Early life

Lineage

Genghis Khan was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai, and Hotula Khan, who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation and were descendants of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 900). When the Jurchen Jin dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.

Genghis Khan's father, Yesügei (leader of the Kiyat-Borjigin clan and nephew to Ambaghai and Hotula Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling Mongol clan. This position was contested by the rival Tayichi'ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraites.

Birth

Little is known about Genghis Khan's early life, due to the lack of contemporary written records. The few sources that give insight into this period often contradict.

Temüjin means "blacksmith". According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Chinos constituted that branch of the Mongols which existed from Ergenekon through melting the iron mountain side. There existed a tradition which viewed Genghis Khan as a blacksmith. Genghis's given name was Temüjin was equated with Turco-Mongol temürči(n), "blacksmith". Paul Pelliot saw that the tradition according to which Genghis was a blacksmith was unfounded though well established by the middle of the 13th century.

Genghis Khan was probably born in 1162 in Delüün Boldog, near the mountain Burkhan Khaldun and the rivers Onon and Kherlen in modern-day northern Mongolia, close to the current capital Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born grasping a blood clot in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the first son of Hoelun, second wife of his father Yesügei, who was a Kiyad chief prominent in the Khamag Mongol confederation and an ally of Toghrul of the Keraite tribe. According to the Secret History, Temüjin was named after the Tatar chief Temüjin-üge whom his father had just captured.

Yesukhei's clan was Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut sub-lineage of the Khongirad tribe. Like other tribes, they were nomads. Temüjin's noble background made it easier for him to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.

Early life and family

Temüjin had three brothers Hasar, Hachiun, and Temüge, one sister Temülen, and two half-brothers Begter and Belgutei. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him and delivered him at age nine to the family of his future wife Börte of the tribe Khongirad. Temüjin was to live there serving the head of the household Dai Setsen until the marriageable age of 12.

While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring Tatars, who had long been Mongol enemies, and they offered him food that poisoned him. Upon learning this, Temüjin returned home to claim his father's position as chief. But the tribe refused this and abandoned the family, leaving it without protection.

For the next several years, the family lived in poverty, surviving mostly on wild fruits, ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game killed by Temüjin and his brothers. Temüjin's older half-brother Begter began to exercise power as the eldest male in the family and would eventually have the right to claim Hoelun (who was not his own mother) as a wife. Temüjin's resentment erupted during one hunting excursion when Temüjin and his brother Khasar killed Begter.

In a raid around 1177, Temüjin was captured by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud, and enslaved, reportedly with a cangue (a sort of portable stocks). With the help of a sympathetic guard, he escaped from the ger (yurt) at night by hiding in a river crevice. The escape earned Temüjin a reputation. Soon, Jelme and Bo'orchu joined forces with him. They and the guard's son Chilaun eventually became generals of Genghis Khan.

At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temüjin grew up observing the tough political climate, which included tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption, and revenge between confederations, compounded by interference from abroad, such as from China to the south. Temüjin's mother Hoelun taught him many lessons, especially the need for strong alliances to ensure stability in Mongolia.

Wives, concubines, and children

As was common for powerful Mongol men, Genghis Khan had many wives and concubines. He frequently acquired wives and concubines from empires and societies that he had conquered, these women were often princesses or queens that were taken captive or gifted to him. Genghis Khan gave several of his high-status wives their own ordos or camps to live in and manage. Each camp also contained junior wives, concubines, and even children. It was the job of the Kheshig (Mongol imperial guard) to protect the yurts of Genghis Khan's wives. The guards had to pay particular attention to the individual yurt and camp in which Genghis Khan slept, which could change every night as he visited different wives. When Genghis Khan set out on his military conquests, he usually took one wife with him and left the rest of his wives (and concubines) to manage the empire in his absence.

Börte

The marriage between Börte and Genghis Khan (then known as Temüjin) was arranged by her father and Yesügei, Temüjin's father, when she was 10 and he was 9 years old. Temüjin stayed with her and her family until he was called back to take care of his mother and younger siblings, due to the poisoning of Yesügei by Tatar nomads. In 1178, about 7 years later, Temüjin traveled downstream along the Kelüren River to find Börte. When Börte's father saw that Temüjin had returned to marry Börte, he had the pair "united as man and wife". With the permission of her father, Temüjin took Börte and her mother to live in his family yurt. Börte's dowry was a fine black sable jacket.

Soon after the marriage between them took place, the Three Merkits attacked their family camp at dawn and kidnapped Börte. She was given to one of their warriors as a spoil of war. Temüjin was deeply distressed by the abduction of his wife and remarked that his "bed was made empty" and his "breast was torn apart". Temüjin rescued her several months later with the aid of his allies Wang Khan and Jamukha. Many scholars describe this event as one of the key crossroads in Temüjin's life, which moved him along the path towards becoming a conqueror.

「As the pillaging and plundering went on, Temüjin moved among the people that were hurriedly escaping, calling, 『Börte, Börte!』 And so he came upon her, for Lady Börte was among those fleeing people. She heard the voice of Temüjin and, recognizing it, she got off the cart and came running towards him. Although it was still night, Lady Börte and Qo』aqčin both recognized Temüjin』s reins and tether and grabbed them. It was moonlight; he looked at them, recognized Lady Börte, and they fell into each other』s arms.」 -The Secret History of the Mongols

Börte was held captive for eight months, and gave birth to Jochi soon after she was rescued. This left doubt as to who the father of the child was, because her captor took her as a "wife" and could have possibly impregnated her. Despite this, Temüjin let Jochi remain in the family and claimed him as his own son. Börte had three more sons, Chagatai (1183–1242), Ögedei (1186–1241), and Tolui (1191–1232). Temüjin had many other children with other wives, but they were excluded from the succession, only Börte's sons could be considered to be his heirs. Börte was also the mother to several daughters, Kua Ujin Bekhi, Alakhai Bekhi, Alaltun, Checheikhen, Tümelün, and Tolai. However, the poor survival of Mongol records means it is unclear whether she gave birth to all of them.

Yesugen

During his military campaign against the Tatars, Temüjin fell in love with Yesugen and took her in as a wife. She was the daughter of a Tatar leader named Yeke Cheren that Temüjin's army had killed during battle. After the military campaign against the Tatars was over, Yesugen, one of the survivors went to Temüjin, who slept with her. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, while they were having sex Yesugen asked Temüjin to treat her well and to not discard her. When Temüjin seemed to agree with this, Yesugen recommended that he also marry her sister Yesui.

Both the Tatar sisters, Yesugen and Yesui, became a part of Temüjin's principal wives and were given their own camps to manage. Temüjin also took a third woman from the Tatars, an unknown concubine.

Yesui

At the recommendation of her sister Yesugen, Temüjin had his men track down and kidnap Yesui. When she was brought to Temüjin, he found her every bit as pleasing as promised and so he married her. The other wives, mothers, sisters and daughters of the Tatars had been parceled out and given to Mongol men. The Tatar sisters, Yesugen and Yesui, were two of Genghis Khan's most influential wives. Genghis Khan took Yesui with him when he set out on his final expedition against the Tangut empire.

Khulan

Khulan entered Mongol history when her father, the Merkit leader Dayir Usan, surrendered to Temüjin in the winter of 1203–04 and gave her to him. But at least according to the Secret History of the Mongols, Khulan and her father were detained by Naya'a, one of Temüjin's officers, who was apparently trying to protect them from Mongol soldiers who were nearby. After they arrived three days later than expected, Temüjin suspected that Naya'a was motivated by his carnal feelings towards Khulan to help her and her father. While Temüjin was interrogating Naya'a, Khulan spoke up in his defense and invited Temüjin to have sex with her and inspect her virginity personally, which pleased him.

In the end Temüjin accepted Dayir Usan's surrender and Khulan as his new wife. However, Dayir Usan later retracted his surrender but he and his subjects were eventually subdued, his possessions plundered, and he himself killed. Temüjin continued to carry out military campaigns against the Merkits until their final dispersal in 1218. Khulan was able to achieve meaningful status as one of Temüjin's wives and managed one of the large wifely camps, in which other wives, concubines, children and animals lived. She gave birth to a son named Gelejian, who went on to participate with Börte's sons in their father's military campaigns.

Möge Khatun

Möge Khatun was a concubine of Genghis Khan and she later became a wife of his son Ögedei Khan. The Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni records that Möge Khatun "was given to Chinggis Khan by a chief of the Bakrin tribe, and he loved her very much." Ögedei favored her as well and she accompanied him on his hunting expeditions. She is not recorded as having any children.

Juerbiesu

Juerbiesu was an empress of Qara Khitai, Mongol Empire, and Naiman. She was a renowned beauty on the plains. She was originally a favored concubine of Inanch Bilge khan and after his death, she became the consort of his son Tayang Khan. Since Tayang Khan was a useless ruler, Juerbiesu was in control of almost all power in Naiman politics.

She had a daughter named Princess Hunhu (渾忽公主) with Yelü Zhilugu, the ruler of Liao. After Genghis Khan destroyed the Naiman tribe and Tayang Khan was killed, Juerbiesu made several offensive remarks regarding Mongols, describing their clothes as dirty and smelly. Yet, she abruptly rescinded her claims and visited Genghis Khan's tent alone. He questioned her about the remarks but was immediately attracted to her beauty. After spending the night with him, Juerbiesu promised to serve him well and he took her as one of his empresses. Her status was only inferior to Khulan and Borte.

Ibaqa Beki

Ibaqa was the eldest daughter of the Kerait leader Jakha Gambhu, who allied with Genghis Khan to defeat the Naimans in 1204. As part of the alliance, Ibaqa was given to Genghis Khan as a wife. She was the sister of Begtütmish, who married Genghis Khan's son Jochi, and Sorghaghtani Beki, who married Genghis Khan's son Tolui. After about two years of childless marriage, Genghis Khan abruptly divorced Ibaqa and gave her to the general Jürchedei, a member of the Uru'ut clan and who had killed Jakha Gambhu after the latter turned against Genghis Khan. The exact reason for this remarriage is unknown: According to The Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis Khan gave Ibaqa to Jürchedei as a reward for his service in wounding Nilga Senggum in 1203 and, later, in killing Jakha Gambhu. Conversely, Rashid al-Din in Jami' al-tawarikh claims that Genghis Khan divorced Ibaqa due to a nightmare in which God commanded him to give her away immediately, and Jürchedei happened to be guarding the tent. Regardless of the rationale, Genghis Khan allowed Ibaqa to keep her title as Khatun even in her remarriage, and asked that she would leave him a token of her dowry by which he could remember her. The sources also agree that Ibaqa was quite wealthy.

Uniting the Mongol confederations

In the early 12th century, the Central Asian plateau north of China was divided into several prominent tribal confederations, including Naimans, Merkits, Tatars, Khamag Mongols, and Keraites, that were often unfriendly towards each other, as evidenced by random raids, revenge attacks, and plundering.

Early attempts at power

Temüjin began his ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to other sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Keraites, and is better known by the Chinese title "Wang Khan", which the Jurchen Jin dynasty granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits. Temüjin turned to Toghrul for support, and Toghrul offered 20,000 of his Keraite warriors and suggested that Temüjin involve his childhood friend Jamukha, who had himself become Khan of his own tribe, the Jadaran.

Although the campaign rescued Börte and utterly defeated the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between Temüjin and Jamukha. Before this, they were blood brothers (anda) vowing to remain eternally faithful.

