Youth

Zhu Zhanji, the future Xuande Emperor, was the eldest son of the Hongxi Emperor (1378–1425; reigned from 1424) and Empress Zhang (1379–1442). He was born on 16 March 1399. At the time, Zhu Zhanji's parents lived in Beijing, northeast China, in the palace of his grandfather, Zhu Di, the later Yongle Emperor, who was then known as Prince of Yan. In the summer of 1399, Zhu Di rebelled against the Jianwen Emperor, defeated him in a three-year civil war, and became the third Ming emperor in 1402.

As a child, Zhu Zhanji was trained in both military skills and Confucian literature by Hanlin academics. He was a talented man of letters, but his physical prowess, in contrast to his father's frail health, made him excel in military disciplines. This impressed Yongle Emperor, who shared Zhu Zhanji's love for hunting and riding. Yongle allowed him to accompany him on hunting trips and military inspections. In 1414, the Yongle Emperor even took the young prince with him on a campaign against the Mongols. Later, as emperor, Zhu Zhanji personally participated in skirmishes with the Mongols on the northern border. During one of these battles, he demonstrated his skill with a bow by shooting several Mongol warriors.

In 1411, Zhu Zhanji was appointed as Huang Taisun (; literally 'imperial grandson-heir') while his father had been Huang Taizi (; literally 'crown prince') since 1404. Zhu Zhanji's education in Confucian teachings and ways of government was overseen by Grand Secretary Hu Guang. He also dedicated himself to studying military expeditions. In court intrigues, Zhu Zhanji consistently defended his father against his uncles Zhu Gaoxu and Zhu Gaosui, who were the younger sons of the Yongle Emperor. This earned him their resentment. They were also concerned about his decisiveness, popularity with Yongle, and close cooperation with the grand secretaries. They feared that their own positions would be threatened if Zhu Zhanji were to take over.

Beginning of reign

Accession

In August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died due to a stroke while returning from the fifth Mongol campaign in the Mongolian steppe. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, succeeded him as the new emperor of the Ming dynasty at the start of September. On 1 November 1424, the Hongxi Emperor named Zhu Zhanji as crown prince. In April 1425, he sent the prince to Nanjing to make preparations for the relocation of the capital from Beijing. However, the Hongxi Emperor's health deteriorated and he called the prince back, but died before his son could return.

On 27 June 1425, Zhu Zhanji officially ascended the imperial throne in Beijing, becoming the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty. He chose to cancel the move of the capital to Nanjing due to his familiarity with Beijing, where he grew up, and his shared concern with the Yongle Emperor for the security of the northern border. He adopted the era name Xuande, which means "proclamation of virtue".

Upon his accession, the new emperor's officials received him calmly, as he shared his father's idealistic conservative policies. He was not only a man of letters, but also a patron of the arts, and his reign was marked by significant cultural and political achievements. Despite his short temper, he was open to advice. As an emperor, he was conscientious and sought to balance the influence of various factions within the Ming elite–including civil officials, eunuchs, and generals. While he was capable of making strong decisions when necessary, he typically relied on the proposals of the grand secretaries and ministers when issuing imperial decrees. In contrast to his predecessors, he lived a life of luxury and debauchery, and upon his death, thousands of women were released from the palace.

Despite this, he successfully resolved major issues during the first two years of his reign, including his uncle's rebellion and the war in Jiaozhi. Under his rule, the northern border remained relatively stable and peaceful relations were maintained with neighboring states in Central, East, and Southeast Asia. This stability allowed for internal reforms to take place.

Zhu Gaoxu rebellion

The accession of the young emperor was challenged by his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu, but unlike the Yongle Emperor's usurpation, he was unsuccessful in his attempt. Zhu Gaoxu was favored by the Yongle Emperor due to his military prowess. He proved to be a capable and energetic commander during the civil war of 1399–1402, but his arrogance and contempt towards his older brother, the Hongxi Emperor, who was the Xuande Emperor's father, caused tension. Zhu Gaoxu became bitter when he was not named as a successor in 1404. His disobedience eventually led to his banishment to the backwater city of Le'an in Qingzhou prefecture, Shandong. Believing that he was the rightful heir to the throne in 1424, instead of his ailing older brother, he began plotting a coup after his brother's death. Shortly after the Xuande Emperor's ascension to the throne on 2 September 1425, he attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Yongle Emperor by rebelling against the emperor. He accused the Xuande Emperor of abusing his power by appointing individuals with noble titles to civil offices and appointing unworthy individuals. Underestimating his young nephew as a formidable opponent, he also failed to recognize the strength of the government, which had functioned effectively during the Yongle Emperor's extended absences on campaigns in Mongolia. Furthermore, he did not consider the significant decrease in the princes' influence that the Yongle Emperor had achieved. As a result, he was in a much weaker position than Yongle had been in 1399.

The emperor initially hesitated, but eventually succumbed to pressure from Grand Secretary Yang Rong and other advisors, ultimately taking personal command of the punitive expedition on 9 September. A vanguard of 20,000 soldiers, led by the experienced general Xue Lu (; 1358–1430), laid siege to Le'an on 21 September. Despite the defenders' refusal to surrender, the imperial army successfully captured the city the following day. Zhu Gaoxu was subsequently brought to Beijing, demoted to a common subject, and ultimately tortured to death. In addition, over 600 of his followers were executed, while another 2,200 were deported to the border. An investigation revealed that other relatives of the emperor, including the rebel's brother Zhu Gaosui, were also involved in the rebellion, but they were not punished in order to preserve the prestige of the imperial family.

