Background

Yang Guang was born in 569, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. His parents were Yang Jian, the Duke of Sui, and Yang Jian's wife Duchess Dugu Qieluo; his maternal grandfather was Dugu Xin, a prominent military general and official. He was his parents' second son, after Yang Yong, and he had at least one older sister, Yang Lihua, who became the wife of Emperor Wu's crown prince Yuwen Yun (the later Emperor Xuan) in 573. He was considered handsome and intelligent in his youth, and of Yang Jian's and Duchess Dugu's sons, they favored him the most. Sometime during Northern Zhou, on account of Yang Jian's achievements, he was created the Duke of Yanmen.

In 580, Yang Jian seized power as regent after Emperor Xuan's death. In 581, he had Emperor Xuan's son (by the concubine Zhu Manyue), Emperor Jing, yield the throne to him, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui Dynasty as its Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen created Yang Yong crown prince and created his other sons imperial princes. Yang Guang thus received the title of Prince of Jin.

As Prince of Jin

Also in 581, Emperor Wen made Yang Guang the commandant at Bing Province (并州, roughly modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), in charge of the provinces north of the Yellow River. In 582, Emperor Wen set up a branch of the executive bureau of his government (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng) at Bing Province and made Yang Guang its head. He made the official Wang Shao (王韶) the deputy head and had him assist Yang Guang. Later in 582, Emperor Wen took a daughter of his vassal Emperor Ming of Western Liang (Xiao Kui) to be Yang Guang's wife and princess. It was said that Yang Guang loved and respected her.

In 584, after some Sui military and diplomatic victories, Tujue's Shabolüe Khan Ashina Shetu submitted to Sui. Yang Guang suggested to Emperor Wen that he rejected Ashina Shetu's overture and launch a major attack on Tujue, but Emperor Wen refused. In 585, with Ashina Shetu under attack from one of his subordinate khans, the Datou Khan Ashina Dianjue, Emperor Wen in fact sent Yang Guang to aid Ashina Shetu.

In 588, Emperor Wen moved Yang Guang's headquarters to Shouchun (壽春, in modern Lu'an, Anhui), and made him the commandant there as well as the head the branch of the executive bureau established there. In winter 588, Emperor Wen launched a major attack on rival Chen Dynasty. Yang Guang, his brother Yang Jun, and the general Yang Su were in command of the three main prongs of the operation, with Yang Guang in command of the eastern prong as well as the overall operation. The key official Gao Jiong served as Yang Guang's assistant. In spring 589, the generals Han Qinhu (韓擒虎) and Heruo Bi (賀若弼), both under Yang Guang, crossed the Yangtze River and approached the Chen capital Jiankang. Soon, after Heruo defeated the Chen general Xiao Mohe, Jiankang fell, and the Chen emperor Chen Shubao was captured. Yang Guang, apparently fascinated by Chen Shubao's favorite concubine Consort Zhang Lihua, sent Gao Jiong's son Gao Dehong (高德弘) to order Gao Jiong to hold Consort Zhang. Instead, Gao Jiong, comparing Consort Zhang to Daji (the wicked wife of King Zhou of Shang), beheaded her. Yang Guang thereafter resented Gao greatly, stating sarcastically, "It has been said, 'You should repay every good deed done to you.' I will repay Duke Gao later." By Yang Guang's orders, several of Chen Shubao's favorite officials, who were considered reasons for Chen's downfall, including Shi Wenqing (施文慶), Shen Keqing (沈客卿), Yang Huilang (陽慧朗), Xu Xi (徐析), and Ji Huijing (暨慧景), were executed. It was said that the people praised Yang Guang for his actions. Chen Shubao and his own clan members, however, were treated with kindness, and at Yang Guang's request, Chen Shubao sent letters to Chen generals who had not yet surrendered to persuade them to do so, and they largely did. Later that year, Yang Guang's forces escorted them to the capital Chang'an. At the ceremony to present Chen Shubao to Emperor Wen, Yang Guang marched into the palace first, and Emperor Wen bestowed on Yang Guang decorated wagons, horses, clothing, and jade. Afterwards, Yang Jun was given the Yang Province (then moved to modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu) commandant post, and Yang Guang was returned to Bing Province. In 590, Emperor Wen swapped the defense posts of Yang Jun and Yang Guang, returning Yang Guang to Yang Province.

In 594, Yang Guang urged Emperor Wen to offer sacrifices to Mount Tai—a traditional ceremony for emperors, but one that was rarely carried out. Emperor Wen rejected the elaborate traditional ceremonies, but did carry out a reduced ceremony at Mount Tai.

In spring 600, with Ashina Dianjue, who had by now become Tujue's khan, attacking the borders, Emperor Wen sent Yang Guang, Yang Su the Duke of Yue, Yang Guang's brother Yang Liang the Prince of Han, and Shi Wansui (史萬歲) the Duke of Taiping, against Tujue, and they were largely successful against Ashina Dianjue, protecting the Qimin Khan Ashina Rangan, whom Sui supported, from Ashina Dianjue's attack.

By 600, Yang Guang's older brother Yang Yong had lost the favors of Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu—over his wastefulness (which displeased Emperor Wen) and his having many concubines (which displeased Empress Dugu). Yang Guang, by contrast, pretended to be frugal and loving only Princess Xiao. (It was written that Yang Guang did have concubines, but he pretended that he did not, and that he forced his concubines to have abortions if they became pregnant.) Yang Guang further inflamed Empress Dugu by informing her that she believed that Yang Yong was determined to kill him eventually. Empress Yang thus resolved to remove Yang Yong. Yang Guang further had his associate Yuwen Shu persuade Yang Su's brother Yang Yue (楊約) that, because Yang Su's relationship with Yang Yong was not good, that their family would be in peril should Yang Yong succeed Emperor Wen. Finally, Yang Guang also had Yang Yong's associate Ji Wei (姬威) accuse Yang Yong of plotting treason. Emperor Wen had Yang Su investigate, and Yang Guang and Yang Su manufactured evidence against Yang Yong. Emperor Wen deposed Yang Yong and replaced him with Yang Guang, putting Yang Yong under house arrest under Yang Guang's watch. Yang Guang later prevented Yang Yong from all attempts of seeing his parents again.

As crown prince

It is widely believed that Yang Guang also continued to scheme to secure his status as the crown prince. Such commonly believed tales include the followings.

By 602, His brother, Yang Xiu the Prince of Shu, who, was commandant of Yi Province (roughly modern Chengdu, Sichuan), and had great resources at his disposal. Yang Guang collected evidence of Yang Xiu's wrongdoing, particularly wastefulness, and had Yang Su submit them to Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen summoned Yang Xiu back to the capital and had Yang Su investigate, and both Yang Guang and Yang Su further manufactured evidence against Yang Xiu. Emperor Wen reduced Yang Xiu to commoner rank and put him under house arrest.

Also in 602, Empress Dugu died. It was said that Yang Guang pretended to mourn greatly, refusing most foods, but in private continued to dine normally.

In 604, while Emperor Wen was at his vacation palace Renshou Palace (仁壽宮, in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), he fell ill and then died—a death, however, that traditional historians, while admitting a lack of direct evidence, believed to be a murder ordered by Yang Guang (see below). Yang Guang, after sending Yang Yue to kill Yang Yong, announced Emperor Wen's death and took the throne as Emperor Yang.

Early reign

An immediate challenge that Emperor Yang faced was a rebellion by his brother Yang Liang, then the commandant at Bing Province, who was encouraged by the generals Wang Kui (王頍) and Xiao Mohe. Yang Liang received support from 19 provinces, but lacked a coherent plan as to whether to try to challenge Emperor Yang for the control of the entire empire, or just the region north of the Yellow River. After some initial successes, Yang Liang's offenses stalled. Emperor Yang sent Yang Su against him, and Yang Su proceeded quickly to Yang Liang's headquarters at Bing Province, capturing Xiao and forcing Yang Liang to surrender. Emperor Yang did not execute Yang Liang, but reduced him to commoner rank and imprisoned him for the rest of his life.

In winter 604, believing in the words of the sorcerer Zhangchou Taiyi (章仇太翼) that the geography of Chang'an was not conducive to his health, Emperor Yang went to Luoyang, designating it as the eastern capital, and would rarely return to Chang'an thereafter. He ordered that major construction projects be carried out at Luoyang, commensurate with the necessities of having it as the actual capital, and he left his oldest son, Yang Zhao the Prince of Jin, in charge of Chang'an. He conscripted several hundred thousands of young men to dig a lengthy trench to surround the Luoyang region, intending that it serve as a defense perimeter. He also ordered that women and servants be exempted from head taxes, and that men would only be considered adults (i.e., subject to conscription) when they turn 21.