Rift with Jamukha and defeat at Dalan Balzhut

As Jamukha and Temüjin drifted apart in their friendship, each began consolidating power, and they became rivals. Jamukha supported the traditional Mongolian aristocracy, while Temüjin followed a meritocratic method, and attracted a broader range and lower class of followers. Following his earlier defeat of the Merkits, and a proclamation by the shaman Kokochu that the Eternal Blue Sky had set aside the world for Temüjin, Temüjin began rising to power. In 1186, Temüjin was elected khan of the Mongols. Threatened by this rise, Jamukha attacked Temujin in 1187 with an army of 30,000 troops. Temüjin gathered his followers to defend against the attack, but was decisively beaten in the Battle of Dalan Balzhut. However, Jamukha horrified and alienated potential followers by boiling 70 young male captives alive in cauldrons. Toghrul, as Temüjin's patron, was exiled to the Qara Khitai. The life of Temüjin for the next 10 years is unclear, as historical records are mostly silent on that period.

Return to power

Around the year 1197, the Jin initiated an attack against their formal vassal, the Tatars, with help from the Keraites and Mongols. Temüjin commanded part of this attack, and after victory, he and Toghrul were restored by the Jin to positions of power. The Jin bestowed Toghrul with the honorable title of Ong Khan, and Temüjin with a lesser title of j'aut quri.

Around 1200, the main rivals of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, the Tanguts to the south, and the Jin to the east.

In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an incentive for absolute obedience and the Yassa code of law, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future war spoils. When he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away their soldiers and abandon their civilians. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory.

Rift with Toghrul

Senggum, son of Toghrul (Wang Khan), envied Genghis Khan's growing power and affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Genghis Khan. Although Toghrul was allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Genghis Khan, he gave in to his son and became uncooperative with Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists.

One of the later ruptures between Genghis Khan and Toghrul was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, Genghis Khan's first son. This was disrespectful in Mongolian culture and led to a war. Toghrul allied with Jamukha, who already opposed Genghis Khan's forces. However, the dispute between Toghrul and Jamukha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Genghis Khan, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamukha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Keraite tribe.

After conquering his way steadily through the Alchi Tatars, Keraites, and Uhaz Merkits and acquiring at least one wife each time, Temüjin turned to the next threat on the steppe, the Turkic Naimans under the leadership of Tayang Khan with whom Jamukha and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Genghis Khan.

In 1201, a khuruldai elected Jamukha as Gür Khan, "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Qara Khitai. Jamukha's assumption of this title was the final breach with Genghis Khan, and Jamukha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, several generals abandoned Jamukha, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamukha was turned over to Genghis Khan by his own men in 1206.

According to the Secret History, Genghis Khan again offered his friendship to Jamukha. Genghis Khan had killed the men who betrayed Jamukha, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamukha refused the offer, saying that there can only be one sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom was to die without spilling blood, specifically by having one's back broken. Jamukha requested this form of death, although he was known to have boiled his opponents' generals alive.

Sole ruler of the Mongol plains (1206)

The part of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, who was by then a member of Genghis Khan's personal guard and later became one of Genghis Khan's most successful commanders. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol steppe – all the prominent confederations fell or united under his Mongol confederation.

Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamukha (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important shaman, who allegedly tried to drive a wedge between him and his loyal brother Khasar. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals, exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. He was also ruthless, demonstrated by his tactic of measuring against the linchpin, used against the tribes led by Jamukha.

As a result, by 1206, Genghis Khan had managed to unite or subdue the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraites, Tatars, Uyghurs, and other disparate smaller tribes under his rule. This was a monumental feat. It resulted in peace between previously warring tribes, and a single political and military force. The union became known as the Mongols. At a Khuruldai, a council of Mongol chiefs, Genghis Khan was acknowledged as Khan of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was conferred posthumously by his son and successor Ögedei who took the title for himself (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan dynasty).

According to the Secret History of the Mongols, the chieftains of the conquered tribes pledged to Genghis Khan by proclaiming:"We will make you Khan; you shall ride at our head, against our foes. We will throw ourselves like lightning on your enemies. We will bring you their finest women and girls, their rich tents like palaces."

Religion

Genghis Khan was a Tengrist, but was religiously tolerant and interested in learning philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. He consulted Buddhist monks (including the Zen monk Haiyun), Muslims, Christian missionaries, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji.

According to the Fozu Lidai Tongzai written by Nian Chang (b. 1282) Genghis Khan's viceroy Muqali was pacifying Shanxi in 1219, the homeland of Zen Buddhist monk Haiyun (海雲, 1203–1257), when one of Muqali's Chinese generals, impressed with Haiyun and his master Zhongguan's demeanor, recommended them to Muqali. Muqali then reported on the two to Genghis Khan who issued the following decree on their behalf: "They truly are men who pray to Heaven. I should like to support them with clothes and food and make them chiefs. I'm planning on gathering many of this kind of people. While praying to Heaven, they should not have difficulties imposed on them. To forbid any mistreatment, they will be authorized to act as darqan (possessor of immunity)." Genghis Khan had already met Haiyun in 1214 and been impressed by his reply refusing to grow his hair in the Mongol hairstyle and allowed him to keep his head shaven. After the death of his master Zhongguan in 1220, Haiyun became the head of the Chan (Chinese Zen) school during Genghis Khan's rule and was repeatedly recognized as the chief monk in Chinese Buddhism by subsequent Khans until 1257 when he was succeeded as chief monk by another Chan master Xueting Fuyu the Mongol-appointed abbot of Shaolin monastery.

Genghis Khan summoned and met the Daoist master Qiu Chuji (1148–1227) in Afghanistan in 1222. He thanked Qiu Chuji for accepting his invitation and asked if Qiu Chuji had brought the medicine of immortality with him. Qiu Chuji said there was no such thing as a medicine of immortality but that life can be extended through abstinence. Genghis Khan appreciated his honest reply and asked Qiu Chuji who it is that calls him eternal heavenly man, he himself or others. After Qiu Chuji replied that others call him by that name Genghis Khan decreed that from thenceforth Qiu Chuji should be called "Immortal" and appointed him master of all monks in China, noting that heaven had sent Qiu Chuji to him. Qiu Chuji died in Beijing the same year as Genghis Khan and his shrine became the White Cloud Temple. Following Khans continued appointing Daoist masters of the Quanzhen School at White Cloud Temple. The Daoists lost their privilege in 1258 after the Great Debate organized by Genghis Khan's grandson Möngke Khan when Chinese Buddhists (led by the Mongol-appointed abbot or shaolim zhanglao of Shaolin monastery), Confucians and Tibetan Buddhists allied against the Daoists. Kublai Khan was appointed to preside over this debate (in Shangdu/Xanadu, the third meeting after two debates in Karakorum in 1255 and 1256) in which 700 dignitaries were present. Kublai Khan had already met Haiyun in 1242 and been swayed towards Buddhism.

Genghis Khan's decree exempting Daoists (xiansheng), Buddhists (toyin), Christians (erke'üd) and Muslims (dashmad) from tax duties were continued by his successors until the end of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. All the decrees use the same formula and state that Genghis Khan first gave the decree of exemption. Kublai Khan's 1261 decree in Mongolian appointing the elder of the Shaolin monastery uses the same formula and states "Činggis qan-u jrlg-tur toyid erkegü:d šingšingü:d dašmad aliba alba gubčiri ülü üjen tngri-yi jalbariju bidan-a irüge:r ögün atugai keme:gsen jrlg-un yosuga:r...ene Šaolim janglau-da bariju yabuga:i jrlg ögbei" (According to the decree of Genghis Khan which says may the Buddhists, Christians, Daoists and Muslims be exempt from all taxation and may they pray to God and continue offering us blessings...I have given this decree to the Shaolin elder to carry it). According to Juvaini, Genghis Khan allowed religious freedom to Muslims during his conquest of Khwarezmia "permitting the recitation of the takbir and the azan". However, Rashid-al-Din states there were occasions when Genghis Khan forbade Halal butchering. Kublai Khan revived the decree in 1280 after Muslims refused to eat at a banquet. He forbade Halal butchering and circumcision. The decree of Kublai Khan was revoked after a decade. Genghis Khan met Wahid-ud-Din in Afghanistan in 1221 and asked him if the prophet Muhammad predicted a Mongol conqueror. He was initially pleased with Wahid-ud-Din but then dismissed him from his service saying "I used to consider you a wise and prudent man, but from this speech of yours, it has become evident to me that you do not possess complete understanding and that your comprehension is but small".

Military campaigns

Western Xia Dynasty

During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the Western Xia dynasty of the Tanguts. To the east and south was the Jin dynasty, founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlords of the Mongolian tribes for centuries.

Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was close to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful young ruler of the Jin dynasty would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin dynasty, they were refused. Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan managed to force the emperor of Xi Xia to submit to vassal status.

Jin dynasty

In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the Jin dynasty. Wanyan Jiujin, the field commander of the Jin army, made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming'an, to the Mongol side, who defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Yehuling, the Mongols massacred hundreds of thousands of Jin troops. In 1215, Genghis besieged the Jin capital of Zhongdu (modern-day Beijing). According to Ivar Lissner, the inhabitants resorted to firing gold and silver cannon shot on the Mongols with their muzzle-loading cannons when their supply of metal for ammunition ran out. The city was captured and sacked. This forced the Jin ruler, Emperor Xuanzong, to move his capital south to Kaifeng, abandoning the northern half of his empire to the Mongols. Between 1232 and 1233, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols under the reign of Genghis's third son, Ögedei Khan. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234, after the siege of Caizhou.

Qara Khitai

Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into his Mongol Empire, fled west and usurped the khanate of Qara Khitai (also known as the Western Liao, as it was originally established as remnants of the Liao dynasty). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Qara Khitai and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin dynasty. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow".

With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Qara Khitai more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar. Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of the defeat of Qara Khitai, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash, which bordered Khwarazmia, a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south.

Khwarazmian Empire

In the early 13th century, the Khwarazmian dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarazmia as a commercial trading partner using the Silk Road, and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the empire. Genghis Khan and his family and commanders invested in the caravan gold, silver, silk, various kinds of textiles and fabrics and pelts to trade with the Muslim traders in the Khwarazmian lands. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarazmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan, claiming that the caravan contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarazmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravans and hand over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself, instead of the governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. Outraged, Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 100,000 soldiers (10 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed Ögedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarazmia.

The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarazmian Empire. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarazmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarazmia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarazmia from that direction.

The Shah's army was split by diverse internecine feuds and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarazmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarazmian forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions.

Genghis Khan next advanced on the city of Bukhara, which was not heavily fortified, with just a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarazmian cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. The survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. After the surrender of Bukhara, Genghis Khan also took the unprecedented step of personally entering the city, after which he had the city's aristocrats and elites brought to the mosque, where, through interpreters, he lectured them on their misdeeds, saying: "If you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you."

With the capture of Bukhara, the way was clear for the Mongols to advance on the capital of Samarkand, which possessed significantly better fortifications and a larger garrison compared to Bukhara. To overcome the city, the Mongols engaged in intensive psychological warfare, including the use of captured Khwarazmian prisoners as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, loyal supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis executed every soldier that had taken arms against him. According to the Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni, the people of Samarkand were then ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory. Similarly, Juvayni wrote that in the city Termez, to the south of Samarkand, "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain".

Juvayni's account of mass killings at these sites is not corroborated by modern archaeology. Instead of killing local populations, the Mongols tended to enslave the conquered and either send them to Mongolia to act as menial labor or retain them for use in the war effort. The effect was still mass depopulation. The piling of a "pyramid of severed heads" happened not at Samarkand but at Nishapur, where Genghis Khan's sons-in-law Toquchar was killed by an arrow shot from the city walls after the residents revolted. The Khan then allowed his widowed daughter, who was pregnant at the time, to decide the fate of the city, and she decreed that the entire population be killed. She also supposedly ordered that every dog, cat and any other animals in the city by slaughtered, "so that no living thing would survive the murder of her husband". The sentence was duly carried out by the Khan's youngest son Tolui. According to widely circulated but unverified stories, the severed heads were then erected in separate piles for the men, women and children.