Government

Grand secretaries, ministers, and eunuchs

The Xuande Emperor retained his father's advisers and ministers, but some offices underwent changes in their functions. The most significant reforms were made to the grand secretaries, who, during the Yongle Emperor's reign, only had an advisory role of reading the emperor's correspondence and drafting replies. During the reign of the Hongxi Emperor, they gained more influence and were now granted real executive power. This was formalized by granting ministerial titles to Yang Shiqi (minister of war), Huang Huai (minister of revenue), and Jin Youzi (minister of rites). Due to their long service to the state, they were highly respected and trusted by the emperor. Other close advisers to the emperor included Jian Yi (minister of personnel from 1402–1422 and 1423–1435) and Xia Yuanji (minister of revenue from 1402–1421 and 1424–1430). Even after the Xuande Emperor's death, the composition of the most influential officials and the grand secretaries remained unchanged. As a result, the top government was dominated by the same group of people from 1424 until the early 1440s.

The emperor established a process for routine and important decrees, in which proposals from various offices were reviewed and evaluated by the grand secretaries. These secretaries would then attach their recommendations for solving issues to the documents, which the emperor would typically approve and send to the relevant ministries for implementation. Significant government decisions were made during meetings between the emperor and the grand secretaries, during which the emperor would discuss and sign the drafts of his decrees. The ministers were responsible for carrying out these decrees. This system allowed for faster and more flexible decision-making, as the secretaries no longer needed to consult with the ministers beforehand.

At the same time, the influence of the eunuchs serving in the imperial palace and completely dependent on the emperor grew. During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor, the first Ming emperor, eunuchs were prohibited from communicating with government authorities. Even the Yongle Emperor maintained strict control over them. The Xuande Emperor, on the other hand, provided them with education and utilized them more in confidential correspondence. Despite opposition from officials, the eunuchs' business continued to thrive, benefiting the emperor's personal projects such as logging and shipbuilding. In situations where the emperor did not agree with the ideas of grand secretaries, he would use eunuchs to convey his orders to lower branches of the state administration. As the ministers did not question the emperor's orders, the eunuchs were able to give orders to the ministers on behalf of the sovereign without his knowledge. This abuse of power was a major concern for the Hongwu Emperor. The Xuande Emperor, however, maintained control over the eunuchs and was not afraid to execute them if they overstepped their boundaries. In the long run, this approach left room for eunuchs to exploit their power if a less assertive emperor was in power.

Censorate, provincial administration, and army

In terms of internal politics, the emperor focused on implementing reforms in the Censorate, local administration, and the army. His main goal was to bring discipline and order to the state administration. He also took a keen interest in prominent criminal cases and often ordered judgments to be reviewed, resulting in justice for thousands of innocent people. In August 1428, he replaced the long-standing head of the Censorate, Liu Quan, who had been in the position since 1415, with the honorable Gu Zuo. Within a few months, Gu Zuo dismissed 43 censors from the Beijing and Nanjing offices, and Liu Quan himself was punished for numerous abuses of power. The Censorate underwent a reorganization, with changes made to procedures and an increase in the powers of the censors. Additionally, commissioners were appointed to oversee military farms, large construction projects, and military training camps near Beijing, as well as to manage taxes in South Zhili. These taxes were collected in the form of products, mainly rice, which was crucial for the nutrition of the people of Beijing.

After the purge of 1428, the censors became more efficient and open. This was evident in their thorough checks of all branches of the state administration, including both civil and military sectors. In fact, over 240 officials were dismissed between 1424 and 1434, which was three times the number of dismissals in the previous decade. While officials and censors who abused their powers were punished, they were not executed.

During the reign of the Xuande Emperor, the regional administration saw a regular posting of grand coordinators (xunfu). These officials were responsible for coordinating the work of the three provincial offices—civil, military, and surveillance. This practice of having coordinators in the regional administration was not new, as previous emperors had also employed them. For example, the Hongwu Emperor had sent his crown prince, Zhu Biao, to "tour and pacify", while the Yongle Emperor had sent both the Hongxi and Xuande emperors to the provinces. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor even sent 26 high-ranking government officials to the provinces. The Xuande Emperor took this practice a step further by sending these officials on long-term assignments, rather than just once like his predecessors. For example, in September 1425, he sent two commissioners to South Zhili and Zhejiang, and in 1430, they were sent to Hunan, Shanxi, and Sichuan. They were also dispatched to Jiangxi and Shaanxi around 1426.

The role of grand coordinators was not an independent function, but rather a mandate imposed on high-ranking officials of the central authorities. Typically, these officials held the rank of deputy minister, particularly in the military, and later also held high positions in the Censorate. They also held the rank of (co-)superintendant of military affairs. This gave them the authority to oversee civil, military, and surveillance offices. The immediate result of implementing grand coordinators was the transfer of command over troops in the provinces to civilian hands. The system of grand coordinators reached its final form during the Zhengtong era (1436–1449), when they were assigned to all provinces except Fujian and six of the nine frontier garrisons on the northern border.

Considerable problems persisted in the army during this time period. Corrupt officers were known to bring in poor conscripts for campaigns, while allowing the wealthy to avoid service for a fee. These officers also embezzled the salaries of the soldiers and used them as personal servants. The supply of military farms was also a major issue, as it often dropped and made it difficult to properly equip the army. Additionally, capable officers had limited opportunities for advancement during times of peace, resulting in the army being led by individuals who inherited their positions without merit. These commanders, who had not experienced war themselves, often neglected to properly train their soldiers and instead used them for their own personal needs. This led to a decline in discipline, an increase in desertion, and a decrease in the overall strength of the army.

In an attempt to address these issues, inspection officials were appointed in 1427 to verify the condition and numbers of the army detachments and restore discipline, but their efforts were largely ineffective. The local military headquarters also came under the supervision of control authorities, but this did not have much impact either. In 1429, the emperor attempted to boost morale by holding a large military parade with guard units from the Beijing garrison and three training camps located around Beijing, but this did not have a significant impact on the morale of the army. The years of peace had led to a decline in the quality of training, and the emperor's leniency towards guilty officers only worsened the situation. The consequences of this decline in the army's strength were not fully realized until 1449, at the Battle of Tumu, when the Mongols were able to defeat the Ming army led by Emperor Yingzong and even take the emperor prisoner. This event highlighted the weakness of the Ming armies due to the prolonged period of peace.