In spring 605, Emperor Yang created his wife Crown Princess Xiao empress, and Yang Zhao as crown prince. He also abolished the offices of military commandants. He, at this time, trusted Empress Xiao's brother Xiao Cong the Duke of Ju (Western Liang's last emperor) and made him, as well as many of her other relatives, important officials, creating him the greater title of Duke of Liang.

Starting in 605, Emperor Yang also started a massive number of construction projects—including the building of the imperial palace at Luoyang, described to be particularly luxurious. Further, he conscripted a large number of men to build the Tongji Canal (通濟渠), connecting Luoyang with the Yellow River and connecting the Yellow River with the Huai River, as well as to rebuild the Han Canal (邗溝), connecting the Huai River and the Yangtze River. The two canals, which would eventually become parts of the Grand Canal of China, were said to be constructed within five months, but at substantial cost of life—40% to 50% of the men employed. Emperor Yang also ordered that some 40 secondary palaces be built around the empire, so that he could visit the various provinces, arguing that he needed to do so to see the conditions of the empire so that he could govern effectively.

In fall 605, after the completion of the Tongji and Han Canals, Emperor Yang carried out the first of 11 (counting military campaigns) tours that he would eventually undertake of various parts of the empire, going to Jiangdu—the capital of Yang Province, where he had been commandant previously—on an imperial ship that was said to be sufficiently large and luxurious to serve as floating palaces.

Also in 605, when Khitan tribes attacked Ying Province (營州, roughly modern Zhaoyang, Liaoning), Emperor Yang had the official Wei Yunqi (韋雲起) requisition Tujue troops under Ashina Rangan to attack Khitan. The Khitan forces were caught by surprise and defeated.

In summer 606, Yang Zhao the Crown Prince became ill while visiting Luoyang, and soon died. Emperor Yang would not create another crown prince for the rest of his reign, creating Yang Zhao's sons Yang Tan (楊倓), Yang Tong, and Yang You imperial princes, while initially apparently tacitly considering his second son, Yang Jian the Prince of Qi (note different character than Emperor Wen) the de facto successor, leaving Yang Jian in charge of Luoyang whenever he would be away from Luoyang. Yang Su, whom Emperor Yang pretended to respect but actually feared, also died in summer 606.

Also in 606, Emperor Yang ordered that two massive food storages—the Luokou Storage (洛口倉) and the Huiluo Storage (回洛倉) – be constructed near Luoyang.

In spring 607, Ashina Rangan visited Emperor Yang at Luoyang. Also in spring 607, at the instigation of Yuwen Shu, Emperor Yang had Yang Yong's eight sons put to death.

In summer 607, Emperor Yang abolished provinces and changed them to commanderies. At the same time, he reorganized his father's governmental system of having five main bureaus, keeping four of the main bureaus—the executive bureau (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng), the examination bureau (門下省, Menxia Sheng), the legislative bureau (內史省, Neishi Sheng), the Palace Library – while abolishing the eunuch bureau and replacing it with the palace bureau (殿內省, Diannei Sheng). He established three additional independent agencies and five independent departments. He also organized the imperial army into 16 corps. He abolished three levels of noble titles—the counts, the viscounts, and the barons—keeping only the princes, the dukes, and the marquesses.

Also in summer 607, Emperor Yang embarked on a tour of the northern provinces, building an imperial highway from Chang'an to Jinyang (晉陽, the capital of Bing Province). He then personally visited the imperial tent of Ashina Rangan, whose display of submission and loyalty caused Emperor Yang to bestow much honor and wealth on him. When the senior officials Gao Jiong, Yuwen Bi (宇文弼), and Heruo Bi privately expressed disapproval, Emperor Yang discovered their criticism and put all of them to death, while removing Su Wei, who also discouraged him from giving excessive rewards to Ashina Rangan, from his post. (Traditional historians attribute Gao's death to Gao's refusal to keep Chen Shubao's Consort Zhang alive in 589.) As Xiao Cong had a deep friendship with Heruo Bi, and there had been rumors that the Xiaos would rise again, the superstitious Emperor Yang also removed Xiao Cong from his post.

Qimin visited Yangdi at Yulin.

Also in 607, at the instigation of Pei Ju, Emperor Yang reopened relations with Xiyu states.

In spring 608, Emperor Yang conscripted over a million men to construct the Yongji Canal (永濟渠), from the Yellow River to Zhuo Commandery (涿郡, roughly modern Beijing). It was said that there were not enough men, and he started conscripting women as well.

In 608, after persuasion by the Sui official Cui Junsu (崔君肅), the Western Tujue khan (Ashina Rangan's western rival), the Heshana Khan Ashina Daman, whose mother was Han, submitted to Sui as a vassal. However, also in 608, Emperor Yang received a letter claiming to be from the King of Japan, Duolisibigu (多利思比孤, now commonly believed to be Prince Shōtoku), stating, "The Son of Heaven where the sun rises, to the Son of Heaven where the sun sets, may good health be with you." Displeased by what he saw as insolence, he ordered that in the future, "insolent" letters from other states not be submitted to him.

Also in 608, initially over disputes over women (Yang Jian's having taken a concubine that Emperor Yang himself wanted) and hunting (Yang Jian's guards having been much more successful than Emperor Yang's guards at hunting), Emperor Yang's relationship with Yang Jian began to deteriorate. He ordered investigations into Yang Jian's violation of laws, and discovered that Yang Jian had used witchcraft to curse Yang Zhao's three sons. In anger, Emperor Yang executed and exiled a number of Yang Jian's associates, but he did not depose Yang Jian, although from this point on Yang Jian did not exert much influence on the political scene.

In 608 as well, Pei Ju persuaded the Tiele tribes to attack Tuyuhun, forcing Tuyuhun's Busabuo Khan Murong Fuyun to flee. Murong Fuyun initially considered submitting to Sui, and Emperor Yang sent Yuwen with an army to welcome him. However, when Murong Fuyun changed his mind, Yuwen attacked him and seized much of Tuyuhun's people. When Murong Fuyun fled further, Emperor Yang had his forces seize Tuyuhun's territory, establishing four commanderies, to be populated with exiles.

Middle reign

In spring 609, Ashina Rangan made another visit to Emperor Yang, and Emperor Yang again rewarded him with much treasure.

Also in spring 609, Emperor Yang ordered a redistribution of the farming land throughout the empire.

Later in spring 609, Emperor Yang conducted a tour of the newly conquered Tuyuhun territory, and sent several generals to chase down Murong Fuyun. The Sui forces engaged Murong Fuyun's remaining forces, with mixed success, but Murong Fuyun was forced to flee to Dangxiang tribes. Emperor Yang tried to impose Murong Fuyun's son Murong Shun, whom Murong Fuyun had earlier sent to Sui as a hostage, as Tuyuhun's new khan, but the Tuyuhun people would not accept him, and Murong Shun was forced back to Sui territory. Emperor Yang also received 27 rulers of Xiyu kingdoms in an audience at Zhangye (張掖, in modern Zhangye, Gansu).

Later in the year, Ashina Rangan died, and was succeeded by his son Shibi Khan Ashina Duojishi. Pursuant to Tujue customs, Ashina Duojishi requested permission from Emperor Yang to marry Ashina Rangan's wife Princess Yicheng (義成公主) (the daughter of a clansman of Emperor Yang). Emperor Yang agreed. Also in 609, Emperor Yang, jealous of the literary talent of the official Xue Daoheng (薛道衡), he falsely accused Xue of defaming the emperor and had Xue strangled.

By this time, it was said that Emperor Yang's lifestyle had become particularly wasteful, and that he no longer felt bound by moral principles.

In 610, Emperor Yang visited Jiangdu again, and this time elevated Jiangdu's importance so that it effectively became a third capital.

