕃、大理、天山南北路、蒙古草原，国外远及波斯、叙利亚、俄罗斯及欧洲其它地区。

水路主要指河运和海运。河运方面元代凿通了南起镇江、北达大都的大运河。其中从镇江至杭州的江南运河段，从淮安经扬州入长江的扬州运河段，大体是隋代运河旧道。元世祖以郭守时担任都水监，负责修治元大都至通州的运河（其后被忽必烈命名通惠河），再加上修建济州河、会通河等其它几项重大工程，这使得连接大都至杭州的京杭大运河全线贯通。海运方面，当时元朝的船只已经航行于印度洋各地，包括锡兰（今斯里兰卡）、印度、波斯湾和阿拉伯半岛，甚至达到非洲的索马里亚。威尼斯人马可·波罗在忽必烈时期随从他的父亲和叔叔来到中国，在其口述并由鲁斯蒂谦记录的《马可·波罗游记》中描绘出元朝中国的繁华景象。

社会

元代社会因思想多元化、商业经济发达与交通便利，使得元帝国的强盛，是东亚地区的富裕大国，在欧洲人马可波罗的游记中，可以看出当时的盛况。随著理学影响的下降，长期以来压在人们心头的封建礼教的磐石随之松动，下层人民和青年男女，蔑视礼教违反封建伦理的举动越来越多，以至王恽对宣扬礼教的做法，发出了「终无分寸之效者，徒具虚名而已」的慨叹。孔齐言道：「浙间妇女，虽有夫在，亦如无夫，有子亦如无子，非理处事，习以成风。」。在此说明元朝社会的价值观念在变化，说明元代文学作品出现众多违背封建礼教的人物，有著广泛的社会基础。

由于元帝对科举的轻忽，使得大批文化人失去了优越的社会地位和政治上的前途，从而也就摆脱了对政权的依附。他们作为社会的普通成员而存在，通过向社会出卖自己的智力创造谋取生活资料，因而既加强了个人的独立意识，也加强了同一般民众尤其是市民阶层的联系，他们的人生观念、审美情趣，由此发生了与以往所谓「士人」明显不同的变化。至于蒙古族的生活方式，原本纯粹是游牧民族，逐水草而居。早期社会中的婚姻以外婚、仇家禁婚、无伦理上限制为主。他们有传统的婚礼习俗，但在统一中国后，由于蒙汉通婚，以及汉化的影响，部分也采汉礼。

君主年表