Economic policy

Finance and currency

In the late 1420s, the Xuande Emperor's government faced significant financial challenges. The ongoing war in Jiaozhi drained a significant amount of resources, and the subsequent loss of mineral wealth further exacerbated the situation. The imposition of high taxes and levies placed an unbearable burden on the economy of wealthy regions in China, resulting in a decline in government revenue. For instance, Suzhou, the economic hub of China, was three years behind in paying its taxes by the late 1420s. Moreover, the profitability of silver and copper mines declined in the early 1430s. To address these difficulties, the government attempted to promote the use of paper money, reduce and reform taxes, and limit government spending.

The founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, established paper money, known as baochao banknotes, as the primary form of currency. For smaller transactions, copper coins were also used, which were circulated alongside state notes during the Yongle era. However, both the coins and the copper used to make them were in short supply. In contrast, the government printed large quantities of banknotes, causing their value to rapidly decrease. By 1425, baochao banknotes were only worth 2% of their nominal value. In an unsuccessful attempt to promote paper currency, the Hongxi Emperor, the predecessor of the Xuande Emperor, closed precious metal mines. However, the Xuande government allowed for a partial resumption of mining.

The Xuande Emperor and his advisers implemented various measures in an attempt to support the state's economy. One such measure was the pressure placed on the use of copper coins, which were seen as competition for paper money. As a result, copper coins were almost completely phased out of circulation. In addition, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji suggested a solution to combat the decline in the value of government banknotes by increasing business taxes and only accepting payment in government banknotes, but this approach did not yield the desired results. The government then shifted to a more cautious strategy, selling licenses to trade salt for state coins. This measure also failed to increase the value of state stamps. The government also introduced new trade fees and customs duties on the Grand Canal, which could only be paid in shillings, but these fees had a negative impact on trade. As a result, there was strong opposition to these fees and they were eventually abolished after a few years. Despite the government's efforts, these measures did not effectively support the state's economy. The value of paper money continued to decline. By the 1430s, banknotes were no longer in use and were only used to pay employees to a limited extent. They were also withdrawn as a mandatory form of payment for trade fees. Ultimately, these measures had little impact on the country's economy.

The widespread distrust of paper currency and the scarcity of coins resulted in a growing trade in silver. Despite the government's opposition to replacing copper coins and paper currency with silver, attempts to prohibit the use of silver in commercial transactions were unsuccessful, but silver alone was not enough to meet the demands of the market. It was primarily used for large payments and paying taxes, while copper coins remained the preferred currency for smaller transactions in cities.

In 1433, the Xuande government closed the mints, causing disruptions throughout the region from Japan to Java. This halt in coin production led to a surge in counterfeit coins and hoarding of precious metals. Despite the dissatisfaction of officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress the circulation of coins produced by private entrepreneurs, but they also did not make the decision to resume state production of coins. Towards the end of the Xuande era, the government began to tolerate the use of silver. In 1433, Governor of South Zhili Zhou Chen began to collect land taxes in silver in the most heavily burdened prefectures of Jiangnan.

Taxation in Jiangnan and the empire

One of the areas that the emperor focused on for reform was fiscal policy, particularly in Jiangnan. This region, which includes prefectures such as Suzhou, Hangzhou, Songjiang, Jiaxing, and Zhenjiang, contributed a significant portion of the empire's land tax, accounting for a quarter of the total amount (despite the Ming dynasty having almost 160 prefectures). In Suzhou Prefecture alone, even after a reduction in the tax rate in 1393, the land tax still made up almost a tenth of the empire's total tax quota, equivalent to 2.81 million dan of rice (with 1 dan being equivalent to 107.4 liters). Additionally, Songjiang Prefecture contributed 4.14% of the total tax quota.

During the Yongle Emperor's reign, the country saw a ten percent increase in land tax revenue, which was likely distributed evenly throughout the country. However, this increase in taxes proved to be too much for the peasants in Suzhou and Songjiang, leading to a growing number of tax arrears. As if this was not enough, natural disasters struck towards the end of Yongle's reign, causing even more peasants to abandon their land. By 1422–28, the amount of tax arrears had reached several million dan of rice annually. This posed a serious threat to the supply of Beijing, which relied on tax rice shipped from Jiangnan via the Grand Canal. In an effort to maintain a steady supply of rice, the government decided to reduce taxes and forgive a portion of the arrears. In August 1426, imperial commissioner Zhou Gan was tasked with investigating the situation on the ground. He proposed a plan to reduce taxes, eliminate corruption in tax collection, and improve local administration with the help of experts sent from headquarters, led by a special commissioner. While the reduction of taxes was supported by the great secretaries, the Ministry of Revenue was able to delay its implementation for four years. Finally, in May 1430, the relevant imperial decree was issued.

In October 1430, the emperor dispatched a group of high-ranking officials (zongdu) to oversee the collection of taxes. Among them was Zhou Chen, Left Vice Minister of Works, who was sent to South Zhili. Along with Kuang Zhong, the prefect of Suzhou since June 1430, they played a significant role in implementing tax reforms in Jiangnan. During their visit, they witnessed the aftermath of a large-scale migration from the region, with some areas losing up to ninety percent of their peasant population. As a result, the remaining households were burdened with the same total amount of taxes. To address this issue, Zhou Chen introduced five major measures:

• unified measures and weights to prevent collectors from cheating;

• in each county, warehouses were built to collect the tax rice; previously, it had been stored in barns by tax captains (landowners responsible for transporting rice from villages to designated locations, such as the capital);

• the government introduced a tax supplement designated for covering the costs of transportation along the Grand Canal to Beijing, thereby easing the burden on taxpayers who only transported rice to the canal, rather than all the way to Beijing;

• in each county, restored support granaries where surplus crops were stored in fertile years in case of famine;

• introduced the collection of a portion of taxes not in rice, but in silver and fabrics, which was beneficial for both taxpayers and the government, and in the southern regions of the empire, it promoted the monetization of the economy and the textile industry.