When Emperor Yang was visiting Ashina Rangan in 607, a messenger from Goguryeo's King King Yeong-yang to Ashina Rangan happened to be present, and Ashina Rangan introduced him to Emperor Yang. Emperor Yang ordered King Yeong-yang to come visit him, offering to reward him if he did so and to punish him if he did not do so. King Yeong-yang did not respond, and by 611, Emperor Yang, insulted by the lack of response, prepared a campaign against Goguryeo. With Sui appearing to be in its prime, both governmental officials and the people were initially in support of a campaign to conquer Goguryeo. In spring 611, Emperor Yang went to Zhuo Commandery and announced the campaign against Goguryeo. Several hundred men were conscripted, and it was said that even before they could get to Zhuo Commandery, disease and fatigue had already caused much loss of life. In response, a number of conscripted soldiers deserted and became agrarian rebels.

Also in 611, angry that Western Tujue's khan Ashina Daman, while nominally submissive, had refused to visit him, Emperor Yang had Pei Ju persuade Ashina Daman's subordinate khan Ashina Shegui (阿史那射匱) to rebel against Ashina Daman, promising to give him a Sui princess in marriage. Ashina Shegui thus rebelled against Ashina Daman, forcing Ashina Daman to flee, first to Gaochang, then to Sui. Emperor Yang accepted Ashina Daman's submission, and thereafter divided his people into three groups, while leaving Ashina Daman as titularly khan, although he never allowed Ashina Daman to return to his people.

By 612, the soldiers had been gathered at Zhuo Commandery, and Emperor Yang launched his attack, attacking a number of cities in Goguryeo territory, but targeting mainly at the important city of Liaodong (遼東, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning) and Goguryeo's capital Pyongyang. However, contrary to the desires of the generals, Emperor Yang ordered that their tactical decisions must first be submitted to and approved by him before they could be carried out. Thus all the Goguryeo forts and cities were able to withstand Sui forces and thus there was not much chance of Manchuria being successfully conquered. Emperor Yang, however, made a new plan to keep the Goguryeo forts at bay while sending another army, alongside the navy. to siege the Goguryeo capital. The navy arrived first and with a haste order, the navy attacked the capital but were defeated by ambush. The navy then waited for the land army to arrive. The supply of food had also been greatly delayed and many Sui soldiers died of famine. Then the Goguryeo General Eulji Meundeok rallied Goguryeo forces, and constantly harassed them with ambushes and feigned retreats. The Sui army had come to the Salsu River, but Eulji and the Goguryeo forces were waiting in ambush. A dam was made at the Salsu River to make the river seem it was shallow. When the Sui army was in the middle of the River, the dam was opened and many Sui soldiers drowned. Out of the 305,000 men that entered the river, only 2,700 soldiers escaped death. Thus the Sui army, or what was left of it, retreated back to Sui. This war had, however, resulted in devastating losses for the Sui in terms of soldiers, money and support from the people.

In winter 612, Emperor Yang gave a daughter of a clansman, whom he created the Princess Huarong, to Qu Boya (麴伯雅) (the king of Gaochang) in marriage

In spring 613, Emperor Yang again ordered that soldiers be gathered at Zhuo Commandery, as he prepared a second campaign against Goguryeo. He also selected the most elite of the soldiers into a specialized corps, the Xiaoguo Army (驍果, meaning, "the strong and brave"). Thereafter, the Xiaoguo Army became his own personal guards. In response to the conscription order, even more men deserted and joined the agrarian rebels, throwing the northern central part of the empire into a state of confusion. With the officials on command having little military training, the rebels went largely unchecked. One notable exception was general Zhang Xutuo (張須陀), who was able to defeat some of the rebels, but even he was not able to succeed in suppressing them.

In summer 613, Emperor Yang crossed the Liao River again and put Manchuria under siege. However, at this time, news arrived that Yang Su's son Yang Xuangan had rebelled near Luoyang. With the people disaffected by the Goguryeo campaigns, Yang Xuangan received much popular support and threatened Luoyang. Emperor Yang, in fear, lifted the siege on Liaodong and also ordered the southern offensive to be terminated, returning to Zhuo Commandery while sending Yuwen and Qutu Tong (屈突通) south to aid Luoyang. The general in charge of defending Chang'an, Wei Wensheng (衛文昇), also came to Luoyang's aid. Together, these forces outnumbered Yang Xuangan's and dealt him several defeats. Yang Xuangan decided to try to advance west to capture Chang'an as a base of operations, but on the way was again defeated, and he had his brother Yang Jishan (楊積善) kill him, to avoid capture. At Emperor Yang's orders, the officials Fan Zigai (樊子蓋) and Pei Yun (裴蘊) carried out mass-scale reprisals, executing a large number of people who had followed Yang Xuangan. Around the new year 614, by Emperor Yang's orders, Yang Jishan and Yang Xuangan's strategist Wei Fusi (韋福嗣) were publicly executed in exceedingly cruel manners—the officials all fired arrows at them, and then they were further drawn and quartered, and then their bodies were burned and the ashes scattered.

Around the same time, there were also rebellions south of the Yangtze River, and Emperor Yang sent the official Wang Shichong against the rebels. Wang was able to suppress the rebellions, for the most part, and thereafter began to rise in prominence at Emperor Yang's court. Meanwhile, Emperor Yang ordered that rebels' possessions could be confiscated at will. The local officials, however, used this as an excuse to execute and confiscate properties of those they did not like.

Late reign

In spring 614, Emperor Yang again proposed another campaign against Goguryeo. Although his officials did not approve, none dared to oppose him. Many of the soldiers ordered to report to Zhuo Commandery deserted. Emperor Yang tried to stop desertions by executing those who deserted, but still could not stem the tide of desertions. Goguryeo forces had also been constantly ambushing the Sui army and the Sui supply line. Goguryeo offered peace, for Goguryeo had also been exhausted. Goguryeo also returned Yang Xuangan's associate Husi Zheng (斛斯政), who had fled to Goguryeo after his association with Yang Xuangan was discovered. Lai initially opposed ending the campaign, but did finally withdraw after ordered by Emperor Yuan. Emperor Yang executed Husi using the same kind of cruelty that he employed against Yang Jishan and Wei Fusi, but afterwards, when he again summoned Goguryeo's King Yeong-yang to meet him, King Yeong-yang again ignored him. Emperor Yang declared a fourth campaign against Goguryeo—but he never actually launched it. Meanwhile, agrarian rebellions continued to rise. While generals such as Zhang Xutuo and Wang Sichong enjoyed victories here and there, the situation was deteriorating for the welfare of the Sui state at large.

In spring 615, believing in accusations by Yuwen Shu that the official Li Hun (李渾) was intending to carry out a coup to replace Emperor Yang with his nephew Li Min (李敏, son-in-law of Emperor Yang's sister Yang Lihua the Princess Leping) and worried about prophecies that someone named Li would become the next emperor, Emperor Yang had Li Hun, Li Min, and their clansmen executed, and further poisoned Yang Lihua's daughter Yuwen Eying (宇文娥英).

Later in 615, Emperor Yang carried out a tour of the northern provinces with the Empress Xiao and much of the imperial court. Shibi Khan, angered that the imperial advisor Pei Ju had promised a princess to his brother Ashina Chiji (阿史那叱吉) and had executed his close advisor Shishu Huxi (史蜀胡悉) under false pretenses, launched a surprise attack on Yanmen Commandery. In accordance with Turkish customs, Princess Yicheng had married him as her husband's successor; having been well treated by the empress during an earlier visit, though, she sent a secret warning of his plans to the emperor and his wife. The imperial train sought refuge at the commandery seat in present-day Daixian, Shanxi, which Shibi Khan and his army put under siege on September 11. It was said that Emperor Yang became so fearful that he cried all day long while holding onto his youngest son Yang Gao, the Prince of Zhao. Yuwen Shu suggested that Emperor Yang take the most elite guards and try to fight out of the siege, but Su Wei and Fan Zigai opposed this. Empress Xiao's brother Xiao Yu suggested seeking further help from Princess Yicheng, and Emperor Yang did so. Meanwhile, at Yu Shiji's advice, Emperor Yang also personally visited the soldiers defending the city, raising morale by promising to end the campaigns against Goguryeo and to reward them with honors and treasure. Princess Yicheng falsely informed Shibi Khan that the Turks were under attack from the north and relief troops from Luoyang and the other commanderies began arriving, so the khan lifted the siege. With the danger passed and credit muddled, Emperor Yang followed the advice of Su and Yuwen to renege on most of his promises: he did not return to the capital Chang'an, but went to Luoyang instead; he continued to prepare a campaign against Goguryeo; he did not bestow any monetary rewards on the garrison or its reinforcements; and he was sparing in the promotion of the officers involved. When Fan and Xiao Yu reminded him of the promises, Emperor Yang rebuked Fan and demoted Xiao Yu.