Near to the end of the battle for Samarkand, the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan subsequently ordered two of his generals, Subutai and Jebe, to destroy the remnants of the Khwarazmian Empire, giving them 20,000 men and two years to do this. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island in the Caspian Sea that he had retreated to with his remaining loyal forces.

Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarazmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting.

As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. These numbers are considered logistically implausible by modern scholars, but the sacking of Urgench was no doubt a bloody affair.

Georgia, Crimea, Kievan Rus and Volga Bulgaria

After the defeat of the Khwarazmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of Subutai, the Mongol army was split into two forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two tumen) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols defeated the kingdom of Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the allied forces of the Cuman–Kipchaks and the poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force. They may have been defeated by the neighbouring Volga Bulgars at the Battle of Samara Bend. There is no historical record except a short account by the Arab historian Ibn al-Athir, writing in Mosul some away from the event. Various historical secondary sources – Morgan, Chambers, Grousset – state that the Mongols actually defeated the Bulgars, Chambers even going so far as to say that the Bulgars had made up stories to tell the (recently crushed) Russians that they had beaten the Mongols and driven them from their territory. The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. Not only had the Rus put up strong resistance, but also Jebe – with whom Subutai had campaigned for years – had been killed just prior to the Battle of Kalka River. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev, were put under this platform and crushed to death.

The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards. The famous cavalry expedition led by Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly in Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus' in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240.

Western Xia and Jin Dynasty

The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had earlier refused to take part in the Mongol war against the Khwarezmid Empire. Western Xia and the defeated Jin dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarazmians to preclude the Mongols from responding effectively.

In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou, and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helan Mountains but was defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou and crossed the Yellow River, defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.

In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu-fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in the spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut royal lineage.

Succession

The succession of Genghis Khan was already a significant topic during the later years of his reign, as he reached old age. The long running paternity discussion about Genghis's oldest son Jochi was particularly contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declared before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension and possibly for other reasons, Ögedei was appointed as successor.

Ögedei

Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei (c. 1186 – December 11, 1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan (Khagan) of the Mongol Empire. He continued the expansion that his father had begun and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the invasions of Europe and Asia.

Jochi

Genghis Khan was aware of the friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died. He therefore decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right, while appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior, because of statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son, was not suitable since in Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given much responsibility due to their age. If Jochi were to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore, Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ögedei. Ögedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate that might defuse the situation between his brothers.

Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead by 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.

Death and burial

Genghis Khan died in August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan, which is the capital of Western Xia. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis Khan fell from his horse while hunting and died because of the injury. He was already old and tired from his journeys. The Galician–Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis's death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.

Years before his death, Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum, constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site.

In 1939 Chinese Nationalist soldiers took the mausoleum from its position at the 'Lord's Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in Mongolia to protect it from Japanese troops. It was taken through Communist-held territory in Yan'an some on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery, the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it remained for ten years. In 1949, as Communist troops advanced, the Nationalist soldiers moved it another farther west to the famous Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi near Xining, which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954, Genghis Khan's bier and relics were returned to the Lord's Enclosure in Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them. In 1968 during the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value. The "relics" were remade in the 1970s and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.

On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Alaric I). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site.

Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan, and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each.

Mongol Empire

Politics and economics

The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code, called the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in meritocracy. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Mongols, Turks and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan.

There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a personal concept, and not subject to law or interference. Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to Nestorian Christianity. Various Mongol tribes were Shamanist, Buddhist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe.

Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women. However, there is no evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in the Mongol Empire and in the family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire while the next male leader Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).

Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin dynasty was defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin dynasty honestly and so did he; also he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. This reply impressed Genghis Khan. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.

Military

Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum. Muqali, a trusted lieutenant, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucasus and Kievan Rus', an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. While granting his generals a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions, Genghis Khan also expected unwavering loyalty from them.

The Mongol military was also successful in siege warfare, cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for ambush and counterattack.

Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam, adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.

Khanates

Several years before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan's meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei.

Following are the Khanates as Genghis Khan assigned them:

• Empire of the Great Khan: Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan.

• Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum): Tolui Khan, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.

• Chagatai Khanate: Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern Iran.

• Blue Horde to Batu Khan, and White Horde to Orda Khan, both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or Khanate of the Golden Horde, under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.

After Genghis Khan

Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer the whole area of the eventual Mongol Empire. At the time of his death in 1227, the empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan. Its expansion continued for one or more generations. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Western Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, clashed with the imperial Song dynasty of China, and eventually took control of all of China in 1279. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe.

Perceptions

Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by conquered peoples than those who conquered with him. Negative views persist in histories written by many cultures from different geographical regions. They often cite the systematic slaughter of civilians in conquered regions, cruelties and destruction by Mongol armies. Other authors also cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests.

Positive

Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule, was tolerant of religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers.

In Mongolia

Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries by Mongols and certain other ethnic groups such as Turks, largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of Mongolian culture.

During the communist period in Mongolia, Genghis was often described as a reactionary, and positive statements about him were avoided. In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the Soviet Union and the dismissal of secretary Tömör-Ochir of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee.

In the early 1990s, the memory of Genghis Khan underwent a powerful revival, partly in reaction to its suppression during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is considered positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting warring tribes. For example, Mongolians often refer to their country as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality. Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.

In Mongolia today, Genghis Khan's name and likeness appear on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquor bottles to candy, and on the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮). Mongolia's main international airport in Ulaanbaatar is named Chinggis Khaan International Airport. Major Genghis Khan statues stand before the parliament and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization.

Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the most prominent leaders in Mongolia's history. He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost endemic warfare between tribes. He is also credited for introducing the traditional Mongolian script and creating the first written Mongolian code of law, the Ikh Zasag ("Great Administration"). Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj has noted that the Ikh Zasag heavily punished corruption and bribery, and he considers Genghis Khan a teacher for anti-corruption efforts who sought equal protection under the law for all citizens regardless of status or wealth. On the 850th anniversary of Genghis's birth, the President stated "Chinggis ... was a man who deeply realized that the justice begins and consolidates with the equality of law, and not with the distinctions between people. He was a man who knew that the good laws and rules lived longer than fancy palaces." In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country.

, Elbegdorj issued a decree establishing Genghis Khan's birthday as a national holiday on the first day of winter (according to the Mongolian lunar calendar).

In Europe

Genghis Khan had a positive reputation among western European authors in the Middle Ages, who knew little concrete information about his empire in Asia. Philosopher and inventor Roger Bacon applauded the scientific and philosophical vigor of Genghis Khan's empire, and the famed writer Geoffrey Chaucer wrote concerning :

The Italian explorer Marco Polo said that Genghis Khan "was a man of great worth, and of great ability, and valor."

In Japan

Japanese such as Kenchō Suyematsu have claimed that the ethnic Japanese Minamoto no Yoshitsune was Genghis Khan.

Mixed

In China

There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the People's Republic of China. The legacy of Genghis and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic. China suffered a drastic decline in population. The population of north China decreased from 50 million in the 1195 census to 8.5 million in the Mongol census of 1235–36. However most of them were victims of plague, floods and famine long after the war in northern China was over in 1234 and were not killed by Mongols. Since the 1340s, Yuan China experienced problems. The Yellow River flooded constantly, and other natural disasters also occurred. At the same time the Yuan dynasty required considerable military expenditure to maintain its vast empire. The Black Death also contributed to the birth of the Red Turban movement. Other groups or religious sects made an effort to undermine the power of the last Yuan rulers; these religious movements often warned of impending doom. Decline of agriculture, plague and cold weather hit China, spurring the armed rebellion. In Hebei, 9 out of 10 were killed by the Black Death when Toghon Temür was enthroned in 1333. Two out of three people in China had died of the plague by 1351. An unknown number of people migrated to Southern China in this period. James Waterson cautioned against attributing the population drop in northern China to Mongol slaughter since much of the population may have moved to southern China under the Southern Song or died of disease and famine as agricultural and urban city infrastructure were destroyed. The Mongols spared cities from massacre and sacking if they surrendered like Kaifeng, which was surrendered to Subetai by Xu Li, Yangzhou which was surrendered to Bayan by Li Tingzhi's second in command after Li Tingzhi was executed by the Southern Song, and Hangzhou was spared from sacking when it surrendered to Kublai Khan. Han Chinese and Khitan soldiers defected en masse to Genghis Khan against the Jurchen Jin dynasty. Towns which surrendered were spared from sacking and massacre by Kublai Khan. Khitan did not like leaving their homeland in Manchuria as the Jin moved their primary capital from Beijing south to Kaifeng and defected to the Mongols.

In Inner Mongolia there are a monument and buildings dedicated to him and considerable number of ethnic Mongols in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of Mongolia. While Genghis never conquered all of China, his grandson Kublai Khan completed that conquest and established the Yuan dynasty that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a military leader and political genius. The Mongol-established Yuan dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the preceding Jin dynasty relatively fewer.

In Russia

Genghis Khan has a predominantly negative reputation in Russia, although he is perceived positively in Buryatia, the republic of the Mongol-speaking Buryats in the Russian Federation. According to the chief editor of Novaya Buryatia, Timur Dugarzhapov, "Genghis Khan was always a folk hero among the Buryat people. But in Buryatia, even today, children learn ... how terrible the 『Mongol yoke』 was, how it set Russia back and was responsible for all sort of historic ills."

Negative

The conquests and leadership of Genghis Khan included widespread devastation and mass murder, and he, along with the Mongols in general, committed genocide. The targets of campaigns that refused to surrender would often be subject to reprisals in the form of enslavement and wholesale slaughter. The second campaign against Western Xia, the final military action led by Genghis Khan, and during which he died, involved an intentional and systematic destruction of Western Xia cities and culture. According to John Man, because of this policy of total obliteration, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field because so little record is left of that society. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide. It was certainly very successful ethnocide." In the conquest of Khwarezmia under Genghis Khan, the Mongols razed the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, Herāt, Ṭūs, and Neyshābūr and killed the respective urban populations. His invasions are considered the beginning of a 200-year period known in Iran and other Islamic societies as the "Mongol catastrophe." Ibn al-Athir, Ata-Malik Juvaini, Seraj al-Din Jozjani, and Rashid al-Din Fazl-Allah Hamedani, Iranian historians from the time of Mongol occupation, describe the Mongol invasions as an catastrophe never before seen. A number of present-day Iranian historians, including Zabih Allah Safa, have likewise viewed the period initiated by Genghis Khan as a uniquely catastrophic era. Steven R. Ward writes that the Mongol violence and depredations in the Iranian Plateau "killed up to three-fourths of the population... possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century."

Although the famous Mughal emperors were proud descendants of Genghis Khan and particularly Timur, they clearly distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities committed against the Khwarizim Shahs, Turks, Persians, the citizens of Baghdad and Damascus, Nishapur, Bukhara and historical figures such as Attar of Nishapur and many other notable Muslims. However, Mughal Emperors directly patronized the legacies of Genghis Khan and Timur; together their names were synonymous with the names of other distinguished personalities particularly among the Muslim populations of South Asia.

Descent

In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the Mughal emperor Babur's mother was a descendant. Timur (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th-century military leader, and many other nobilities of central Asian countries claimed descent from Genghis Khan. During the Soviet purge most of the Mongol nobility in Mongolia were purged.