The emperor generally agreed with the proposals of Zhou Chen and Kuang Zhong, but the Ministry of Revenue blocked them. For example, it was not until 1433 that he received approval to reduce taxes in Suzhou by a quarter. However, other reforms in the same direction continued after 1436.

During natural disasters and epidemics, the Xuande government was known for its swift and effective response in aiding the population. Specially appointed commissioners oversaw the distribution of grain from government stocks, as well as implementing a 20–40% reduction in land taxes and forgiving other taxes for a period of one to two years. These actions were highly praised and recorded in the official history of the dynasty.

In comparison to previous reigns, land tax revenue during the Xuande era decreased to 30 million dan of rice, which was 8% less than during the Hongxi era and 5% less than during the Yongle era. The trend continued in the Zhengtong era (1436–1449) with a further reduction of 10–15%. By the end of the Ming dynasty, the land tax remained at 25–28 million dan. This reduction in expenses allowed the state to maintain a balanced budget during the Xuande era, a feat that was not always achieved in later eras.

Foreign policy

Jiaozhi/Đại Việt

During the early years of the Xuande Emperor's reign, a major issue that arose was the war in Jiaozhi Province, or Đại Việt under Ming rule (present-day northern Vietnam), which had been ongoing since 1408. In 1425, Ming troops, led by newly appointed commanders Li An and Chen Zhi, suffered multiple defeats at the hands of the Viets, led by Lê Lợi. In response, the emperor appointed a new commander, Wang Tong, and a new head of civil administration, minister Chen Qia, in May 1426. Seeking advice from his entourage, the emperor recalled the Hongwu Emperor's prohibition on invading Đại Việt (and other countries) and the Yongle Emperor's original goal of restoring the Trần dynasty. Ministers Jian Yi and Xia Yuanji advocated for using military force to suppress Viet resistance, while grand secretaries Yang Shiqi and Yang Yong suggested withdrawing from Jiaozhi, but due to conflicting opinions, the meeting ended without a resolution.

In the winter of 1426, the Ming army suffered heavy losses of 20,000–30,000 men due to Viet attacks. To counter this threat, the emperor issued orders in January 1427 for Mu Sheng, the commander of Yunnan troops, to gather an army in Yunnan and bring it to Jiaozhi. Additionally, General Liu Sheng was tasked with leading a second army from Guangxi. To oversee the civil administration of the province, the experienced Huang Fu was appointed (Huang Fu had previously administered Jiaozhi from 1407–1424). Meanwhile, Lê Lợi continued to expand his operations into the Red River Valley, posing a threat to Đông Quan, the capital of the province (present-day Hanoi). Despite this, the Ming garrison successfully defended against the attack on Đông Quan, but due to the incompetence of Wang Tong, the Ming forces failed to capitalize on their success, allowing the Viets to prepare for the arrival of reinforcements.

On 30 September 1427, Liu Sheng's army reached the border, where Lê Lợi unexpectedly proposed handing over power to Trần Cảo, a descendant of the Trần dynasty. This proposal was made under the condition that Trần Cảo would rule under Chinese suzerainty. However, Lê Lợi had ulterior motives and immediately lured Liu Sheng's army into a trap, resulting in a crushing defeat. The Chinese army suffered heavy losses, with approximately 70,000 men killed. In the aftermath of this disaster, Wang Tong, without the emperor's knowledge, accepted Lê Lợi's proposal and began withdrawing troops from Jiaozhi on 12 November. Meanwhile, Mu Sheng had reached the upper reaches of the Red River and began constructing ships to advance downstream, but upon learning of Wang Tong's withdrawal, Mu Sheng retreated back to China.

On 16 November 1427, the Xuande Emperor was informed of Lê Lợi's offer. Despite divided opinions from his advisers, the emperor quickly made the decision to accept the proposal on 20 November. A delegation was immediately sent to Jiaozhi to negotiate the details. This move was seen as a surrender by the Ming after their defeat in battle, solidifying Lê Lợi's prestige. Lê Lợi informed the negotiators that Trần Cảo had died, another member of the Trần family was no longer alive, and they should recognize him as the king. He also refused to repatriate Chinese prisoners and officials. The Xuande Emperor, however, refused to recognize Lê Lợi as the ruler of Đại Việt and demanded the return of the Trần dynasty. It was not until 1431, when Lê Lợi sent a humble letter, that the Xuande Emperor appointed him as "administrator of the affairs of the state of Annan" (Annan being the Chinese name for Đại Việt). Lê Lợi's son was officially recognized and given a royal title by the Beijing government in November 1436, after the Xuande Emperor's death.

The Ming's withdrawal from Jiaozhi was a blow to their pride and prestige, but it also provided much-needed financial relief. For the Viets, it was a significant victory that left a lasting impact on their culture and state. The two decades of Ming rule and education had a transformative effect on Đại Việt. The long-term warfare also resulted in a strong and efficient Viet army, which would later be challenged by Champa, located further south.

Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean

Envoys from Southeast Asian countries, such as Champa, Java, Ayutthaya, and Sumatra, regularly visited Beijing, but there were no envoys from the Indian Ocean coast. The ban on unauthorized trade and overseas travel by subjects was still in place, but it was not effectively enforced.

Government officials strongly opposed long-distance voyages and influenced the emperor to cancel a shipbuilding program in 1429, led by the emperor's eunuchs. A few months later, after the death of a leading opponent of the voyages, Xia Yuanji, the emperor changed his mind. The last of Zheng He's great expeditions took place in 1430–33, possibly to restore the empire's prestige after their retreat from Jiaozhi. Zheng He brought envoys from Sri Lanka, Cochin, Calicut, Hormuz, Aden, the East African coast, and other countries to China, which pleased the emperor.