Emperor Yang only appeared to begin to be concerned about rebels when, at the lunar new year imperial gathering in 616, 20 odd commanderies' messengers did not arrive—either because they had fallen into rebel hands, or because their messengers were intercepted or killed on the way. Only then did Emperor Yang begin talking about suppressing the rebels. Apparently beginning to consider the idea of evacuating to south of the Yangtze River, he ordered that a major palace be built at Piling Commandery (毗陵, roughly modern Changzhou, Jiangsu), and that another palace be built in Kuaiji Commandery. However, he did not like to hear news about rebels, and when Su expressed concerns about the rebels, Emperor Yang had Su falsely accused of crimes and initially was poised to execute him, but instead demoted him to commoner rank.

By fall 616, Emperor Yang had resolved to go to Jiangdu, at Yuwen Shu's suggestion. A number of officials opposed, reasoning that if he left Luoyang, Luoyang would fall into enemy hands; Emperor Yang punished all, some with execution, and proceeded to Jiangdu. He wrote a farewell poem to the ladies in waiting in Luoyang, which included two lines that read:

:I dream of Jiangdu's beauty;

:And it was only occasional that I advance past the Liao River.

Once Emperor Yang left Luoyang, Yang Xuangan's former strategist Li Mi, who by this point was advising the rebel general Zhai Rang, advised Zhai to directly assault the Luoyang region. Zhai agreed, and killed Zhang Xutuo in a battle; thereafter, the morale of the Sui troops became greatly damaged. Zhai, believing in the prophecies about the next emperor being a Li, began to honor Li Mi as his leader. Meanwhile, the Sui general Yang Yichen was having success against the rebels north of the Yellow River, killing Zhang Jincheng (張金稱) and Gao Shida (高士達), but Emperor Yang and his prime minister Yu Shiji, fearful of Yang Yichen's talent, ostensibly promoted Yang Yichen and recalled him to be a minister. Yang Yichen died soon thereafter, and the rebels north of the Yellow River reinvigorated themselves under Dou Jiande. By 617, several other major rebels had also emerged, including:

• Du Fuwei, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern southern Anhui region.

• Gao Kaidao, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern extremely northern Hebei region.

• Liang Shidu, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern central Inner Mongolia region, declaring himself the Emperor of Liang.

• Li Gui, formerly a Sui official, occupying the modern central and western Gansu region, declaring himself the Prince of Liang.

• Li Yuan, formerly a Sui official (and Emperor Yang's cousin), occupying the modern central Shanxi region, announcing that he wanted to make Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You the Prince of Dai, then at Chang'an, emperor.

• Lin Shihong, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern Jiangxi and Guangdong region, declaring himself the Emperor of Chu.

• Liu Wuzhou, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern northern Shanxi region, declaring himself the Dingyang Khan.

• Luo Yi, former a Sui general, occupying the modern Beijing region.

• Xiao Xi, formerly a Sui official, a grandson of Emperor Xuan of Western Liang, occupying the modern Hubei, Hunan, and Guangxi region, declaring himself the Emperor of Liang.

• Xue Ju, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern eastern Gansu and western Shaanxi region, declaring himself the Hegemonic Prince of Western Qin.

• Zhu Can, formerly a Sui official, roving with his army in the modern southern Henan and southeastern Shaanxi region, first declaring himself the Prince of Jialuolou, and then the Emperor of Chu.

By spring 617, Li Mi and Zhai had captured Emperor Yang's main food storages near Luoyang, the Luokou and Huiluo Storages, thus keeping their army well-supplied while making the Sui forces at Luoyang beginning to lack food. Li Mi took the title of Duke of Wei, while creating Zhai the Duke of Dong Commandery (although Li soon, fearful of Zhai, killed him and seized Zhai's army). A number of other agrarian rebels at least nominally submitted to Li Mi, including Dou and Li Yuan, and it was often thought at the time that Li Mi would soon be able to become emperor. Emperor Yang sent Wang to Luoyang to aid in its defenses, and Li's offensives stalled. Meanwhile, Li Yuan advanced southwest and captured Chang'an in winter 617. He declared Yang You emperor (as Emperor Gong) while honoring Emperor Yang as Taishang Huang (retired emperor), and he himself wielded actual authority over the western Sui commanderies under the title of Prince of Tang.

Meanwhile, at Jiangdu, it was said that Emperor Yang's lifestyle grew increasingly decadent. His palace contained over 100 chambers, each exceedingly luxurious and full of beautiful women. The women of each chamber would serve as hostesses for a feast each day, and Emperor Yang, Empress Xiao, and Emperor Yang's favored concubines would be their guests. Emperor Yang began to come to the realization that his fall was near, but still commented as if he did not care. It was said that on one occasion, he told Empress Xiao, "There must be many people who want to hurt me. However, I will at least be the Duke of Changcheng be like Chen Shubao, and you will at least be like Empress Shen Shubao's wife). Do not worry. Let us drink and be merry." It was also said that on another occasion, when he was looking in the mirror, he told Empress Xiao, "I have a good neck, and I'm waiting for someone to sever it." Empress Xiao, surprised and distressed by his comment, asked him why he was saying so, and he responded and smiled, "Honor and wealth and poverty and dishonor, as well as pain and pleasure, all come in cycles. Why be distressed?" Meanwhile, not wanting to return to the turbulent north, he discussed with his officials about moving the capital to Danyang (丹楊, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu). His elite Xiaoguo Army guards, missing their families in the north and realizing that Emperor Yang did not intend to return north, began to desert. Their commanders Sima Dekan (司馬德勘), Yuan Li (元禮), and Pei Qiantong (裴虔通), worried that Emperor Yang would punish them, began considering rebelling and taking the Xiaoguo Army north themselves instead. They associated with a number of other officers and officials, discussing so publicly that even the ladies in waiting began to hear about it. When one reported to Empress Xiao, Empress Xiao had her report to Emperor Yang—but Emperor Yang, not wishing to hear about the bad news, beheaded her. When another reported to Empress Xiao, Empress Xiao no longer permitted her to report to Emperor Yang, figuring that it was too late.

Meanwhile, the Xiaoguo Army officers planning the mutiny had by this time decided on supporting Yuwen Shu's son Yuwen Huaji as their leader. In late spring 618, they launched the coup. They entered the palace and surrounded Emperor Yang, accusing him of crimes. Emperor Yang admitted his faults, but pointed out that he had always treated them well—drawing the response from Sima: "All of the earth is angry at you. It does not stop at just one man." They killed Yang Gao on the spot to show him that they were serious. Emperor Yang offered to swallow poison, but none could be found quickly. He then took off his scarf, and the soldier Linghu Xingda (令狐行達) strangled him with it. The coup participants also killed a number of high-level officials and relatives of Emperor Yang, including Emperor Yang's brother Yang Xiu and his sons, son Yang Jian and his sons, grandson Yang Tan the Prince of Yan, Yu Shiji, Pei Yun, Lai Hu'er, Yuan Chong (袁充), Yuwen Xie (宇文協), Yuwen Jiong (宇文皛), and Xiao Ju (蕭鉅) the Duke of Liang (Empress Xiao's nephew). The only close relative to Emperor Yang who was spared was his nephew Yang Hao, the prince of Qin, who was friendly with Yuwen Huaji's brother Yuwen Zhiji (宇文智及). Yuwen Huaji thereafter declared Yang Hao emperor. Empress Xiao and the ladies in waiting, with no one else to help them, were forced to make makeshift caskets for Emperor Yang and Yang Gao using headboards from their beds. It was not until Yuwen Huaji left Jiangdu that the Sui official Chen Leng (陳稜) buried Emperor Yang with reduced ceremony. In 622, after Li Yuan had established the Tang Dynasty, becoming Emperor Gaozu, and had somewhat reunified the empire, he reburied Emperor Yang with honors. The tomb was moved several times, and it was said that because of his immoral behaviour lightning struck the tomb wherever it was relocated.