Physical appearance

Unlike most emperors, Genghis Khan never allowed his image to be portrayed in paintings or sculptures. The earliest known images of Genghis Khan were produced half a century after his death, including the famous National Palace Museum portrait. Though the portrait in the National Palace Museum is often considered the closest resemblance to what Genghis Khan actually looked like, it, like all others, is essentially an arbitrary rendering. These earliest images were commissioned by Kublai Khan and intentionally sinicized Genghis Khan as a Mandarin, in order to posthumously legitimate him as a Chinese emperor. Other portrayals of Genghis Khan from other cultures likewise characterized him according to their particular image of him. In Persia he was portrayed as a Turkish sultan, in Europe he was pictured as an ugly barbarian with a fierce face and cruel eyes. According to Herbert Allen Giles, a painter known as Ho-li-hosun (also known as Khorisun or Qooriqosun ) was a Mongol commissioned by Kublai Khan in 1278 to paint the portrait of Genghis Khan (National Palace Museum portrait). Under Kublai Khan's supervision, he ordered Khorisun along with the other entrusted remaining followers of Genghis Khan to make sure that the portrait of Genghis Khan reflected his true image.

The only individuals to have recorded Genghis Khan's physical appearance during his lifetime were the Persian chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani and Chinese diplomat Zhao Hong. Minhaj al-Siraj described Genghis Khan as "a man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust in body, the hair of his face scanty and turned white, with cats』 eyes, possessed of dedicated energy, discernment, genius, and understanding, awe-striking...". The chronicler had also previously commented on Genghis Khan's height, powerful build, with cat's eyes and lack of grey hair, based on the evidence of eyes witnesses in 1220, which saw Genghis Khan fighting in the Khorasan (modern day northwest Persia). According to Paul Ratchnevsky, Zhao Hong, a Song dynasty envoy who visited the Mongols in 1221, described Genghis Khan as "of tall and majestic stature, his brow is broad and his beard is long".

Other descriptions of Genghis Khan come from 14th century texts. The Persian historian Rashid-al-Din in Jami' al-tawarikh, written in the beginning of the 14th century, stated that most Borjigin ancestors of Genghis Khan were "tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and bluish green-eyed," features which Genghis Khan himself had. The factual nature of this statement is considered controversial. In the Georgian Chronicles, in a passage written in the 14th century, Genghis Khan is similarly described as a large, good-looking man, with red hair. However, according to John Andrew Boyle, Rashid al-Din's text of red hair referred to ruddy skin complexion, and that Genghis Khan was of ruddy complexion like most of his children except for Kublai Khan who was swarthy. He translated the text as 「It chanced that he was born 2 months before Möge, and when Chingiz-Khan』s eye fell upon him he said: 「all our children are of a ruddy complexion, but this child is swarthy like his maternal uncles. Tell Sorqoqtani Beki to give him to a good nurse to be reared」. 14th century Arabic historian Shihab al-Umari also disputed Rashid al-Din's translation and claimed Alan Gua falsified the origin of her clan. Some Historians such as Denise Aigle claimed that Rashid al-Din mythicized the origin of Genghis Khan ancestors (the Borjigin clan) through his own interpretations of The Secret History of the Mongols. Italian historian Igor de Rachewiltz claimed that the Mongol origins of the early ancestors of Genghis Khan were animals born from the blue eye wolf (Borte Chino) and the fallow doe (Qo'ai Maral) that was described in the early legends, that their ancestors were animals.

Depictions in modern culture

There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the Mongolian ruler.

Films

• Genghis Khan, a 1950 Philippine film directed by Manuel Conde.

• The Conqueror, released in 1956 and starring John Wayne as Temüjin and Susan Hayward as Börte.

• Changez Khan, a 1957 Indian Hindi-language film directed by Kedar Kapoor, starring Sheikh Mukhtar as the emperor along with Bina Rai and Prem Nath in the lead roles.

• Genghis Khan, a 1965 film starring Omar Sharif.

• Under the Eternal Blue Sky, a Mongolian film directed by Baljinnyam, which was released in 1990. Starring Agvaantserengiin Enkhtaivan as Temüjin.

• Genghis Khan, an unfinished 1992 film starring Richard Tyson, Charlton Heston and Pat Morita.

• Genghis Khan – A Proud Son Of Heaven, a 1998 film made in Mongolian, with English subtitles.

• Genghis Khan: To the Ends of the Earth and Sea, also known as The Descendant of Gray Wolf, a Japanese-Mongolian film released in 2007.

• Mongol, a film by Sergei Bodrov released in 2007. (Academy Award nominee for Best Foreign Language Film).

• No Right to Die – Chinggis Khaan, a Mongolian film released in 2008.

Television series

• Genghis Khan, a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB, starring Alex Man.

• Genghis Khan, a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by ATV, starring Tony Liu.

• Genghis Khan, a 2004 Chinese-Mongolian co-produced television series, starring Ba Sen, who is a descendant of Genghis Khan's second son Chagatai.

• "Aaakhri Chattan", a 1978 Pakistani drama series having Zahoor Ahmed as Genghis Khan.

Poetry

• "The Squire's Tale", one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, is set at the court of Genghis Khan.

• The End of Genghis, a poem by F. L. Lucas, in which the dying Khan, attended by his Khitan counsellor Yelü Chucai, looks back on his life.

Novels

• The Conqueror series of novels by Conn Iggulden

• Steppe by Piers Anthony

• Genghis Khan (Last incarnation) in Metro 2033 by Dmitry Glukhovsky

• White cloud of Genghis Khan by Chingiz Aitmatov

Short stories

• The Private Life of Genghis Khan by Douglas Adams and Graham Chapman

Music

• West German pop band Dschinghis Khan took its name from the German-language spelling of Genghis Khan. They participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 with their song of the same name.

• Heavy metal band Iron Maiden released an all-instrumental track titled "Genghis Khan" on their 1981 sophomore album Killers.

• The band Miike Snow released the song "Genghis Khan" in 2017.

• Mongolian Folk-Rock band The Hu released a song called The Great Chinggis Khaan in August 2019.

Video games

• Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings

• Aoki Ookami to Shiroki Mejika IV: Genghis Khan

• Crusader Kings 2

• Deadliest Warrior: Legends

• Sid Meier's Civilization

Name and title

There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ching (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology.

One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolic and Turkic word tenggis/tengiz, meaning "sea", "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". (Lake Baikal and other large bodies of water were called tenggis by the Mongols). This view was repeated by, among others, the Big Russian Encyclopedia;. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggis they could have said, and written, "Tenggis Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th-century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis".

The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. Weatherford claims it derives from a spelling used in original Persian reports. Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this.

According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word temür, Turkic for iron (modern Mongolian: , tömör). The name would imply a blacksmith or a man strong like iron.

No evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith. But the latter interpretation (a man strong like iron) is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word.

Name and spelling variations

Genghis Khan is spelled in a variety of ways in different languages such as Mongolian Chinggis Khaan, English Chinghiz, Chinghis, and Chingiz, 成吉思汗 Chéngjísī Hán, Turkic: Cengiz Han, Çingiz Xan, Chingizxon, Shın'g'ısxan, Çingiz Han Çıñğız Xan, Şıñğıs xan, Çiñğiz Xaan, Çiñğizhan, Russian: Чингисхан (Čingiskhan) or Чингиз-хан (Čingiz-khan), etc. Temüjin is written in Chinese as 鐵木眞 Tiěmùzhēn.

When Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu. Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as Yuan Taizu (Emperor Taizu of Yuan, ) in Chinese historiography.

Timeline

• Probably 1155 or 1162: Temüjin was born in the Khentii mountains.

• When Temüjin was nine, his father Yesükhei was poisoned by Tatars, leaving Temüjin and his family destitute.

• c. 1184: Temüjin's wife Börte was kidnapped by Merkits; he called on blood brother Jamukha and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.

• c. 1185: First son Jochi was born; leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis's children, because he was born shortly after Börte's rescue from the Merkits.

• 1190: Temüjin united the Mongol tribes, became leader, and devised code of law Yassa.

• 1201: Victory over Jamukha's Jadarans.

• 1202: Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.

• 1203: Victory over Wang Khan's Keraites. Wang Khan himself killed by accident by allied Naimans.

• 1204: Victory over Naimans (all these confederations unite and become the Mongols).

• 1206: Jamukha was killed. Temüjin was given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in a Kurultai (around 40 years of age).

• 1207–1210: Genghis led operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submitted to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uyghurs also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.

• 1211: After the kurultai, Genghis led his armies against the Jin dynasty ruling northern China.

• 1215: Beijing fell; Genghis Khan turned to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate.

• 1219–1222: Conquered Khwarezmid Empire.

• 1226: Started the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, the second battle with the Western Xia.

• 1227: Genghis Khan died after conquering the Tangut people. Cause of death is uncertain.

生平經歷

早年

金世宗大定二年（1162年），成吉思汗生于漠北草原。成吉思汗父親為其乞顏部酋長也速該。其名字「鐵木真」之由來，乃是因為在他出生時，其父也速該正好俘虜到一位屬於塔塔兒部族，名為鐵木真兀格的勇士。按當時蒙古人信仰，在抓到敵對部落勇士時，如正好有嬰兒出生，該勇士的勇氣會轉移到該嬰兒身上。成吉思汗「鐵木真」之名遂因此而來。傳說成吉思汗出生時，手中正拿著一血塊，寓意天降將掌生殺大權。

在帶鐵木真去弘吉剌部娶親後回來的路上，途經塔塔兒部，也速該遭到塔塔兒部殺害（懷疑被毒死），之後乞顏部族的泰赤烏氏首領塔里忽台因不滿也速該生前的所作所為，在也速該死後對鐵木真一家進行報復，命令部眾們遷至他地，孤立鐵木真一家，但鐵木真一家靠著毅力艱苦的活了下去。

就在鐵木真漸漸出落成一個魁梧英俊的少年時，有三次劫難卻意外地降臨到他的頭上。

• 第一次是：脫離他們家族的泰赤烏氏擔心鐵木真長大後報仇，於是對鐵木真家進行了突襲，並且計劃將被捕的鐵木真處死。鐵木真靠著父親的舊部鎖兒罕失剌以及其子沈白、赤老溫，其女合答安的協助脫逃，才因此逃過了一劫。身為長子的他，要攜母和弟妹們走到不兒罕山區，逃避泰赤烏氏追捕長達數年，自此形成他剛毅忍辱性格。

• 第二次是：在一個風雪交加的夜晚，一幫盜賊把他家僅有的幾匹馬搶走。在與盜賊的搏鬥中，鐵木真被盜賊射中喉嚨。危難之際，一個名叫博爾朮的青年拔刀相助，趕跑了盜賊，奪回了馬匹，鐵木真得以倖免于難。

• 第三次是：成年後，鐵木真與孛兒帖結婚時，三姓蔑兒乞部的首領脫黑脫阿，為報其弟赤列都的未婚妻訶額侖當年被鐵木真的父親也速該所搶之仇，突襲了鐵木真的營帳。在混戰中，鐵木真逃進了不兒罕山（今肯特山），他的妻子和異母卻變成了脫黑脫阿的俘虜。

然而，三次劫難並未擊垮鐵木真，反倒增強了他的復仇心理。他發誓要奪回家裡失去的一切。鐵木真深知，要想立足，必須擁有實力。於是，他把妻子嫁妝中最珍貴的「黑貂皮」獻給了當時草原上實力最雄厚的克烈部落統領王汗。利用王汗的勢力，鐵木真不僅收攏了他家離散的部族，還在王汗及幼時「安答」（義兄弟）札木合的幫助下，擊敗了三姓蔑兒乞部首領脫黑脫阿、忽都父子，救出了妻子孛兒帖和異母。