After the death of the Xuande Emperor, the Ming did not undertake any further long-distance expeditions. These expeditions were only supported by the palace eunuchs, as the Confucian officials were strongly opposed to them. With the opening of the Grand Canal, the need to transport rice by sea to the north disappeared, leading officials to view naval expeditions as expensive and unnecessary imperial ventures. This decision had long-term negative consequences, as it weakened the morale and strength of the Ming fleet, leaving them later unable to effectively deal with the wokou pirates. Additionally, it also had a negative impact on China's influence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. As a result, the end of the early Ming period marked the end of the three-hundred-year China's dominance in the East Asian seas.

Mongolia

During the Xuande era, there was relative calm on the northern border. The Jurchens, who lived in present-day Manchuria, acknowledged Ming sovereignty and did not oppose the expeditions led by eunuch Yishiha. These expeditions even reached the mouth of the Amur River. The Eastern Mongols were ruled by Arughtai, while the Western Mongolian Oirats were led by Toghon. However, Arughtai was not recognized by the Uriankhai Mongols in the southeast of Mongolia. As a result, he maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty and engaged in trade, exchanging horses for silk and tea.

In October 1428, the Uriankhaians were known to occasionally raid the borderlands, but during an inspection in which the emperor was accompanied by 3,000 soldiers, they were successfully driven away. By May 1430, the Chinese had fortified cities along the border between China and the steppe (along the later Great Wall of China) south of Kaiping (formerly the Yuan capital of Shangdu and the last Ming garrison in the steppe) and then withdrew from it. This shortened the border, providing relief to exhausted troops, but was later criticized by historians. This shift in the border to the south and the loss of a base in the steppe made it much more challenging for the Chinese to conduct raids against the Mongols.

The Ming government had hoped that the Eastern Mongols would be able to defeat the Oirats, but the Oirats proved to be stronger and launched repeated attacks against the Eastern Mongols. In September 1434, the Oirats were successful in defeating and killing Arughtai, and Toghon maintained good relations with the Ming government, a relationship that has continued since then.

Japan and Korea

The Xuande Emperor made repeated attempts to establish relations with Japan, but shogun Yoshimochi (shōgun 1394–1425, effectively ruled 1408–1428) adamantly refused any communication. However, his successor Yoshinori (reigned 1429–1441) was very interested in trade with China. In 1432, using the mediation of the king of the Ryukyu Islands, Ming envoys arrived at the shogun's court. The first Japanese delegation arrived in China in June 1433, bringing with them horses, armor, swords, and other goods. They also brought 2.6 tons of copper. The Ming government paid for these goods with banknotes (baochao), which the Japanese immediately exchanged for silk (one-fifth) and copper coins (the rest).

The Ming authorities only accepted Japanese traders at the port of Ningbo. After 1433, Japanese delegations arriving in China were primarily composed of agents of daimyos, monasteries, and temples who were eager to access the Chinese market. Along with luxury goods, they were particularly interested in Chinese copper coins. This trade proved to be highly profitable for the Japanese, leading to a lasting relationship between the two countries until 1529. However, there were frequent disputes over the valuation of Japanese goods and the Ming government often complained about the Japanese government's inability to control piracy. Despite this, the shoguns were unable to effectively intervene against the pirates due to a lack of resources.

Relations with Korea were generally peaceful, with regular delegations traveling between the two capitals. According to Chinese records, the emperor often requested horses from the Koreans, while also asking them not to send gold, silver, or other unusual gifts that were not produced in their country. Additionally, the emperor rejected a request to admit Korean students to the Imperial University in Beijing, instead donating a collection of Confucian classics and historical literature to Korea as a replacement. While the official Chinese description of the relationship emphasizes mutual respect, Korean records highlight the emperor's personal motives for his requests—including a desire for women (after the emperor's death, the Ming government allowed fifty-three Korean women to return to their homeland), falcons, hunting dogs, tigers, cooks, and eunuchs.

The emperor as an artist

The Xuande Emperor was an ideal combination of the virtues of a Chinese warrior and scholar. He was a talented artist and poet, and often found more enjoyment in art and leisure than in his duties as ruler. He was known for his skill in calligraphy, poetry, writing, and painting. He painted landscapes, figures, "grass and insects", and particularly enjoyed the genre of "flowers and birds". He was especially skilled in depicting animals, particularly dogs. He drew inspiration from the techniques and styles of literati painters of his time, particularly Xia Chang. He typically used ink without the use of colors, choosing subjects with symbolic and allegorical meanings. He was considered the best painter among Chinese emperors since Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1126).

Some of his works are held by prestigious institutions such as the National Palace Museum in Taipei, the Palace Museum in Beijing, and formerly in the Arthur M. Sackler Museum (a division of Harvard Art Museum) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2007, Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese Art Collections at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as "the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest". The Dutch orientalist Robert van Gulik (1910–1967) praised one of the Xuande Emperor's paintings, Gibbons at play, as "skilfully painted" although "not a beautiful work". The vibrant paintings suggest that the emperor painted from real animals, likely kept in the palace gardens.

Not only did the emperor engage with art, but he also actively supported and influenced artistic trends of his time. He personally evaluated the works of painters applying for court positions and aimed to elevate court painting to the level of the peak of Song era culture in the early 12th century. He also financially supported several calligraphers and painters, such as Shang Xi, by appointing them as officers of the Imperial Guard. His reign is also renowned for its exceptional craftsmanship in bronzes and porcelain, particularly the famous Jingdezhen blue and white.

File:Zhu-Zhanji-Gibbons-at-Play.jpg|Gibbons at play (; 1427), National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan

File:Zhu Zhanji-Mouse and Stone.jpg|Mouse and Stone (; 1427), The Palace Museum, Beijing

File:Xuande-salukis-092x0507 01lg.jpg|Two Saluki Hounds (; 1427), Harvard Art Museum, United States

File:明 朱瞻基 三阳开泰轴.jpg|Three Yang Goats, an Auspicious Start (to the New Year) (; 1429), National Palace Museum

File:明 朱瞻基 御临黄筌花鸟卷.jpg| National Palace Museum

File:Xuande Bamboo.jpg|Marquis Wu in Repose, The Palace Museum

Death and succession

In the autumn and winter of 1434, the emperor led a military detachment on a tour of the northern border, but upon returning to Beijing, he fell ill. He was sick for almost two months, until he suddenly died on 31 January 1435. He died in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City. He was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhang (; 'Distinguished Emperor') and the temple name Xuanzong (; 'Penetrating Ancestor'). He was buried in the Jing Mausoleum in the Ming tombs near Beijing. He left behind two sons and two daughters, with one daughter died in infancy.