Patricide controversy

While no allegations were made at the time that Emperor Wen's death was anything other than the result of illness, starting from the time of the succeeding Tang Dynasty, it was generally assumed that Emperor Wen was killed on Emperor Yang's orders—although more neutral historians generally assumed it to be true while stating that there was no direct evidence. An example is the Song Dynasty historian Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian, generally considered one of the most reliable, albeit secondary, sources in Chinese history, which, after mentioning Emperor Wen's death and giving a commentary on Emperor Wen's reign, then gave this account:

More detailed versions of the story largely alleged that Zhang Heng personally killed Emperor Wen by pounding his chest and breaking his ribs. The advocates for the theory that Emperor Wen was killed on Emperor Yang's orders also pointed to other circumstantial evidence, including how immediately after Emperor Wen's death Emperor Yang took Consorts Chen and Cai as his concubines. Further, after Zhang lost Emperor Yang's favors and eventually was executed in 612, Zhang lamented at the execution field, "What did I do for him that I can expect to live long?" The warden, apparently believing in the murder theory himself, immediately covered his ears to avoid hearing any details and had Zhang immediately executed. They further pointed out how Liu Shu and Yuan Yan were exiled and Yang Yong executed immediately following Emperor Wen's death.

However, particularly in more recent times, some historians have questioned this theory. They pointed out that in the most official histories written not long after (the Book of Sui and the History of Northern Dynasties), no allegations of patricide was levied against Emperor Yang in either Emperor Wen's or Emperor Yang's biographies, or Zhang's, even though many other accusations were made of Emperor Yang's misrule. Indeed, they pointed out the origin of the murder theory appeared to come from the Daye Lüeji (大業略記) by the early Tang author Zhao Yi (趙毅), in whose version of the story, Consort Cai, not Consort Chen, was the concubine involved. They also pointed out that all of the circumstantial evidence had other plausible explanations—and that, indeed, why were Liu and Yuan not killed if they knew the truth? However, the idea that Emperor Wen was killed on Emperor Yang's orders has become ingrained in the traditional Chinese mindset, although the truth might never be known.

Tomb

In April 2013 the tomb of Emperor Yang was discovered in Yangzhou. Two brick-lined tombs were discovered in the Hanjiang District of Yangzhou during work on a housing development. A stone epitaph found in the western tomb was inscribed with the title "Tomb epitaph of the late Emperor Yang of Sui" (隨故煬帝墓誌), indicating that the tomb was that of Emperor Yang. It is thought that the other tomb may be that of the emperor's consort, but it has not been properly excavated yet.

The tomb is 4.98 × 5.88 meters in dimension, which is smaller than many non-royal tombs of the period. The reason for the tomb's small size according to Chinese archaeologists is that the emperor died suddenly when he escaped to Yangzhou during a coup, and there was no time to build a grand tomb.

The top of the tomb had been damaged by later buildings built on top of it, and the tomb had been robbed in antiquity. No coffin or human remains have been found in the tomb, but a number of artefacts have been recovered, including a pair of lion-shaped gold-inlaid iron door-knockers and a jade belt with gold decoration.

Arts

Emperor Yang was also a patron of the arts, having expanded the number of foreign orchestras (from across Asia) at the Sui court from seven to nine. He was, in fact, quite a gifted artist himself, but one prone to horrible fits of jealousy and stubbornness, who seldom listened to the advice of more talented individuals. He was a talented poet but killed two poets after he found their stanzas to be superior to his own.

Era name

• Daye (大業 dà yè) 605–618

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Min, of the Lanling Xiao clan (愍皇后 蘭陵蕭氏; 567–647)

　• Yang Zhao, Emperor Xiaocheng (孝成皇帝 楊昭; 584–606), first son

　• Yang Jian, Prince of Qi (齊王 楊暕; 585–618), second son

　• Princess Nanyang (南陽公主; 586–630), first daughter

　　• Married Yuwen Shiji, Duke Xincheng (572–642) in 599, and had issue (one son)

• Pin, of the Xiao clan (嬪 蕭氏)

　• Yang Gao, Prince of Zhao (趙王 楊杲; 607–618), fourth son

• Unknown

　• A daughter who married Li Shimin of Longxi (隴西; 598–649), and had issue (two sons including Li Ke)

Descendants

• 15px Yang Guang, Emperor Yang of Sui

　• Yang Zhao (楊昭) (584–606)

　　• Yang Dan (楊倓) (603–618), Prince of Yan (燕王), Zhao's son with Lady Liu the Elder (大刘良娣), killed under Yuwen Huaji's order

　　• 15px Lord Huangtai (皇泰主) (604–619), personal name Yang Tong (杨侗), Zhao's son with Lady Liu the Younger (小劉良娣), bestowed by Wang Shichong as Emperor Gong (恭皇帝), later killed under Wang's order

　　• 15px Emperor Gong (恭皇帝) (605–618), personal name Yang You (楊侑), Zhao's son with Consort Wei (韦妃), died after his abdication in favor of Li Yuan, Imperial Duke of Tang

　• Yang Jian (楊暕) (585–618)

　　• Two elder sons, murdered by Yuwen Huaji in 618

　　• Yang Zhengdao (618/619–650s), later given the office of Yuanwai sanqi shilang (员外散骑侍郎) in Tang dynasty

　　　• Yang Chongli (杨崇礼) (?–?), given the office of Minister of Palace Supplies (太府卿), Minister of Revenue (户部尚书)

　　　　• Yang Shenming (杨慎名) (?–747), forced to suicide with his brothers by Emperor Xuanzong

　　　　• Yang Shenjin (杨慎矜) (?–747), given the office of Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk (御史中丞), conspiring against other Tang officials, later forced to suicide with his brothers by Emperor Xuanzong

　　　　• Yang Shenyu (杨慎馀) (?–747), forced to suicide with his brothers by Emperor Xuanzong

　　　　• One daughter, married Xin Mou (辛某)

　　　　　• Xin Jingcou (辛景凑) (?–?)

　　• One daughter with Lady Wei (韦氏)

　• Princess Nanyang (南陽公主) (586–630)

　　• Yuwen Chanshi (宇文禅师) (?–619), son with Yuwen Shiji, executed with his uncles under Dou Jiande's order

　• Consort Yang (楊妃) (?–?)

　　• Li Ke (李恪) (619–653), Prince of Wu (吴王), married Lady Yang, a daughter of Yang Yu (杨誉) and sister of Yang Chongjing (杨崇敬)

　　　• Li Qianli (李千里) (645/646?–708), courtesy name Ren (仁), Prince of Cheng (成王), married Murong Zhenruhai (慕容真如海) (651–726), a descendant of Northern Yan royalty

　　　　• Li Xi (李禧) (?–?), Prince of Tianshui Commandery (天水郡王)

　　　• Li Wei (李玮) (647–642), posthumously promoted as Prince of Langling Commandery (朗陵郡王), married Lady Feng, great-granddaughter of Feng Ang (冯盎) the Imperial Duke of Jing (耿国公), descendant of the Nanyue people

　　　　• Li Zuo (李祚) (?–?), Prince of Langling Commandery

　　　　• Li Xuan (李袨) (?–?), other name Li Yu (李褕), Prince Sishu (嗣蜀王)

　　　• Li Kun (李琨) (?–702), Prince of Wu

　　　　• Li Yi (李祎) (?–743), Prince of Xin'an Commandery (信安郡王), married Lady Lü (吕氏)

　　　　　• Li Huan (李峘) (?–?), Imperial Duke of Zhao (赵国公)

　　　　　• Li Yi (李峄) (?–?)

　　　　　• Li Xian (李岘) (708–766), Imperial Duke of Liang (梁国公)

　　　　• Li Ru (李襦) (?–?), Imperial Duke of Bi (毕国公)

　　　　• Li Duan (李褍) (?–?)

　　　　• Li Zhi (李祗) (?–?), Prince Siwu (嗣吴王)

　　　　　• Li Hu (李岵) (?–?)

　　　　　• Li Yan (李巘) (?–?), Prince Siwu

　　　　　　• Li Zhou (李宙) (?–?), Prince Siwu

　　　　• Li Gui (李袿) (?–?)

　　　• Li Jing (李璄) (?–?), Prince of Guizheng Commandery (归政郡王)

　　　　• Li Gui (李襘) (?–?)

　　　• Princess of Xin'an County (信安县主) (648–716), married Yuan Sizhong (元思忠), descendant of Tuoba Huang, prince of Northern Wei

　　　　• Yuan Shouyi (元守一) (?–?)

　　　　• Yuan Guan (元瓘) (?–?)

　　　　• Yuan Gui (元瓌) (?–?)