自此鐵木真和札木合兩人一起在部落共同生活。

成為乞顏部的可汗

由于鐵木真提拔一些非貴族的人為將領，引發札木合不滿，最終雙方決裂。1182年，鐵木真被推舉成為蒙古乞顏部的可汗。

軍事生涯

統一蒙古各部

1190年，在鐵木真的領導下，乞顏迅速發展壯大，引起札達蘭部首領札木合的不滿。札木合以其弟弟紿察兒被鐵木真部下所殺為藉口，糾集了13個部落三萬餘人，向鐵木真發起進攻。鐵木真也動員了部眾十三翼（即13個部落）迎擊，即著名的十三翼之戰。鐵木真雖兵敗退至斡難河畔哲列捏狹地，但萬萬沒想到獲勝的札木合卻失去了人心。戰後，因為札木合把俘虜全部處死，將俘虜分七十大鍋煮殺，史稱「七十鍋慘案」。這種慘不忍睹的場面，連其部下也「多苦其主非法」，甚至擔心起自己的命運來。相反的，寬厚仁容的鐵木真贏得了人心，那些擔心自己命運的札木合的部下紛紛倒向鐵木真。此戰鐵木真敗而得眾，使其軍力得以迅速恢復和壯大。鐵木真的部眾一下子增加了許多。1196年，塔塔兒部首領蔑兀真笑里徒反抗金朝，金朝丞相完顏襄約克烈部王汗和鐵木真聯合出兵進攻塔塔兒，塔塔兒部大敗，蔑兀真笑里徒被殺。鐵木真遂被金朝封為「札兀惕忽里」，即部落官。

主兒乞部偷襲鐵木真的後方營地，被鐵木真剿滅。1201年，泰赤烏部、塔塔兒部、蔑兒乞部等11部推舉札達蘭部的札木合為「古兒汗」，聯兵攻打鐵木真。鐵木真聯合王汗，於闊亦田之戰擊敗札木合等十二部聯軍。聯軍潰散後，鐵木真追擊並剿滅了泰赤烏部。1202年，殺死塔塔兒部首領札鄰不合並屠殺殘餘的塔塔兒人，憶起少年時，父親也速該遭塔塔兒所害，臨命終時的遺言，遂將凡是身高超過車輪高的塔塔兒士兵、男子通通都殺光，手法殘忍震驚蒙古諸部族。

1203年，王汗將鐵木真收為義子，導致桑昆跟鐵木真仇恨，札木合鼓動桑昆聯合王汗夾擊鐵木真。合蘭真沙陀之戰爆發，這是鐵木真經歷的最為慘烈的一仗，只剩下19人隨他敗走班朱尼河，北上貝爾湖途中陸續追隨而來的部眾也只有2千6百人。同年秋天突襲王汗駐地，三天後完全消滅克烈部。王汗逃到鄂爾渾河畔之後被乃蠻人殺死。而其子桑昆則逃到庫車，被當地人殺死。

1204年，鐵木真征伐蒙古草原西邊的太陽汗，於納忽崖之戰擊敗乃蠻大軍，太陽汗當場被殺。秋，於合剌答勒忽札兀兒擊敗蔑兒乞部首領脫黑脫阿。1205年，鐵木真於額爾齊斯河擊敗蔑兒乞和乃蠻殘部聯軍，蔑兒乞首領脫黑脫阿陣亡，其子逃往康里、欽察，乃蠻部王子屈出律則逃亡西遼。1206年，札木合被叛變的將領送到鐵木真之手，札木合請死，鐵木真便殺了他。爾後，鐵木真統一蒙古各部。

稱成吉思汗

1206年春天，蒙古貴族們在斡難河（今鄂嫩河）源頭召開大會，諸王和群臣為鐵木真上尊號「成吉思汗」，正式登基成為大蒙古國皇帝 （蒙古帝國大汗），這是蒙古帝國的開始。成吉思汗遂頒布了《成吉思汗法典》，是世界上第一套應用範圍最廣泛的成文法典，建立了一套以貴族民主為基礎的蒙古貴族共和政體制度。

威脅西夏

蒙古分別在1205年、1207年及1209年三次入侵西夏，逼使西夏臣服。1210年，西夏向蒙古稱臣，並保証派軍隊支持蒙古以後的軍事行動，此外，西夏皇帝夏襄宗獻女求和，把察合公主嫁給了成吉思汗。

征服森林部落

1207年，成吉思汗命長子朮赤征森林部落。

降葛邏祿

1210年，成吉思汗命忽必來征葛邏祿，首領阿兒思蘭汗率部降。

消滅金朝未果

1210年，成吉思汗與金朝斷絕了朝貢關係（約從1195年開始）。

1211年二月，成吉思汗親率大軍入侵金朝，在1211年的野狐嶺會戰擊敗四十萬金軍，並在次年和第三年陸續攻破金朝河北、河東北路和山東各州縣，1214年三月，金宣宗遣使向蒙古求和，送上大量黃金、絲綢、馬匹，並將金衛紹王的女兒岐國公主送給成吉思汗為妻，還有童男女五百陪嫁。成吉思汗從中都撤兵。

在金朝的東北地區，1212年，契丹人耶律留哥在遼東起兵反抗金朝，並宣布歸附蒙古，耶律留哥和蒙古聯軍打敗前來征討的六十萬金朝軍隊，1213年，耶律留哥自稱遼王，1215年春，耶律留哥攻克金朝東京（今遼寧省遼陽），並占領金朝東北大部分地區。1215年十一月耶律留哥秘密與其子耶律薛闍帶著厚禮前往漠北草原朝覲成吉思汗，成吉思汗極為高興，賜給耶律留哥金虎符，仍舊封他為遼王。

為了遠離蒙古的威脅，1214年6月27日，金宣宗離開中都，遷都汴京，得知金朝皇帝離開，成吉思汗下令入侵中都，蒙古軍在1215年5月31日占領中都，金朝在黃河以北之地陸續失守。

占領中都後，成吉思汗返回蒙古草原，1217年，成吉思汗任命大將木華黎為「太師國王」，讓他負責繼續入侵金朝，經過木華黎和他的兒子孛魯十年的戰爭，到1227年成吉思汗去世前夕，蒙古軍隊基本占領金朝黃河以北的所有領土，金朝的領土僅局限于河南、陝西等地（當時的黃河取道江蘇北部的淮河入海）。

1217年，成吉思汗派大將速不台追擊脫黑脫阿諸子忽都、合剌、赤剌溫，次年於楚河地區剿滅蔑兒乞殘部。

正當金朝危在旦夕時，中亞的花剌子模王國惹怒蒙古，成吉思汗性急，轉而報仇，暫時無暇顧及繼續入侵金朝。

滅西遼及花剌子模

早在1211年春天，畏兀兒亦都護巴而朮·阿而忒·的斤便歸附蒙古。至1218年春季，成吉思汗派遣的蒙古使團到達花剌子模王國，強迫摩訶末蘇丹簽訂與蒙古的條約。條約簽訂後，花剌子模城市訛答剌長官海兒汗殺死路過此城的一支來自蒙古的由500人穆斯林組成的商隊，奪取貨物，僅有一人倖免于難逃回蒙古，成吉思汗派三個使臣前往花剌子模向摩訶末交涉，結果為首者被殺，另外二人被辱，成吉思汗更加憤怒，決定入侵花剌子模。

1218年，成吉思汗派大將哲別滅西遼，殺死西遼末代皇帝屈出律，平定西域。西征花剌子模進兵路上的障礙被掃除了。

1219年六月，成吉思汗親率蒙古主力（大約十萬人）向西侵略，並在中途收編了5萬突厥軍，1220年底，一直被蒙古軍隊追擊的花剌子模算端摩訶末病死在寬田吉思海（今裏海）中的一個名為額別思寬島（或譯為阿必思昆島，已陸沉）的小島上，並在臨死前傳位札蘭丁。蒙古軍先後取得河中地區和呼羅珊等地，1221年，蒙古軍隊消滅花剌子模王國，1221年十一月，成吉思汗率軍追擊札蘭丁一直追到申河（今印度河）岸邊，札蘭丁大敗，僅僅率少數人渡河逃走。

當初，成吉思汗命令速不台和哲別率領二萬騎兵追擊向西逃亡的摩訶末，摩訶末逃入裏海後，他們率領蒙古軍繼續向西進發，征服了太和嶺（今高加索山）一帶的很多國家，然後繼續向西進入欽察草原擴張。1223年，者別與速不台於迦勒迦河之戰（今烏克蘭日丹諾夫市北）中擊潰基輔羅斯諸國王公與欽察忽炭汗的聯軍，然後又攻入黑海北岸的克里木半島。

1223年底，哲別與速不台率軍東返，經過也的里河（今伏爾加河的突厥名，又譯亦的勒），攻入此河中游的不里阿耳，遭遇頑強抵抗後，沿河南下，經由裏海，鹹海之北，與成吉思汗會師東歸。在東返途中，哲別病逝。

攻西夏·去世

成吉思汗回師後幹，再次入侵西夏。1227年8月25日（農曆七月十二己丑日），在蒙古軍圍困西夏首都時，成吉思汗病逝於今寧夏南部六盤山（一說靈州），享壽六十五歲。其死因至今眾說紛紜，《元史》記載：「（元太祖二十二年）秋七月壬午，不豫。己丑，崩于薩里川哈老徒之行宮。」

成吉思汗去世前向兒子們交代了滅金的計劃：「假道宋境，包抄汴京。」後來窩闊台和拖雷滅金朝，採用的就是成吉思汗的這個戰略。

此前西夏末代皇帝李睍已經答應投降，成吉思汗去世後，蒙古軍密不發喪，李睍開城投降後，前去參見成吉思汗，諸將託言成吉思汗有疾，不讓他參見。在成吉思汗去世三天後，1227年8月28日，諸將遵照成吉思汗遺命將西夏末帝殺死，西夏滅亡。蒙古軍將領察罕努力使西夏首都中興府（今寧夏銀川）避免了屠城的命運，入城安撫城內軍民，城內的軍民得以保全。

《蒙古祕史》記載成吉思墜馬跌傷。而羅馬天主教教廷使節約翰·普蘭諾·加賓尼在《被我們稱為韃靼的蒙古人的歷史》稱成吉思汗可能是被雷電擊中身亡。

據《蒙古秘史》記載，成吉思汗的遺體被葬在不兒罕山接近斡難河源頭的地方，這是他生前指定的墓地。《元史》則記載他和歷代元朝皇帝都葬于起輦谷。起輦谷的具體位置不詳。在今日蒙古國肯特省的不兒罕山間有一片被稱為「大禁忌」的土地，為達爾扈特人世代守護，相傳是成吉思汗的墓地所在。在內蒙古自治區西部的鄂爾多斯高原上，有一座蒙古包式建築宮殿，為成吉思汗的衣冠塚，經過多次遷移後直到1954年才由湟中縣的塔爾寺遷回故地伊金霍洛旗，北距包頭市185公里。每年的農曆三月廿一、五月十五、八月十二和十月初三，為一年四次的大祭。

有傳言認為成吉思汗可能是遭三子窩闊台毒殺，原因是當時大汗打算傳位給窩闊台，但突然改變注意，欲傳位給四子拖雷，窩闊台為保汗位，所以毒殺其父。《成吉思汗與今日世界之形成》關于成吉思汗之死的論述與諸多的死亡故事相反，認為成吉思汗在遊牧帳篷中去世，與他在遊牧帳篷中的出生情形相似，這說明他在保存其本民族傳統生活方式方面非常成功；然而，他保持其自身生活方式的過程中，卻改變了人類社會。他在故土安葬，沒有一座陵墓，沒有一座寺廟，甚至沒有一塊用來標示其長眠之地的小墓碑。按照蒙古人的信仰，遺體應該在靜穆中離去，並不需要紀念碑，因為靈魂已經不在那裡了；靈魂繼續活在精神之旗中。但他的精神之旗在1937年從蒙古中部的黑尚赫山下月亮河畔的寺廟裡消失了。虔誠的喇嘛們護衛幾個世紀的聖物，在由當時斯大林的追隨者霍爾洛·喬巴山開展的遏制蒙古文化與宗教的運動中，永遠的消失了。