The Xuande Emperor's successor was his elder son, Zhu Qizhen, who had been created crown prince in May 1428. He became emperor at the age of eight. However, the rules established by the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty, did not anticipate the accession of a child emperor, making it impossible to appoint a regent to govern the country in place of a minor monarch. As a result, the Xuande Emperor's decision was to have senior officials consult on government matters with the emperor's grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively ruled the empire. Through her cooperation with the grand secretaries, state policy remained consistent until the early 1440s.

Legacy

The Xuande Emperor was a capable, active, and skilled emperor. Some civil officials criticized his indulgence in frequently sending eunuchs to the southern provinces seeking entertainers and virgins for his harem, and his entrusting greater authority to eunuchs— which caused problems for his successors. He saw himself as a warrior and, like the Yongle Emperor, personally led military campaigns, but his actions were relatively small (such as suppressing his uncle's rebellion) or insignificant (such as clashes with the Mongols on the northern border). The Xuande Emperor was the last Ming emperor to actively participate in governing the state and remained impartial towards the various groups that made up the ruling elite. He relied on civil officials, but also frequently utilized eunuchs and military commanders. In contrast, later Ming emperors abandoned their role as stabilizing figures and instead indulged in palace pleasures, leaving the reins of government in the hands of officials who were often divided into rival factions or, more commonly, palace eunuchs. As a result, subsequent generations of officials viewed the Xuande era as a golden age of ideal governance, in contrast to the factional conflicts and institutional decay of their own time.

The Xuande Emperor's reign is widely regarded by historians as the high point of the Ming era, characterized by stability and peace. This was a stark contrast to the harsh administrative purges of the Hongwu era and the civil war of the Jianwen era. Capable and often long-serving ministers and officials, under the leadership of the "Three Yangs" (Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu), governed the country with a level of continuity and reliability unique to the Ming era, in accordance with the Confucian ideals of wise ministerial rule led by a capable ruler. The government also made efforts to improve the lives of its people, gave up expansion in Đại Việt, and implemented administrative reforms. While the emperor may have been harsh towards officials and lenient towards high-ranking officers, this did not significantly impact the overall character of the government.

The rebellion of the emperor's uncle confirmed to the emperor and officials that the decision to remove members of the imperial family from any influence on the military was the right one. The failure of the war in Jiaozhi and the subsequent defeat in Tumu were constant arguments used by officials against military adventures, which could potentially return power to the hands of the generals and disrupt the establishment of the Ming dynasty's dominance in government. The Ming dynasty's originally diverse elites, including generals, members of the imperial family, Confucian officials, and eunuchs, saw the first two groups lose their influence on the governance of the country. During the Xuande era, Confucian officials gained supremacy over the other groups and maintained it until the end of the Ming dynasty, marking the end of the early Ming period in the 1430s. Despite the significant increase in population and economy, the Ming military and political institutions remained relatively unchanged until the end of the dynasty.

Family

Consorts and issue

• Empress Gongrangzhang, of the Hu clan (; 20 May 1402 – 5 December 1443), personal name Shanxiang

　• Princess Shunde (; 1420–1443), first daughter

　　• Married Shi Jing (; 9 January 1420 – 17 October 1479) in 1437

　• Princess Yongqing (; d. 1433), second daughter

• Empress Xiaogongzhang, of the Sun clan (; 1399 – 26 September 1462)

　• Princess Changde (; 1424–1470), third daughter

　　• Married Xue Huan in 1440

　• Zhu Qizhen, Emperor Yingzong (; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), first son

• Consort Rongsixian, of the Wu clan (; 1397 – 16 January 1462)

　• Zhu Qiyu, the Jingtai Emperor (; 21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), second son

• Noble Consort Duanjing, of the He clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Chunjingxian, of the Zhao clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Zhenshunhui, of the Wu clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Zhuangjingshu, of the Jiao clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Zhuangshunjing, of the Cao clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Zhenhuishun, of the Xu clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Gongdingli, of the Yuan clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Zhenjinggong, of the Zhu clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Gongshunchong, of the Li clan (; d. 1435)

• Consort Suxicheng, of the He clan (; d. 1435)

• Concubine Zhen'ai, of the Guo clan (; d. 1435), personal name Ai

生平

早年

生於北京，出生時恰因祖父明成祖夢見明太祖托夢醒來，因出生外表奇偉非凡，且與夢中所見相同，受明成祖特別重視，交由祖母仁孝皇后悉心撫養。明成祖時，朱瞻基父親朱高熾（仁宗）為太子，生性仁厚端重，但有時不免失之於懦怯。成祖最喜愛次子漢王朱高煦，覺得漢王最像自己，有心廢太子立漢王，但徐皇后和大臣們一直勸退成祖。又因朱瞻基自幼聰慧好學，與生母張氏皆深得成祖的喜愛，因此最終才沒有讓太子被廢，並對朱瞻基悉心栽培。永樂九年（1411年）十一月立為皇太孫，數度隨成祖征討。永樂二十二年（1424年）明成祖駕崩，仁宗即位，十月，朱瞻基被立為皇太子。洪熙元年（1425年）四月，因南京地震多發，奉旨前往居守；同年五月仁宗駕崩；六月，太子朱瞻基從南京赴北京奔喪，漢王朱高煦欲在途中埋伏部隊阻攔太子，因計劃過於匆忙而沒有成功。同月朱瞻基即位，是為宣宗，改明年號為宣德。