　　　• Li Hua (李华) (650–715), Princess of Xuancheng County (宣城县主)

　　• Li Yin (李愔) (620?–667), Prince of Shu (梁王)

　　　• Li Fan (李璠) (?–689), Prince Sishu (嗣蜀王)

　　　• Li Chou (李畴) (?–689), Prince of Guangdou Commandery (广都郡王)

　　　• Li Jin (李瑾) (?–?), Prince of Jiangling Commandery (江陵郡王)

　　　• Princess of Bao'an County (宝安县主) (?–?), married Cui Sigu (崔思古)

　　　　• Cui Zikan (崔子偘) (?–?), chariot servant (辇郎) of Gaozong

　• (?) Princess Huainan (淮南公主) (?–?)

　　• Ashina Heluogu (阿史那賀邏鶻) (?–?), son with Ashina Shibobi

Ancestry

生平經歷

早期經歷

楊廣，一名楊英，小字阿𡡉，華陰（今陝西華陰）人，隋文帝楊堅次子，母為文獻皇后獨孤伽羅，北周天和四年（569年）生于長安（今陝西省西安市），史書稱其「美姿儀，少聰慧」，很得雙親喜愛。在北周時因父楊堅的功勳，被封為雁門郡公。開皇元年（581年）封晉王，拜柱國、并州總管，時年十三歲。後又授武衛大將軍，進位上柱國、河北道行台尚書令等。

開皇六年（586年），轉淮南道行臺尚書令。其年，徵拜雍州牧、內史令。開皇八年（588年）冬天，隋朝興兵滅陳朝，二十歲的楊廣是領銜的統帥，真正在前線作戰的是賀若弼和韓擒虎等名將。次年滅陳之後，進駐建康，意欲納陳後主寵妃張麗華為妾，元帥長史高熲斬殺張麗華故作罷。封存府庫，將陳叔寶及其皇后等人帶返隋京。班師後，楊廣進封太尉。晉王廣毀建康城，置蔣州，韓洪、 張雯和郭衍相繼擔任蔣州刺史;同時推行戶籍制度，整頓鄉村:制五百家為鄉，正一人，百家為里，長一人。平陳之後因為隋朝推行重組鄉村、廢郡置州和推行五教的政策有所偏差，江南各地叛亂。開皇十年十一月陳亡後不足兩年一場反隋叛亂在舊陳全境全面爆發。「是月婺州人汪文進、會稽人高智慧、蘇州人沈立皆舉兵反自稱天子署置百官。樂安蔡道人、蔣山李棱、饒州吳代華、永嘉沈孝徹、泉州王國慶、餘杭楊寶英、交趾李春等皆自稱都督攻陷州縣」。他們「大者有眾數萬小者數千共相影響執縣令或抽其腸或其肉食之曰『更能使儂誦五教邪』」表現了對隋歧視性高壓政策的極端仇恨。參加叛亂者包括江南社會各階層既有世家舊族也有酋豪洞主。為平定叛亂隋帝楊堅令內史令楊素為行軍總管調集大軍前往鎮壓「軍民事務一以委之」。同時調並州總管晉王楊廣代替秦王楊俊為揚州總管坐鎮江都。楊廣移鎮揚州任務是「管淮海之地化吳、會之民」，在鎮守江南期間為穩定叛變局勢頗有成效、政績突出。同時他表現得作風簡樸、不好聲色、禮賢下士、謙恭謹慎，由此贏得了朝野讚頌和隋文帝的歡心。楊廣鎮守南陳舊地，也刺激他奪儲東宮之心。

隋文帝和皇太子楊勇的矛盾逐漸爆發，楊廣趁機而入爭奪儲位，博得了獨孤文獻皇后和右僕射楊素的支持。開皇二十年（600年），隋文帝下詔廢黜長子楊勇，立次子晉王楊廣為皇太子，楊廣率軍北上擊破突厥的攻勢。

東征西討

仁壽四年（604年）七月，隋文帝駕崩，36歲的楊廣即帝位，君臨天下。即位後假造隋文帝遺詔縊殺兄長廢太子楊勇。次年，其弟漢王楊諒以討伐楊素為名，在并州起兵，煬帝派楊素鎮壓，楊諒降後被幽禁至死。不久，煬帝聽從雲定興建議毒死楊勇諸子，翦除了對帝位的威脅。大業三年（607年），為了招待突厥來使，煬帝下令宇文愷製作下面可容3000人的帳蓬，立于城東，高熲與賀若弼見隋煬帝奢靡，甚為憂慮，有所議論，為人告發而被殺害。

隋煬帝以早年的軍旅生涯為基礎，對高句麗、吐谷渾和突厥發動了戰爭。大業五年（609年），他親征平定吐谷渾，設置西海、河源、鄯善、且末四郡，闊疆五千里。高昌王麴伯雅也到張掖朝見煬帝。煬帝命在河源郡駐兵屯田。當時，全國有一百九十郡，一千二百五十五縣，在籍戶八百九十萬餘，人口四千六百餘萬，隋朝達于極盛。

高句麗地跨鴨綠江兩岸，位于今中國遼寧東部、吉林中部和朝鮮北部，隋煬帝即位後，三次大舉進攻高句麗。大業八年（612年），隋煬帝第一次進攻高句麗，徵調士卒一百一十三萬餘，陸軍集中于涿郡（今北京），水軍集中于東萊（今山東萊州）。另調民伕二百萬，以運送衣甲、糧食等。造海船的民工日夜站在水中，皮膚潰爛，腰以下生蛆，死者甚眾。隋軍雖然曾攻至平壤附近，最後卻大敗而還。大業九年（613年）第二次進攻高句麗，正當雙方相持不下時，禮部尚書楊玄感起兵叛隋，隋煬帝倉皇撤軍。大業十年（614年），第三次進攻高句麗。隋煬帝因國內民變已成燎原之勢而不敢久戰，高句麗也疲于戰爭而遣使請降，隋煬帝就此撤軍。進攻高句麗的戰爭，先後動用人力數百萬，徵調財物無數，大量士兵、民伕死于戰場和勞役，由于農村中極度缺乏勞力和耕畜，大量土地荒蕪，社會經濟受到嚴重破壞，人民難以生活下去，成為隋末民變的導火線。隋大業十一年（公元615年），隋煬帝依例北巡長城，始畢可汗率兵將其圍困在雁門（今山西代縣），煬帝派人向始畢之妻、隋義成公主求救，公主遣使告知始畢「北邊有急」，加上隋朝援軍相繼抵達，始畢在九月撤圍而去。

窮奢極欲

隋煬帝為了滿足其驕奢淫逸的生活，在各地大修宮殿苑囿、離宮別館。其中著名的有顯仁宮、江都宮、臨江宮、晉陽宮、西苑等。西苑在洛陽之西，周圍二百餘里，苑內有人工湖，周圍十餘里，湖內有山，堂殿樓觀，布置奇巧，窮極華麗。隋煬帝常在月夜帶宮女數千人騎馬游西苑，令宮女在馬上演奏《清夜遊》曲，弦歌達旦。煬帝游江都時，率領諸王、百官、后妃、宮女等一、二十萬人，船隊長達二百餘里，所經州縣，五百里內都要貢獻食物，揮霍浪費的情況十分嚴重。

隋煬帝為誇耀國家富強，每年正月當少數民族和外國首領、商人聚集洛陽時，命人在洛陽端門外大街上盛陳百戲散樂，戲場綿亙八里，動用歌伎近三萬人，樂聲傳數十里外。西域商人要到市上交易，煬帝就下令盛飾市容，裝璜店肆，房簷一律，珍貨充積，連賣菜的都要墊以龍鬚席。當這些商人從酒店飯館前經過時，都要請他們就坐用餐。並說：「中國豐饒，酒食例不取直（值）。」還將市上樹木纏以絲織品做裝飾。有些胡商說：「中國亦有貧者，衣不蓋形，何如以此物與之！纏樹何為？」。

隋煬帝即位後，造龍舟等各種船數萬艘。他游江都時所乘龍舟高四十五尺，闊五十尺，長二百尺，上有四層樓，上層有正殿、內殿、東西朝堂，中間兩層有房一百二十間，下層為內侍居處。

大興土木

大業元年（605年），隋煬帝開始營建東都，歷時十個月，每月徵調民夫二百萬人。東都在舊洛陽城之西，規模宏大，周長五十餘里，分為宮城、皇城、外郭城等三部分。宮城是宮殿所在地，皇城是官衙所在地，外郭城是官吏私宅和百姓居處所在地。外郭城有居民區一百餘坊，另有豐都市、大同市、通遠市等三大市場。隋煬帝常住洛陽，將其作為東方的政治、軍事、經濟中心。