尊謚廟號

至元二年十月十四日（1265年11月23日），元世祖忽必烈追尊成吉思汗廟號為太祖。

至元三年十月十八日（1266年11月16日），太廟建成，制尊謚廟號，元世祖追尊成吉思汗諡號為聖武皇帝。

至大二年十二月六日（1310年1月7日），元武宗海山加上尊謚法天啟運，廟號太祖。從此之後，成吉思汗的諡號變為法天啟運聖武皇帝。《太祖皇帝加上尊謚冊文》，內容如下：

稱號來源

「成吉思汗」是鐵木真於1206年獲得的稱號。「成吉思」的含義不明確，一種說法由「成」（，意思是「強」）派生而來。另一種說法是來自海洋一詞，代表他像海洋一樣偉大（）。「汗」原本寫作（鮑培轉寫：，《蒙古秘史》記音：中罕，西里爾寫法：），直到13世紀末後人才更改為來自突厥語的（鮑培轉寫：，《蒙古秘史》記音：中合罕，西里爾寫法，意譯：皇帝）。

皇帝和大汗的雙重身份

大蒙古國時期

「成吉思汗」源于蒙古語。「成吉思」為的漢語譯音。「汗」是蒙古語（鮑培轉寫：，《蒙古秘史》漢字記音：中罕，西里爾拼寫：）的漢語譯音，其後經突厥語又轉譯為漢字「合罕」（），原義為「父主」；大部落首領多用此稱號。

現存的13世紀和14世紀期的眾多史料以及考古文物和摩崖石刻証明，1206年成吉思汗建立大蒙古國後，可能已經擁有皇帝和大汗的雙重身份。生活在草原地區的蒙古等民族用蒙古語稱呼鐵木真為「大汗」、「成吉思汗」；生活在西北地區的突厥和其他民族用突厥語或其他語言稱鐵木真為「汗」或者「可汗」；生活在漠南漢地和東北地區的契丹人、女真人、党項人等民族，在13世紀前期的時候，歷經遼朝、金朝、西夏等漢化政權，大部分已經漢化，通用漢語漢字，多稱鐵木真為「皇帝」；而生活在漠南漢地和東北地區的漢族人則直接使用「成吉思皇帝」一詞。大量歷史記載資料証明，1215年成吉思汗在攻取包括金中都在內的整個幽雲十六州之後，其在長城以南漢地的統治保留了一些遼、金等朝的舊俗，並且在這些區域的官方文件，直接應用了「皇帝」的尊號來指代歷任大蒙古國大汗。例如：

• 1219年農曆五月，鐵木真派劉仲祿邀請長春真人丘處機前往蒙古草原的詔書中，自稱為「朕」，將自己建國登基稱為「踐祚」。

• 1220年農曆二月丘處機抵達燕京後，得知鐵木真在中亞進行西征花剌子模的戰爭，覺得自己年事已高，西行太遠，希望約鐵木真在燕京相見，于是在三月寫了一份陳情表，在陳情表中，丘處機對鐵木真的稱呼是「皇帝」。同年收到丘處機的陳情表後，鐵木真第二次派曷剌邀請丘處機前往中亞草原的詔書中，以「成吉思皇帝」和「朕」自稱。

• 1221年南宋使者趙珙出使大蒙古國，回來後著有《蒙韃備錄》，書中對鐵木真的稱呼是「成吉思皇帝」。《蒙韃備錄》中提到，鐵木真在位時期，朝廷使用的金牌，帶兩虎相向，曰虎頭金牌，上書漢字：「天賜成吉思皇帝聖旨，當便宜行事」；其次為素金牌，書：「天賜成吉思皇帝聖旨疾」。1998年，一塊「聖旨金牌」發現于河北廊坊，正面刻雙鉤漢字：「天賜成吉思皇帝聖旨疾。」和《蒙韃備錄》所記載的素金牌上漢文完全相同；背面牌心刻雙鉤契丹文，其漢語意思為：「速、走馬，或快馬」。這塊聖旨牌的發現，說明鐵木真在世時，其官方中文稱謂作「成吉思皇帝」。

• 1227年全真教道士李志常寫成的《長春真人西遊記》，記錄了丘處機從1219年受邀西行直至1227年去世的事跡，書中對鐵木真的稱呼是「成吉思皇帝」，將他下的命令稱為「聖旨」；書中也提到了鐵木真的侍臣劉仲祿前來邀請丘處機時攜帶了虎頭金牌，金牌上面的文字是：「如朕親行、便宜行事」，似乎在鐵木真時期，凡是針對漢地的蒙古官方文件，均把成吉思汗翻譯為「成吉思皇帝」。

• 1232年南宋使者彭大雅隨奉使到大蒙古國，使者徐霆1235年—1236年隨奉使到大蒙古國，二人返回南宋後，彭大雅撰寫，並由徐霆作疏，合著《黑韃事略》，書中對鐵木真的稱呼是「成吉思皇帝」。

• 2010年，刻有多位蒙古皇帝聖旨的全真教煉神庵摩崖石刻于山東徂徠山被發現，石刻一共四方，全部以漢語白話文寫就，記述了大蒙古國皇室成員歷代頒發給全真教掌教的官方文牒，其中有成吉思皇帝、合罕皇帝（窩闊台）、貴由皇帝，孛羅真皇后（窩闊台之妻）、唆魯古唐妃，以及昔列門太子、和皙太子（均為窩闊台之子）等字樣，其中記敘的「甲辰年十月初八日」表明該條聖旨是乃馬真後稱制的1244年頒發，落款「庚戌年十二月」則表明該石刻刻于海迷失後稱制的1250年。聖旨石刻以漢語寫就，包含不同時期、不同蒙古大汗的聖旨記錄，為大蒙古國時期在漢地以中文「皇帝」作為蒙古大汗官方尊號的有力文物証據。

• 至元三年（1266年）忽必烈給日本的國書中，國書開頭自稱「大蒙古國皇帝」，在後面的內容中，自稱為「朕」，此時距離他1271年正式立國號「大元」，還有五年時間。

元朝時期

然而大蒙古國時期的「皇帝」，和後來元朝的「皇帝」稱號有本質的不同；前者是對「蒙古大汗」的漢式翻譯，而後者則是按照中原文明的傳統開立的新王朝君主，其「皇帝」稱號上承秦漢隋唐宋等朝代。在1259年蒙哥汗去世後，忽必烈認為自己是大蒙古國汗位的正式繼承者，自立為大汗，稱「大蒙古國皇帝」，並于1263年將大蒙古國的歷代大汗一併列入了自己新落成的太廟中；由于最終忽必烈沒能獲得蒙古各部貴族認可為新一任大汗，其于1271年按照中原文明的傳統，建國號「大元」，因而元朝以後官方正史一直依照廟號將成吉思汗稱作「太祖」。此時的大元皇帝，與之前大蒙古國時期被稱作「皇帝」的蒙古大汗有本質區別——蒙古四大汗國的獨立、大蒙古國的分裂，標誌著忽必烈沒能正式繼承「大蒙古國」大汗之位；元朝，則是其新開創的王朝。元成宗時期，經過與蒙古四大汗國協商，元朝皇帝作為整個蒙古帝國共主的身份獲得四大汗國承認，作為中國曆史上最高統治者稱號的「皇帝」稱號和作為「大蒙古國」最高統治者稱號的「大汗」稱號，同時集合在了後代的元朝皇帝的身上，如同中世紀歐洲由某王國國王或某公國大公出任神聖羅馬帝國皇帝。

中西方古代歷史記載的差異

整個元朝時期乃至後世王朝，官修歷史一直保持了元朝的傳統，將大蒙古國時期與元朝時期的統治一併而論，不作區分，統一將君主稱為「皇帝」。《元史》中的<太祖本紀>記載鐵木真於1206年建大蒙古國時，稱其「即皇帝位于斡難河之源，諸王群臣共尊其為成吉思皇帝」。元惠宗至正五年（1345年）十一月修成的法律《至正條格》中，稱鐵木真為「成吉思皇帝」，將他下的命令稱為「聖旨」。明初官修《元史》，書中出現過「成吉思皇帝」一詞多次，從未出現過「成吉思汗」一詞。1252年成書的《元朝秘史》（《蒙古秘史》），蒙文音譯作「成吉思合罕」，旁註釋為「太祖皇帝」。直到近代中國，《新元史》中出現了「成吉思合罕」、「成吉思可汗」等詞語，原因是《新元史》完成于民初（1920年），而《史集》、《世界征服者史》等西方的史書在清朝末年傳入中國，《新元史》作者柯劭忞也深受其影響。

然而對于中國以外的地區，則仍將「大蒙古國」的君主稱謂記作「大汗」。關于「成吉思汗」的記載見于拉施特《史集》、志費尼《世界征服者史》等中亞史籍，這兩位作者均為蒙古帝國時期伊兒汗國（位于西亞）史學家，與元朝《元史》等史書基本處于同一時代，其書可為依據。四大汗國治下以的西亞國家以及歐洲公國僅知「成吉思汗」，同一時期的中國僅知「成吉思皇帝」，可見「成吉思皇帝」一詞是針對古代漢字文化圈地區特設的翻譯用詞；由于西亞及歐洲文字皆為表音文字，其記載最能說明，大蒙古國君主的官方稱謂仍為「大汗」，而非「皇帝」。

麾下大將

• 四兄弟：哈撒兒、別勒古台（異母弟）、哈赤溫、帖木格

• 四傑（或稱四駿）：木華黎（札剌亦兒人）、博爾朮、赤老溫、博爾忽（主兒乞人）

• 四犬（或稱四獒、四勇、四先鋒）：者勒蔑、速不台、忽必來、哲別

• 四養子（成吉思汗母親訶額侖的養子）：曲出（蔑兒乞人）、闊闊出（晃豁壇人）、失吉忽圖忽（塔塔兒人）、博爾忽（亦為四傑之一）

• 四子（成吉思汗正妻孛兒帖的兒子）：朮赤、察合台、窩闊台、拖雷

• 怯薛軍：納牙阿

• 二勇：朮赤台、畏答兒

• 幕僚智囊：蒙力克、豁兒赤、塔塔統阿、耶律楚材、丘處機（長春真人）

以上四傑、四犬、與二勇在成吉思汗建立大蒙古國時被封為十大功臣。

家庭

父母

• 也速該，鐵木真父親，從蔑兒乞部手中奪走訶額侖，1170年被塔塔兒部首領札鄰不合毒害。也速該死後，族人離散，令鐵木真一家被逼過著流離生活。1266年元世祖忽必烈追尊也速該為皇帝，為也速該上廟號烈祖，諡號神元皇帝。

• 訶額侖，鐵木真母親，1206年尊為皇太后，1266年元世祖忽必烈上謚號宣懿皇后。

兄弟姐妹

• 哈撒兒，訶額侖所生。曾因為通天巫闊闊出與之不和，挑起他與鐵木真發生爭執，最後在訶額侖責備下，鐵木真才肯罷休，後人稱此事為「掏乳救子」

• 哈赤溫，訶額侖所生

• 帖木格，訶額侖所生

• 帖木侖，女，訶額侖所生

• 別克帖兒，速赤吉勒（名字不確定，佩里奧特認為叫「速赤吉勒」）所生，後來被鐵木真所殺

• 別勒古台，速赤吉勒所生

妻妾

成吉思汗一共有后妃40多人，分居在四個斡兒朵（原意為氈帳，後來指宮室）中，由於蒙古人後宮只有皇后與妃兩個位份，因此稱皇后的人相當多，以其正宮皇后孛兒帖地位最高，也只有孛兒帖的兒子有繼承汗位的資格。