內政

明宣宗在位十年，重點在治理內政方面。宣德元年（1426年）平定漢王朱高煦之亂，宣宗原先只將他禁錮，仍前往探視，卻被朱高煦使腿將其絆倒，宣宗一怒，將朱高煦用鼎扣住，燒烤至死，諸子全部處死。為了休兵養民，宣宗一改永樂時期的討伐政策，主動從交阯撤兵。

宣宗整頓統治機構，罷免「貪津不律」、「不達政體」、「年老體疾」的官員，實行精簡和裁冗措施，以振朝風。而在用人方面限制入仕人數，實行保舉和欠任。宣宗實行一些減輕民困的措施，減免稅糧、複業流民、賑災救荒等。宣德三年出塞，並修建永寧、隆慶諸城。

在宦官問題上，因明代初期宦官多由藩屬國進貢或沒入各地罪犯家屬，在語言溝通上發生很大問題，言不同語只好以書同文來解決，宣德元年（1426年），明宣宗下令設置內書堂，教導宦官們讀書。不過，明太祖苦心謀劃的女官制度雖經成祖時期略加破壞，在此時仍發揮其防制閹黨之禍的功用，可是宣宗下令容許教導宦官讀書一舉，無意中卻開啟了明代宦官幹政之先兆，尤其在明神宗後，因氣候變遷造成北方官話區大量貧困百姓自宮入朝廷謀職，萬曆至崇禎（1573－1644年）這71年間自宮入廷的閹宦總計高達三萬人，使得教導宦官成為明朝覆滅的其中原因，也是最受後世批評之處。不過與唐朝相比，明代皇帝極權之盛，使終明朝皇帝亦不至受宦官控制，一般而言亦只是通過宦官來處理政務及制約大臣的權力。

第七次下西洋

宣德五年（1431年1月），宣宗以外番多不來朝貢為由，命令鄭和再次出航。返航期間，鄭和因勞累過度於宣德八年（1433年）四月初在印度西海岸古里去世。船隊由太監王景弘率領返航，宣德八年七月初六（1433年7月22日）返回南京。第七次下西洋人數據載有27550人。這也是最後一次下西洋。

駕崩

宣德九年（1434年）臘月廿一日，皇帝突感不適。次日起，群臣即至左順門詣問聖安。當年除夕也是立春，按禮制，群臣應向皇帝舉行賀禮，但皇帝已無法接受朝賀。

宣德十年（1435年）正月初一的正旦賀禮一併宣布免去，同時命百官至文華殿朝賀皇太子朱祁鎮。初三，皇帝崩于乾清宮，時年37歲。初五，上謚號憲天崇道英明神聖欽文昭武寬仁純孝章皇帝。廟號宣宗。宣德十年六月廿一日，梓宮葬入景陵。

為政舉措

政治

宣宗廢后

在孫貴妃生下皇子朱祁鎮後暗示胡皇后，讓她以有病為由辭掉皇后之位。朱瞻基由此廢了胡氏而改立孫氏為皇后，胡氏居住別宮。

後面宣宗在駕崩前曾嘆年少輕狂，自己不應該輕率廢后。

任用官員

內閣

• 楊士奇

• 楊榮

• 金幼孜

• 黃淮

• 陳山

• 張瑛

• 楊溥

• 權謹

宦官

• 金英：司禮太監，曾獲丹書鐵券（免死詔）。

• 范弘：累遷司禮太監，與金英一起獲丹書鐵券（免死詔）。

• 王瑾：宣宗為皇太孫時，朝夕給事。曾受賜銀記曰「忠肝義膽」等。倍受寵信。

外交

安南人黎利反叛，屢次打敗官軍。黎利請示朝廷，請求重新立陳氏之後為安南國王。朱瞻基認為國中疲憊，遠征無益，于是答應了他，冊封陳暠為安南國王，罷征南兵。後來黎利篡奪陳暠之位而自立為王。派人入朝納貢謝罪，請求皇帝冊封群臣。有人請求皇帝討伐黎利，朱瞻基不許，冊封黎利為安南國王。安南國也就是交趾國，自此以後朝貢不絕。

軍事

朱瞻基擔心秋高馬肥時蒙古人侵犯邊疆，于是整頓兵馬，駐紮喜峰口以待敵軍。宣德三年，守將奏報兀良哈率領萬名鐵騎騷擾邊疆，朱瞻基精選鐵騎兵三千飛奔前往。敵軍望見遠處來軍，以為是戍守邊疆之兵，即以全軍來迎戰。朱瞻基命令將鐵騎分為兩路夾攻敵軍，並且親自射殺敵軍先鋒，殺死三人。兩翼飛矢如雲，敵人不敢前進。繼而，朱瞻基又命連續發射神機銃，敵軍人馬死傷大半，剩下的全部潰逃。朱瞻基用數百鐵騎直驅前行，敵人看到黃龍旗，才知道是皇帝親征，于是全部下馬拜倒在地請降，朱瞻基將這些人捆縛抓獲，大勝而歸。

遺詔

遺言

遺詔

人物評價

《明史》讚譽宣宗：「仁宗為太子，失愛于成祖。其危而複安，太孫蓋有力焉。即位以後，吏稱其職，政得其平，綱紀修明，倉庾充羨，閭閻樂業。歲不能災。蓋明興至是歷年六十，民氣漸舒，蒸然有治平之象矣。若乃強藩猝起，旋即削平，掃蕩邊塵，狡寇震懾，帝之英姿睿略，庶幾克繩祖武者歟。」

《明史紀事本末》：「方宣宗之即位也，法祖重農，賑荒懲貪。文事則經史在御，武備則車駕待邊。又且卻騶虞之祥，禁白烏之瑞。《豳圖織婦》，訓誥同風。《招隱猗蘭》，四詩媲美。凡此皆善政也。而棄交趾於荒外，廢胡後於長門，繫陳祚於犴狴。毋亦稽中之德，大醇小疵，克終之規，百里九十耶？此則宣宗之失也。雖然，創業固難，守成匪易。仁、宣之治，非高、成不開；而高、成之政，非仁、宣不粹也。嘗考仁宗一祀不永，而繼以宣之濟美，則久道化成。宣宗十載未多，而溯於仁之監國，則重熙累洽。故原其初造，則仁危於宣，席其已安，則宣光於仁。劉緒纘於元嘉，宋治盛於慶歷。王道無旦夕之效，禮樂必百年而興。嗚呼！此其時哉。」