隋煬帝在營建東都的同時，又下令開鑿大運河。隋朝大運河以洛陽為中心，分為三大段。中段包括通濟渠與邗溝。通濟渠北起洛陽，東南入淮水。邗溝北起淮水南岸之山陽（今江蘇淮安），南達江都（今揚州）入長江。南段名江南河，北起長江南岸之京口（今鎮江），南通餘杭（今浙江杭州）。北段名永濟渠，南起洛陽，北通涿郡（今北京城西南）。大運河分段開鑿，前後歷時五年，全長兩千七百餘公里，是世界著名的偉大工程之一，後經元朝取直疏浚，全長1794公里，成為現今的京杭大運河，京杭大運河利用了隋朝大運河不少河段，縮短了900多公里的航程。開鑿大運河的目的是為了加強中央對東方和南方的統治，同時也是為了從南方漕運糧食和便利對東北用兵。大運河對中國南北的經濟、文化交流和鞏固國家的統一都起了巨大的作用。

在教育制度上，隋煬帝發展科舉制度，增置進士科，使國務的操持由世族門閥政治而逐漸改向科舉取士。科舉制度一直延續到清德宗光緒三十一年（1905年）才被終止，為古代中國的育才政策有很大的貢獻。政治上，他企圖打破由關隴集團壟斷仕途的局面，重用了虞世基、裴蘊等南方集團官員。軍事上，在即位前曾參與與突厥、契丹之戰事，皆有所獲。但是隋煬帝又是一位急功近利的人。大業八年（612年），首度親征高句麗失敗後，隋煬帝為扳回其顏面，連續三年一再親征。即位後為實現個人構想，勞動全國投入新宮殿的營造，皇宮用金玉裝飾，金碧輝煌，致使國庫虧空，勞民傷財。晚年為消除強烈的失落感和政務上的壓力，逃避現實，三下江都，遠離朝政。

亡國被殺

大業七年（611年），王薄率領民眾在長白山（今山東章丘東北）起義，隋末民變終于爆發。楊玄感起兵後，民變發展為全國規模。隋煬帝意圖遏止起義力量發展，下令各地郡縣、驛亭、村塢築城堡，將民眾遷往城堡中居住，于近處種田，以圖控制。他不願正視民變蓬勃發展的現實，身邊的佞臣也不以實情相告，謊稱造反的民眾「漸少」。大業十二年（616年）七月，隋煬帝從東都去江都。次年四月，魏公李密率領的瓦崗軍逼圍東都，並且向各郡縣發布檄文，歷數隋煬帝十大罪狀。隋煬帝在江都卻越發荒淫昏亂，命王世充挑選江淮民間美女充實後宮，每日酒色取樂，又引鏡自照，預感末日將到，銳意盡失的隋煬帝晚年常引鏡自照，對蕭皇后和臣下說：「好頭頸，誰當斫之！」

大業十四年三月十一丙辰日（618年4月11日），隋煬帝于江都被叛軍宇文化及所弒，終年五十歲。隋煬帝死前，宇文化及煽動叛軍將之包圍，煬帝聞變，倉皇換裝，逃入西閣。煬帝因與次子齊王楊暕彼此猜忌，此時竟然以為作亂者是楊暕，對蕭皇后說「是不是阿孩？」煬帝被叛軍裴虔通、元禮、馬文舉等逮獲，說：「朕實負百姓，至于爾輩，榮祿兼極，何乃如是！今日之事，孰為首邪？」宇文化及命令封德彞宣布煬帝罪狀。煬帝說：「卿乃士人，何為亦爾？」德彞一時慚愧退下。煬帝愛子趙王杲，才十二歲，在帝側，號慟不已，叛軍裴虔通將其斬殺，血濺御服。煬帝自知難逃一死，說天子自有天子的死法，欲飲毒酒自盡，叛軍馬文舉等不許，遂命令令狐行達將其縊弒。宇文化及等並殺煬帝孫楊倓、楊暕及其二子、楊秀及其七子等。

身後之事

唐朝謚楊廣為煬皇帝，皇泰主楊侗謚世祖明皇帝，夏王竇建德謚閔皇帝。隋江都太守陳棱找到煬帝靈柩，粗備天子儀衛，改葬于江都宮西吳公台下，當時犧牲的王公，皆埋葬在煬帝墳塋的兩側。唐平江南後，以帝禮改葬雷塘。唐代以後，煬帝陵所在不為人知。

清嘉慶時，原籍為今江蘇省揚州市邗江區槐泗鎮的大學士阮元考証槐泗鎮槐二村一處大土墩為煬帝陵，並出資修複，揚州知府伊秉綬書寫墓碑。1995年成為江蘇省文物保護單位。2013年4月，有報道稱在揚州市邗江區最近發掘的兩座古墓中，一座的墓誌銘顯示墓主為隋煬帝楊廣。經過半年時間的考古發掘論証，2013年11月16日，中國考古學會召開新聞發布會，確認揚州市邗江區西湖鎮司徒村曹莊組隋唐墓葬為隋煬帝墓，是隋煬帝楊廣與蕭后最終的埋葬之地。

大事年表

• 588年（開皇八年）以行軍元帥身份參加平陳戰爭

• 589年（開皇九年）占領建康，滅陳

• 590年（開皇十年）出任楊州總管，鎮守江都，

• 599年（開皇十九年）離開江都入朝，

• 600年（開皇二十年）出靈武道，抗擊突厥達頭可汗

• 605年（大業元年）營建東都洛陽，開修通濟渠，八月坐船游江都（揚州）

• 606年（大業二年）四月駕返洛陽

• 607年 北巡榆林；

• 608年 第四年至五原，出長城，巡行至塞外；

• 609年 西行到張掖；

• 610年 再游江都；

• 611年 到614年，三次親征高麗，均遭失敗；

• 615年 北巡長城，被突厥始畢可汗圍困于雁門；

• 616年 三游江都；

• 618年 被叛軍所弒，同年李淵建立唐朝，隋朝滅亡。

主要成就

政治

隋煬帝在位的十四年間，起初為提升經濟發展和民生便利的層次，曾推動各種建築包括南北隋唐大運河等艱鉅工程。一方面這些巨大的工程促進了經濟，另一方面也給民生帶來沉重的負擔。但大運河的修建使百萬計的中國勞工傷亡，甚至出現了「丁男不供，始役婦人」的情況，為隋朝帶來不穩定因素。另外，在執行政策的同時，隋煬帝也搜羅江南、五嶺以北的珍材異石來犒賞自己。又為求完美，令各地獻上特產、奇禽異獸至京，動用了大量的勞役。隋煬帝還遣大軍遠征高句麗。連年的征戰，使百萬隋軍喪命異國他鄉並間接引發隋末民變。

經濟

開運河

大業元年（605年），楊廣繼位之初，徵發河南、淮北一百多萬人開通濟渠（唐時稱廣濟渠，宋稱汴河），由洛陽通到淮水。同年，又遣淮南十幾萬人開邗溝，從山陽（今江蘇淮安）到揚子（今江蘇揚州南）入江，又稱「山陽瀆」。自大興至江都（今揚州），全長四千多里。運河的兩旁開闢了大道，為美化環境和鼓勵人民親近利用，皆種有榆樹和柳樹，可謂當代良策。大業四年（608年），征河北一百多萬人開永濟渠，引沁水南達黃河，北通涿郡（今北京）。大業六年（610年），開江南河，從京口通到zh-hans:余;zh-hant:余;杭（今浙江杭州）。自大業元年（605年）起，以六年時間開鑿邗溝、通濟渠、永濟渠和江南運河。

軍事

遠征高句麗

大業七年（611年），大運河建成後，隋煬帝隨後于大業八年（612年），募集30萬人的作戰軍隊攻打高句麗。高句麗全國亦撼動，隋軍都認為易如反掌，結果在遼東城和平壤城傷亡慘重，大敗而歸。次年再度發兵圍攻遼東城，但國內楊玄感叛變，隋煬帝不得不中返平亂。大業十年（614年），第三次發兵進攻高句麗，高句麗王高元不敵，只有投降，隋煬帝便班師回朝，耗盡國力，民間烽火遍地，不久滅亡。