• 第一斡兒朵：

　• 孛兒帖皇后，1206年立為皇后，1266年元世祖忽必烈上謚號光獻皇后，1310年元武宗海山加謚為光獻翼聖皇后。

　• 忽魯倫皇后

　• 闊里桀擔皇后

　• 脫忽思皇后

　• 帖木倫皇后

　• 亦憐真八剌皇后

　• 不顏忽禿皇后

　• 忽勝海妃子

• 第二斡兒朵：

　• 忽蘭皇后

　• 古兒別速皇后

　• 亦乞列真皇后

　• 脫忽思皇后（與第一斡兒朵第四人同名）

　• 也真妃子

　• 也里忽禿妃子

　• 察真妃子

　• 哈剌真妃子

• 第三斡兒朵：

　• 也遂皇后

　• 也速幹皇后

　• 忽魯哈剌皇后

　• 阿失侖皇后

　• 禿兒哈剌皇后

　• 察合皇后（西夏公主，李安全之女）

　• 阿昔迷失皇后

　• 完者忽都皇后

• 第四斡兒朵：

　• 公主皇后（金國公主，完顏永濟四女）

　• 合答安皇后

　• 斡者忽思皇后

　• 燕里皇后

　• 有禿該妃子

　• 完者妃子

　• 金蓮妃子

　• 完者台妃子

　• 奴倫妃子

　• 卯真妃子

• 其他：

　• 亦巴合別乞（克烈氏，札合敢不長女）

　• 八不別乞妃子

子女

據《元史》宗室世系表記載，成吉思汗有六個兒子，按出生順序為

• 朮赤，孛兒帖所生

• 察合台，孛兒帖所生

• 窩闊台，孛兒帖所生

• 拖雷，孛兒帖所生

• 兀魯赤，無後嗣

• 闊列堅，忽蘭所生。他雖然是庶子卻很受父親寵愛。後來他隨拔都征俄羅斯的時候因箭傷而死

其他沒在《元史》宗室世系表記載兒子：

• 察兀兒，也速幹所生

• 術兒徹，乃蠻女所生

有史載的成吉思汗女兒：

• 昌國大長公主，名火臣別吉（豁真別乞；火阿真伯姬，伯姬：音譯，本作別乞。），孛兒帖所生，嫁給昌忠武王孛禿。《元史·本紀第一·太祖》：帝欲為長子朮赤求婚于汪罕女抄兒伯姬，汪罕之孫禿撒合亦欲尚帝女火阿真伯姬，俱不諧，自是頗有違言。《聖武親征錄》也作「汪可汗之孫禿撒合亦求上公主火阿真伯姬」

• 延安公主，名扯扯亦堅，孛兒帖所生，嫁斡亦剌惕部脫劣勒赤

• 趙國大長公主，名阿剌海別吉，孛兒帖所生，嫁給趙武毅王孛要合，無子。成吉思汗1206-1211年西征期間以及逝世以後，她以監國公主的身份代理朝政。《元史》列傳第五稱載她「明睿有智略，車駕征伐四出，嘗使留守，軍國大政，諮稟而後行，師出無內顧之憂，公主之力居多。」

• 鄆國公主，名禿滿倫，孛兒帖所生，嫁弘吉剌部赤古

• 阿兒答魯黑，又譯作阿勒塔倫，按塔倫，又名阿勒塔魯罕，孛兒帖所生幼女。嫁給斡勒忽訥兀惕部的泰出（又譯作塔出）駙馬。有子術真伯（又稱扎兀兒薛禪），術真伯先後娶元憲宗蒙哥之女失鄰公主和必赤合公主

• 高昌公主，名也立安敦，嫁畏吾兒亦都護巴而朮·阿而忒·的斤

相關史料

• 《長春真人西遊記》：元朝全真教掌教李志常撰寫，記述了李志常的師父丘處機從山東西行前往中亞見元太祖並返回的事蹟，書後附有元太祖給丘處機的一道詔書和四道聖旨，正文中和聖旨中對元太祖的稱呼為「成吉思皇帝」。

• 《成吉思皇帝賜丘神仙手詔碣》：1219年，元太祖派劉仲祿等人前往山東邀請丘處機的詔書全文，全文共406字，元武宗至大二年（1309年）四月，詔書被刻在石碑上，現存于河南省內鄉縣石堂山普濟宮。

• 《聖武親征錄》：「聖武」是成吉思汗的諡號「法天啟運聖武皇帝」的簡稱。該書記載了他一生征戰的事。

• 《蒙古秘史》，又稱《元朝秘史》。

• 《史集》，蒙古帝國伊兒汗國史學家拉施特撰寫：

• 《世界征服者史》，蒙古帝國伊兒汗國史學家志費尼撰寫。

• 《元史·太祖本紀》 ，明朝官修正史

• 《新元史·太祖本紀》 ，民國官修正史

• 《續資治通鑑》 ，清朝史學家畢沅撰寫。

• 《蒙韃備錄》，南宋使者趙珙1221年出使大蒙古國，返回南宋後撰寫。

• 《元史類編》，清朝史學家邵遠平撰寫。

• 《元史新編》，清朝史學家魏源撰寫。

• 《元書》，清朝史學家曾廉撰寫。

• 《蒙兀兒史記》，清末民初史學家屠寄撰寫。

• 《成吉思汗評傳》，民國史學家張振佩撰寫。

• 《圖說成吉思汗的世界》日本史學家 堺屋太一撰寫

評價

• 金末元初長春真人丘處機，拒絕金朝皇帝和南宋皇帝的邀請，答應前往草原和鐵木真相見，抵達燕京後，得知鐵木真已在中亞西征花剌子模，覺得自己年事已高，西行太遠，希望約鐵木真在燕京相見，于是在1220年三月寫了一份陳情表，在陳情表中，對鐵木真的評價是：「前者南京及宋國屢召不從，今者龍庭一呼即至，何也？伏聞皇帝天賜勇智，今古絕倫，道協威靈，華夷率服。是故便欲投山竄海，不忍相違；且當冒雪衝霜，圖其一見。」（南京指的是當時的金朝首都開封，1214年，金朝從中都遷都到南京開封府）

• 南宋使者趙珙，1221年出使大蒙古國，在燕京（原為金中都，1215年被蒙古軍隊攻取，1217年木華黎改名燕京，今北京市）見到主持進攻金朝的太師國王木華黎，回來後著有《蒙韃備錄》，書中的評價是：「今成吉思皇帝者，……。其人英勇果決，有度量，能容眾，敬天地，重信義。」

• 蒙古帝國伊兒汗國史學家志費尼《世界征服者史》的評價是：「倘若那善于運籌帷幄、料敵如神的亞歷山大活在成吉思汗時代，他會在使計用策方面當成吉思汗的學生，而且，在攻略城池的種種妙策中，他會發現，最好莫如盲目地跟成吉思汗走。」

• 明朝官修正史《元史》宋濂等的評價是：「帝深沉有大略，用兵如神，故能滅國四十，遂平西夏。其奇勳偉跡甚眾，惜乎當時史官不備，或多失于紀載云。」

• 明朝官修皇帝實錄《明太祖實錄》記載，洪武二十二年（1389年）五月，明太祖朱元璋給北元阿札失里大王的信中，對成吉思汗、元太宗窩闊台、元定宗貴由、元憲宗蒙哥、元世祖忽必烈這五位在一統天下中均作出重要貢獻的帝王的綜合評價如下：「覆載之間，生民之眾，天必擇君以主之，天之道福善禍淫，始古至今，無有僣差。人君能上奉天道，勤政不貳，則福祚無期，若怠政殃民，天必改擇焉。昔者，二百年前，華夷異統，勢分南北，奈何宋君失政，金主不仁，天擇元君起于草野，戡定朔方，撫有中夏，混一南北，逮其後嗣不君，于是天更元運，以付于朕。」

• 明朝官修皇帝實錄《明太祖實錄》記載，洪武二十二年（1389年）十二月，明太祖朱元璋給哈密國兀納失里大王的信中，對成吉思汗和元世祖忽必烈的評價如下：「昔中國大宋皇帝主天下三百一十餘年，後其子孫不能敬天愛民，故天生元朝太祖皇帝，起于漠北，凡達達、回回、諸番君長盡平定之，太祖之孫以仁德著稱，為世祖皇帝，混一天下，九夷八蠻、海外番國歸于一統，百年之間，其恩德孰不思慕，號令孰不畏懼，是時四方無虞，民康物阜。」

• 清朝史學家邵遠平《元史類編》的評價是：「冊曰：天造鴻圖，艱難開創；渾河啟源，角端呈像；芟夏蹙金，電掃莫抗；櫛沭廿年，驅指四將；止殺一言，皇猷彌廣。」

• 清朝史學家畢沅《續資治通鑑》的評價是：「太祖深沉有大略，用兵如神，故能滅國四十，遂平西夏。」

• 清朝史學家魏源《元史新編》的評價是：「帝深沉有大略，用兵如神，故能滅國四十，遂平夏克金，有中原三分之二。使舍其攻西域之力，以從事汴京，則不俟太宗而大業定矣。然兵行西海、北海萬里之外，崑崙、月竁重譯不至之區，皆馬足之所躪，如出入戶闥焉。天地解而雷雨作，鹍鵬運而溟海立，固鴻荒未闢之乾坤矣。」

• 清朝史學家曾廉《元書》的評價是：「論曰：太祖崛起三河之源，奄有漢代匈奴故地，而兼西域城郭諸國，朔方之雄盛未有及之者也。遺謀滅金，竟如其策，金亡而宋亦下矣，此非其略有大過人者乎？又明于求才，近則遼金，遠則西域，仇敵之裔，俘囚之虜，皆收為爪牙腹心，厥功爛焉，何其宏也，立賢無方，太祖有之矣。羽翼盛，斯其負風也大，子孫蒙業，遂一宇宙，不亦宜乎。」

• 民國史學家屠寄《蒙兀兒史記》的評價是：「論曰：舊史稱成吉思汗深沉有大度，用兵如神，故能滅國四十，遂平西夏，信然。獨惜軍鋒所至，屠劌生民如鹿豕，何其暴也。及至五星聚見東南，末命諄諄，始戒殺掠，豈所謂人之將死，其言善歟！蒙兀一代，並漠北四君數之，卜世十四，卜年蘄百六十，唐宋以降，享國曆數，為由蹙于是者。于戲，可以觀天道矣！」

• 民國官修正史《新元史》柯劭忞的評價是：「天下之勢，由分而合，雖阻山限海、異類殊俗，終門于統一。太祖龍興朔漠，踐夏戡金，蕩平西域，師行萬里，猶出入戶闥之內，三代而後未嘗有也。天將大九州而一中外，使太祖抉其藩、躪其途，以窮其兵力之所及，雖謂華夷之大同，肇于博爾濟錦氏，可也。」

• 現代文學家魯迅《朝花夕拾》：聽說「我們」的成吉思汗征服歐洲，是「我們」最闊氣的時代。到二十五歲，才知道所謂這「我們」最闊氣的時代，其實是蒙古人征服了中國，我們做了奴才……倒是俄人被奴的資格比我們老，應該他們說「我們的成吉思汗征服中國，是我們最闊氣的時代」的。

• 民國史學家張振佩《成吉思汗評傳》（1943年版）緒言部分的評價是：「成吉思汗之功業擴大人類之世界觀——促進中西文化之交流——創造民族新文化。」

• 台灣歷史學家、蒙藏委員會主任秘書劉學銚在《蒙古論叢》一書中，認為只有元太祖成吉思可汗、孫中山、蔣介石三人，才配稱為中華民族的民族英雄，並對元太祖的功績進行了高度評價：「成吉思可汗不僅奠定了後日中華民族的生存空間，還擴大了整個人類的視界，此外還在人類歷史上寫下了最艱難的而最榮耀的一頁——征服俄羅斯，他的豐功偉績，不但在我國曆史上是空前的，即在世界史上亦不作第二人想，尊之為民族英雄實是最恰當不過的。」