《國榷》：「談遷曰：國初嚴御，每重囚歲械入京輒千百，簿尉巡檄之任，輒煩聖慮，蓋詳極矣。宣宗幼侍文皇帝出入塞垣，深諳民事。及即位，遽有樂安之駕，非素才武，疇克滅此而朝食也者？然兵不輕試，惓惓以生靈為念。水旱朝奏，賑貸午曁。親閱囚牘，多所釋遣。好文學之士，一才一技，皆被甄錄。蓋睿質天縱，文翰並美，而不矜其能，嘗有自下之色。國家之治，寬嚴有制，煩簡有則，帝實始之。而於廢胡後,棄南交,孰為帝諒者？嗚呼！廢后非盛德事也，其棄南交，比於漢之朱崖矣。」

《名山藏》：「高皇帝承胡元縱弛之弊，宏振威武以儆天下，成祖以英達之資纘緒大服，海內竦然，振厲者五十餘年。昭皇帝（明仁宗）至德深仁不久於位，章帝（明宣宗）繼之，乃涵濡以醇懿陶埴，以德義聞四方。」

《朝鮮文宗實錄》：上（朝鮮文宗）謂代言等曰：「尹鳳率爾告予曰：『洪熙皇帝（明仁宗）及今皇帝（明宣宗），皆好戲事。洪熙嘗聞安南叛，終夜不寐甚無膽氣之主也。』」知申事鄭欽之對曰：「尹鳳謂予曰：『洪熙沈于酒色，聽政無時，百官莫知早暮。今皇帝燕于宮中，長作雜戲。永樂皇帝（明成祖），雖有失節之事，然勤於聽政，有威可畏。』鳳常慕太宗皇帝（明成祖），意以今皇帝為不足矣。」上曰：「人主興居無節，豈美事乎？」

個人愛好

宣德皇帝既是一個有較高文化素養的皇帝，但亦又是一個喜歡射獵、美食、鬥促織（蟋蟀）的皇帝。多位大臣皆因勸諫宣宗多讀書、少玩樂而被下獄。宣宗的愛好勞民傷財以至于害民傷命。《聊齋誌異》裡的名篇《促織》裡的皇帝正是明宣宗，人稱「促織天子」，吳偉業有《明宣宗御用戧金蟋蟀盆歌》。歷史學家黃仁宇認為，宣德皇帝的藝術天才即便未超過宋徽宗趙佶，至少也可與之相提並論。

File:Zhu-Zhanji-Gibbons-at-Play.jpg|明宣宗《戲猿圖》軸（1427年）。

File:明 朱瞻基 三陽開泰軸.jpg|《三陽開泰》軸 。

File:明 朱瞻基 御臨黃筌花鳥卷.jpg|《御臨黃筌花鳥》卷。

File:Xuande-Hunting.jpg|《明宣宗射獵圖》軸。

File:Ming dynasty Xuande mark and period (1426–35) imperial blue and white vase, from The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 明宣德 景德鎮窯青花貫耳瓶, 紐約大都博物館 .jpg|明宣德帝景德鎮窯青花貫耳瓶，紐約大都會藝術博物館

家族成員

后妃

• 恭讓章皇后胡善祥，元配，無過被廢，英宗追復其位號。

• 孝恭章皇后孫氏，原妾室，貴妃，英宗母（一說養母）。

• 榮思賢妃吳氏，代宗母，本為賢妃，代宗時尊為皇太后，英宗複位降為皇考賢妃，謚為榮思賢妃，安宗追復其位號。

• 貞哀國嬪郭愛，賢而有文學名氣。宣德三年，郭愛因才被明宣宗選入後宮，但此刻郭愛已經病重，自知不起，便在進宮之前寫下著名的《京邸病革自哀》，用詞哀切，作詞曰：「修短有數兮，不足較也。生而如夢兮，死則覺也。先吾親而歸兮，慚予之失孝也。心淒淒而不能已兮，是則可悼也。」《明史·后妃列傳·后妃一》對郭愛評價甚高，稱「賢而有文」。如她所料，郭愛進宮後二十天就病逝，年僅二十九歲。明宣宗追封為國嬪，謚貞哀。

1435年明宣宗死後殺害多人用以殉葬，殉葬者如下（明朝朝廷追封各死者為「妃」）：

• 端靜貴妃何氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 純靜賢妃趙氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 貞順惠妃吳氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 莊靜淑妃焦氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 莊順敬妃曹氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 貞惠順妃徐氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 恭定麗妃袁氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 貞靜恭妃諸氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 恭順充妃李氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 肅僖成妃何氏，遭殺害殉葬。

• 淑妃劉氏，潛邸舊妾，後事不祥（疑為左都督劉謙孫女，實錄載劉謙孫女受封為岳陽王妃《江南通志》）。

子女

皇子

• 朱祁鎮，長子，明英宗睿皇帝，母孝恭章皇后孫氏（註：明史后妃傳上自相矛盾記載其生母是位宮人。但近有研究稱，這一敘述不可靠）。

• 朱祁鈺，次子，明代宗景皇帝，母賢妃吳氏。

皇女

• 順德公主，母恭讓章皇后胡氏。正統二年下嫁石璟。

• 永清公主，母恭讓章皇后胡氏。《明實錄》記載她于宣德八年去世，年十餘歲，尚未結婚。

• 常德公主，母孝恭章皇后孫氏。正統五年下嫁薛桓。成化六年薨。

紀念影視作品

電影

以下列出曾飾演「明宣宗」的演員，以及劇中演出「明宣宗」的電影：

電視劇

以下列出曾飾演「明宣宗」的演員，以及劇中有「明宣宗」故事情節的電視劇：

延伸閱讀