文化

隋煬帝除了在位施政及功過飽受爭議之外，他還是隋唐兩代代表性的詩人之一。他的詩風廣闊，既有千軍萬馬出征時的雄偉，又能描寫夕陽下長江寧靜的江景；在他帝王生涯的最後，徬彿意識到自己帝王運盡，詩風轉變為寂寥多感，主以抒情詩為主。

樂府春江花月夜二首其一

六親不認

史實

殺兄屠侄

楊廣繼位後，假傳文帝遺囑，逼迫楊勇自盡，將楊勇處死。還有親弟蜀王楊秀被他誣陷使用巫蠱詛咒隋文帝及幼弟漢王楊諒，被剝奪官爵貶為庶民軟禁于內侍省，後與諸子一起被軟禁，不得與妻子相見。楊廣將起兵造反的幼弟漢王楊諒「除名為民，絕其屬籍」後，于大業三年（607年）3月4日，誅殺侄兒長寧王楊儼、又把剩餘的侄兒（楊勇諸子）平原王楊裕、安城王楊筠、安平王楊嶷、襄城王楊恪、高陽王楊該、建安王楊韶、潁川王楊煚、楊孝寶、楊孝范貶到嶺南，在路途中全部被處死。

真實性存在爭議

毒殺父親

據《資治通鑑·卷一百八十》載，在仁壽四年（604年）7月，文帝臥病在床，楊廣于是寫信給楊素，請教如何處理文帝後事和自己登基事宜。不料送信人誤將楊素的回信送至了文帝手上。文帝大怒，隨即宣楊廣入宮，要當面責問他。正在此時，宣華夫人陳氏也哭訴楊廣在她來途中意圖非禮她，使文帝頓悟，拍床大罵：「畜生何足付大事！獨孤誤我！」急忙命人傳大臣柳述（文帝女婿）、元岩草擬詔書，廢黜楊廣，重立楊勇為太子。楊廣得知後將柳述、元岩抓入獄，並讓右庶子張衡入文帝寢殿侍疾並將文帝周圍的侍從打發走。據傳文帝就是他親手所殺。不久文帝便駕崩。

楊廣弒父在《隋書列傳第十三》楊素傳、《隋書列傳第十》楊勇傳、《隋書列傳第二十一》張衡傳、《隋書·后妃列傳》等《隋書》章節中也有多處記載。

唐代人馬總在《通曆》中記載隋文帝被張衡「血濺屏風」，而趙毅在《大業略記》中記載隋文帝被張衡毒死。

非禮庶母

仁壽四年（604年），隋文帝病重，宣華夫人與容華夫人都侍立在側。隋文帝命兩人更衣小憩。宣華夫人更衣時，遇上太子楊廣，楊廣見父皇病重，便色性大發，上前非禮庶母。宣華夫人掙脫了楊廣的糾纏。她衣履不整地趕回仁壽宮，向隋文帝哭訴楊廣的無禮。隋文帝大怒，大罵「畜生何足付大事，獨孤誤我！」便命內侍急召兵部尚書柳述、黃門侍郎元岩，商討廢太子楊廣，扶楊勇為太子，但楊廣命張衡入宮，不久隋文帝即崩。不過初唐趙毅筆記《大業略記》記載容華夫人蔡氏為仁壽宮變女主角。隋煬帝楊廣「因色弒父」這種說法也被諸多近代史學家質疑，仁壽宮變也成為疑案。

隋文帝駕崩，楊廣送去同心結，宣華夫人害怕，但在宮人催促下，勉強收下同心結。當夜，楊廣姦淫後母宣華夫人、容華夫人。蕭皇后發現此事，在宣華夫人面前斥責楊廣姦淫庶母的罪行，又威脅若不送走宣華夫人，便將此事公諸天下，最後楊廣只好把宣華夫人送到仙都宮居住。但他對宣華夫人念念不忘，不久又把宣華夫人迎回宮中，但她回宮一年多便病逝，終年二十九歲。

后妃子女

皇后

皇后蕭氏，父西梁孝明帝蕭巋，母張皇后。

妃嬪

隋煬帝後宮有史可查者為八人，兩位陳氏皆為陳後主之女。另有一位御女和兩位採女的墓誌出土。根據《隋書 列傳第一》的記載，獨孤皇后死，隋文帝在妃嬪中增設御女一位，共八十一員，但沒有記載品級，隋煬帝時，出現採女。同時，御女和採女有明確的品級。御女六品，採女七品，在妃嬪中地位較低。

《北史》記竇建德將「煬帝妃嬪美人並使出家」。

野史、小說中稱唐高祖李淵的寵妃尹氏和張氏原是晉陽宮妃嬪，但史書僅說裴寂將晉陽宮宮人獻給李淵，並未說明是尹氏和張氏。

• 陳妃，陳後主第四女，封廣德公主，母高昭儀。見于《嘉泰吳興志》。

• 陳貴人，名婤或女婤，陳後主第六女

• 蕭嬪，楊杲母

• 唐御女，六品御女，大業十三年二月一日逝世

• 田採女，七品採女，東海丹塗人，大業十年逝世

• 田採女，七品採女，大業十一年逝世

《隋煬帝海山記》稱隋煬帝有朱貴人，大罵叛軍而被殺。

姬侍

• 王氏，李淵外甥女，是否為同安公主與王裕的女兒，已無法考証

• 崔氏，隋東郡公崔君綽女

子

• 元德太子楊昭（母蕭皇后），早薨，留有三個兒子，燕王楊倓、越王楊侗、隋恭帝楊侑。

• 齊王楊暕（母蕭皇后），遺腹子楊政道，孫楊崇禮，曾孫楊慎名，楊慎矜，楊慎餘。

• 第三子早夭

• 趙王楊杲（母蕭嬪）

女

• 南陽公主（宇文士及妻，宇文化及叛變後，士及曾求公主再為夫妻，公主不許，出家為尼）

• 皇女楊氏（是否冊為公主不詳，唐太宗妃，三子李恪，六子李愔生母）

• 隋煬帝女兒有史可查為兩人。《北史》記蕭皇后攜其孫楊政道及諸女入于突厥，可見隋煬帝另有數女。當代有作者推測淮南公主為其小女，然無確實來源。

作品

楊廣善於作詩，也是一位詩人，詩詞涵養豐富。

評價

• 唐朝鳳閣鸞台平章事朱敬則曾作隋煬帝論以比喻隋煬帝，矯情飾跡，有曹丕之釣名。

• 唐魏徵《隋書》評價楊廣早年矯情以得帝位，楊廣上任時握有隋朝一代霸績，但性格上驕矜自負、傲慢暴戾，行為上荒淫無度、大殺忠臣，賞罰無度。之後窮兵黷武，三戰高麗，大興土木，橫征暴斂，一時國家大亂，血流成河，人民挨餓到要吃兒女的慘況。但楊廣終究無法悔悟，最終死於匹夫之手。楊廣造成的國家慘況、生靈塗炭，是從未有之慘劇： 『史臣曰：煬帝爰在弱齡，早有令聞，南平吳、會，北卻匈奴，昆弟之中，獨著聲績。於是矯情飾貌，肆厥姦回，故得獻後鍾心，文皇革慮，天方肇亂，遂登儲兩，踐峻極之崇基，承丕顯之休命。......負其富強之資，思逞無厭之欲，狹殷、周之制度，尚秦、漢之規摹。恃才矜己，傲狠明德，內懷險躁，外示凝簡，盛冠服以飾其姦，除諫官以掩其過。淫荒無度，法令滋章，教絕四維，刑參五虐，鋤誅骨肉，屠勦忠良，受賞者莫見其功，為戮者不知其罪。驕怒之兵屢動，土木之功不息，頻出朔方，三駕遼左，旌旗萬里，徵稅百端，猾吏侵漁，人不堪命。......加之以師旅，因之以饑饉，流離道路，轉死溝壑，十八九焉。於是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大則跨州連郡，稱帝稱王，小則千百為群，攻城剽邑，流血成川澤，死人如亂麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。......終然不悟，同彼望夷，遂以萬乘之尊，死於一夫之手。......自肇有書契以迄于茲，宇宙崩離，生靈塗炭，喪身滅國，未有若斯之甚也。書曰：「天作孽，猶可違，自作孽，不可逭。」傳曰：「吉凶由人，祅不妄作。」又曰：「兵猶火也，不戢將自焚。」觀隋室之存亡，斯言信而有徵矣！』

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