• 1939年，處于抗戰時期的中國共產黨對成吉思汗做出了高度評價。6月21日，成吉思汗靈柩西遷途中到達延安時，中共中央和各界人士二萬餘人夾道迎靈，並在延安十里舖搭設靈堂，舉行了盛大的祭祀活動。在此次祭祀儀式上，中共中央將成吉思汗正式尊稱為「世界巨人」、「世界英傑」，並首次提出「繼承成吉思汗精神堅持抗戰到底」的口號。延安十里舖靈堂兩側懸掛一幅對聯，靈堂正上方有一橫聯，內容如下：

橫聯：世界巨人

上聯：蒙漢兩大民族更親密地團結起來

下聯：繼承成吉思汗精神堅持抗戰到底

靈堂前面搭建一座牌樓，懸掛「恭迎成吉思汗靈柩」匾額。代表們將靈柩迎入靈堂後，舉行祭典。中共中央、毛澤東、周恩來、朱德等敬獻了花圈。由陝甘寧邊區政府秘書長曹力如代表黨政軍民學各界恭讀祭文：維中華民國二十八年六月二十一日，中國共產黨中央委員會代表謝覺哉、國民革命軍第八路軍代表滕代遠、陝甘寧邊區政府代表高自立，率延安黨政軍民學各界，謹以清酌庶饈之奠，致祭于聖武皇帝成吉思汗之靈曰：

• 1940年3月31日，中國共產黨在延安成立了「蒙古文化促進會」，4月，在延安建立了「成吉思汗紀念堂」和「蒙古文化陳列館」，敬立成吉思汗半身塑像，並由毛澤東題寫了「成吉思汗紀念堂」七個大字。在這裡每年農曆三月二十一日，也就是成吉思汗春季查幹蘇魯克大祭之日，延安各界舉行盛大的祭奠儀式，以蒙漢兩種語言誦讀成吉思汗祭文。1942年5月5日，蒙古文化促進會還編輯出版了《延安各界紀念成吉思汗專刊》。毛澤東和朱德分別為專刊題詞，內容如下：

• 毛澤東在1964年3月24日，在一次聽取匯報時的插話中對成吉思汗、漢高祖劉邦、明太祖朱元璋的治國能力評價如下：「可不要看不起老粗。」「知識分子是比較最沒有知識的，歷史上當皇帝的，有許多是知識分子，是沒有出息的：隋煬帝，就是一個會做文章、詩詞的人；陳後主、李後主，都是能詩善賦的人；宋徽宗，既能寫詩又能繪畫。一些老粗能辦大事：成吉思汗，是不識字的老粗；劉邦，也不認識幾個字，是老粗；朱元璋也不識字，是個放牛的。」

• 1941年十一月三日國民政府正式宣布對日本及德國、意大利宣戰前夕，蔣介石趕赴甘肅省榆中縣興隆山，對成吉思汗靈寢舉行了大祭。蒙藏委員會委員長吳中信代表國民政府恭讀祭文：維中華民國三十年十一月三日國防最高委員會委員長蔣中正，特派蒙藏委員會委員長吳中信，以馬羊帛酒香花之儀，致祭於成吉思汗之靈而昭告以文曰：

• 1957年三月十二日，蔣介石在在主持陸軍指揮參謀學校正×期開學典禮講——《軍事哲學對於一般將領的重要性》中，評價成吉思汗：「我在此還要舉出我們中國歷史中兩位最有名的勇將來作一對照，以供我們今日軍人的抉擇。這兩位勇將中的第一位，就是漢楚時代的項羽。第二位就是縱橫歐亞的成吉思汗。這二位英勇無比的名將，其平生戰績乃是眾所周知，無待詳述，可是其結果則完全不同。茲據其二人所製的歌詞的氣概與精神，就可想見膽力的強弱與事業的成敗了。當成吉思汗西征時的歌詞是：「上天與下地，俯伏嘯以齊，何物蠢小醜，而敢當馬蹄」。而項羽最後失敗時的歌詞則是：「力拔山兮氣蓋世，時不濟兮騅不逝，騅不逝兮可奈何，虞兮虞兮奈若何？」後來還有許多人評判項羽這首歌詞是悲歌慷慨，不失為英雄氣概；我以為項羽的歌詞充滿了「恐懼」「憤怒」「疑惑」的氣氛，毫無英勇鎮定與自信的心理，更沒有如克勞塞維茨所說：「在絕望中之奮鬥」的軍人精神。所以到了最後他只有在烏江自刎了事。我以為這種卑怯自殺，而不能抱定榮譽戰死的軍人，只可說是一個最無志氣的懦夫，那能配稱為勇將！故無論他過去有如何勇敢的史蹟，我們不僅不屑敬仰他，而且應在棄絕不齒之列。至於成吉思汗的這首歌詞，我認為是充滿了他自信、勇敢與鎮定的心理，誠不失為一首英勇壯烈的歌詞，正與項羽的歌詞語意完全相反，所以他成功亦自不同。因為他既有這樣一個戰勝一切的信心，自然不會再有恐懼憤怒與疑惑的心理了。所以成吉思汗，實為我們中國軍人所應該效法與崇敬的第一等模範英雄。」

• 中華民國總統馬英九在2009年4月16日（農曆三月二十一日）「二00九年中樞致祭成陵大典」中，特派蒙藏委員會委員長高思博主祭成吉思汗。祭壇上陳放有成吉思汗的畫像，擺放有鮮花、水果和糕點，點燃供燭。儀式遵循古禮。台北市國樂團演奏樂曲《萬壽無疆》。身穿長袍馬褂的高思博，依序向成吉思汗像獻香、獻花、獻爵（獻酒）、獻帛（獻哈達）。司儀宣讀祭文：「馬英九特派蒙藏委員會委員長高思博敬以香花清酌之儀致祭于成吉思汗之靈曰：『維汗休烈，雄才大略。天挺英明，龍興溯漠。……禮儀孔修，有芘其芳。神之格思，德音不忘。』」

• 馬英九在2010年5月4日（農曆三月二十一日）蒙藏委員會上午舉辦的「99年中樞祭成吉思汗大祭」典禮中，指派蒙藏委員會委員長高思博以香花清酌儀式祭拜成吉思汗。典禮安排向成吉思汗像獻花、獻香、獻爵（獻酒）、獻帛（獻哈達），並宣讀「中華民國總統祭文」，相關司祭者皆穿著蒙古傳統服飾，儀式遵循古禮，場面莊嚴隆重，馬英九在祭文中，肯定成吉思汗「雄才大略，天挺英明，拓土開疆，威震萬國。」

• 瑞典學者多桑在其《蒙古史》中對成吉思汗的一生總結分析，多桑認為為成吉思汗之成功乃由於其具有極強的貪慾以及非常之野心。多桑稱他「狂傲」地妄想征服世界，死前還囑咐其子孫完成他的事業。

• 英國學者萊穆在《全人類帝王成吉思汗》一書中說：「成吉思汗是比歐洲歷史舞台上所有的優秀人物更大規模的征服者。他不是通常尺度能夠衡量的人物。他所統率的軍隊的足跡不能以里數來計量，實際上只能以經緯度來衡量。」

• 印度總理尼赫魯在《怎樣對待世界歷史》一書中說：「蒙古人在戰場上取得如此偉大的勝利，這並不靠兵馬之眾多，而靠的是嚴謹的紀律、制度和可行的組織。也可以說，那些輝煌的成就來自于成吉思汗的指揮藝術。」

• 「卡內基全球生態研究部」：「歷史上『最環保的侵略者』。因為殺人無數，讓大片耕地恢復成為森林，讓大氣中的碳大幅減量達7億噸！」

• 美國西維吉尼亞大學的研究人員指出成吉思汗的成功恰逢當時1000年來最溫和、最潮濕的天氣，之前的1180-1190年間，蒙古曾經歷嚴重乾旱，之後的溫和濕潤氣候有助于青草的繁茂生長，為以騎兵為主的蒙古大軍的戰馬提供了豐富的飼料。

• 1999年12月的美國A+E電視網評選出過去千年影響最深遠的100大人物，成吉思汗被列為第22位（在亞洲人中僅次于第17位的甘地）。

紀年

根據《元史·太祖本紀》整理。

後世紀念

• 成吉思汗陵

• 成吉思汗國際機場

影視形象

電影

• 1956年《成吉思汗》，約翰韋恩飾

• 1986年中國電影《成吉思汗》，德力格爾飾

• 1997年中國電影《一代天驕成吉思汗》，原名《成吉思汗和他的母親》，塞夫·麥麗絲導演，塗門飾

• 2006年由德國、俄羅斯、哈薩克斯坦合作製作的電影《zh-cn:蒙古王; zh-tw:鐵木真：開天闢地; zh-hk:成吉思汗;》，淺野忠信飾

• 2006年由蒙古、日本合作製作的電影《成吉思汗 征服到地與海的盡頭》，反町隆史飾

• 2010年由蒙古、俄羅斯、哈薩克斯坦合作製作的電影《大漠雄鷹 成吉思汗》

• 2012年由中國、蒙古合作製作的電影《成吉思汗 十勇士傳奇》，巴森飾

• 2013年中國電影《止殺令》。全真教道長丘處機為了勸成吉思汗止殺東歸，不惜西行35000里前往西域會見成吉思汗勸其止殺的故事。塗門飾

• 2018年中國電影《戰神紀》以鐵木真及12世紀蒙古草原為元素的玄幻片，陳偉霆飾

電視劇

• 1976年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，凌漢飾

• 1983年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，秦沛飾

• 1987年香港無線電視劇集《成吉思汗》，萬梓良飾

• 1987年香港亞洲電視劇集《成吉思汗》，劉永飾

• 1988年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，李志堅飾

• 1994年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，劉江飾

• 1997年電視劇《一代天驕成吉思汗》，塗們飾

• 2000年電視劇《成吉思汗》，巴森、科爾沁畢少格、錫林滿達、達楞照日格飾

• 2002年由中國中央電視台製作，2004年播出中國電視劇《成吉思汗》，巴森飾

• 2003年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，巴森飾

• 2008年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，巴音飾

• 2013年由中國中央電視台製作，同年播出中國電視劇《建元風雲》，唐國強飾

• 2017年電視劇《射鵰英雄傳》，鄭斌輝飾

流行文化

電玩

• 微軟遊戲《世紀帝國II：帝王世紀》的第一場戰役中出現過

• 成為王者榮耀的射手英雄

金庸小說中的成吉思汗

在金庸武俠小說《射鵰英雄傳》的事蹟與史實相差不多，只是在攻打花剌子模都城撒馬爾罕的戰役上，絕大部份功勞都由習過《武穆遺書》的男主角郭靖盡佔（其中也受過女主角黃蓉暗中指點）。故事中的成吉思汗對郭靖甚為器重，更深愛其為人，即便最終理念不合而處於對立，成吉思汗心情上仍視其為己出，甚至在自己駕崩前仍要求見郭靖最後一面。在小說的結尾，他們甚至辯論何謂「英雄」，致鐵木真到死不斷自問這個疑問。 郭靖在成吉思汗駕崩後離開蒙古回到中原並與黃蓉成親並定居桃花島十餘載，直至蒙古正式侵南宋時才舉家遷至襄陽城禦敵，成為成吉思汗的後裔之大敵。

成吉思汗在本故事中還有一個由作者金庸虛構出來的女兒華箏（不過是以史實人物火臣別吉為原型），曾想將其許配給郭靖，於是封郭靖為「金刀駙馬」，但最後因各種原因導致郭靖與蒙古決裂並逃回中原，華箏並自行取消與郭靖的婚約。

注釋