Early life

Tuoba Tao was born in 408, while his father Tuoba Si was still the Prince of Qi under his grandfather, Emperor Daowu, without having officially been made crown prince but was the heir presumptive, as the oldest and most favored son of Emperor Daowu. (Tuoba Tao's mother was later referred to in history as Consort Du (杜貴嬪), but was likely actually named Duguhun, as by the time that Wei Shu (the official history of Northern Wei) was written, the Duguhuns had their name changed to Du by Emperor Xiaowen.) He was Tuoba Si's oldest son. After Tuoba Si became emperor in 409 (as Emperor Mingyuan) following Emperor Daowu's assassination by his son Tuoba Shao (拓拔紹) the Prince of Qinghe, Tuoba Tao was assumed to be the eventual heir, but not given that title for a while. In Tuoba Tao's childhood, he was given the nickname Foli. In 420, Consort Du died, and he was thereafter raised by his wet nurse Lady Dou.

In 422, Emperor Mingyuan created Tuoba Tao the Prince of Taiping. Later that year, when he suffered a major illness, at Cui Hao's suggestion, he not only created Tuoba Tao crown prince, but further had Crown Prince Tao take the throne to serve as the secondary emperor. He commissioned his key advisors Baba Song (拔拔嵩), Cui, Daxi Jin (達奚斤), Anchi Tong (安遲同), Qiumuling Guan (丘穆陵觀), and Qiudun Dui (丘敦堆) to serve as the Crown Prince's advisor. From this point on, most matters, particularly domestic matters, were ruled on by Crown Prince Tao, while Emperor Mingyuan himself only ruled on important matters. Later that year, when Emperor Mingyuan led a major attack on rival Liu Song, Tuoba Tao headed north to guard against a possible Rouran attack.

In 423, soon after capturing most of modern Henan from Liu Song, Emperor Mingyuan died. Tuoba Tao succeeded to the throne as Emperor Taiwu.

Early reign

Almost immediately after Emperor Taiwu took the throne, Rouran attacked after its Mouhanheshenggai Khan, Yujiulü Datan heard about Emperor Mingyuan's death. Emperor Taiwu engaged Rouran troops, and on the very first engagement became surrounded by Rouran troops, but he fought his way out of danger, and subsequently, he made nearly yearly attacks against Rouran, and each year, Rouran forces would elude him by retreating north, only to return south after he withdrew. Meanwhile, in 425, he reestablished peaceful relations with Liu Song. He also, in an action that later became a Northern Wei tradition, honored his wet nurse Lady Dou as "nurse empress dowager".

Also, soon after he took the throne, Emperor Taiwu became a devout Taoist. It was around this time that the Taoist Kou Qianzhi became famed, and Cui Hao became Kou's follower and often praised Kou before Emperor Taiwu. Emperor Taiwu was pleased by prophecies that Kou was making, which implied that he was divine in origin, and he officially endorsed Kou's proselytization of his state.

In 426, Emperor Taiwu began to look for a target to make a concentrated attack—asking his officials for their opinions on whom to attack between Xia and Rouran, and his officials were divided in their opinions, and some proposed yet another third target, Northern Yan, although after the death of the Xia emperor Helian Bobo later that year, he settled on making Xia his target. When Baba Song opposed this, Emperor Taiwu showed his fierce temper by having his guards pound Baba's head on the floor, but he also showed how quickly that temper went away by not demoting Baba. He then sent Daxi Jin to attack Puban (蒲阪, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi) and Pu Ji (普幾) to attack Shancheng (陝城, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan), while himself making a fast, cavalry-based attack on the Xia's heavily fortified capital Tongwan (統萬, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi). Catching the Xia emperor Helian Chang by surprise, the Northern Wei troops intruded into Tongwan before withdrawing with much loot, while in the south, Helian Chang's generals Helian Yidou (赫連乙斗) and Helian Zhuxing (赫連助興) abandoned not only Puban, but also Chang'an, allowing Daxi to occupy the Guanzhong region. In spring 427, Helian Chang sent his brother Helian Ding south to try to recapture Chang'an, but Helian Ding's forces became stalemated with Daxi's. In response, Emperor Taiwu made another attack on Tongwan. Helian Chang initially took Helian Ding's suggestion to try to defend Tongwan until he could defeat Daxi, but misinformation that Helian Chang received then induced him to come out of Tongwan to engage Northern Wei forces. Emperor Taiwu defeated him in battle, causing him to be unable to return to Tongwan and forcing him to flee to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui, Gansu), allowing Emperor Taiwu to capture Tongwan. In the start of what would be a string of marriages that could be characterized as either politically- or trophy-taking-related, he took three of Helian Bobo's daughters as his concubines. Upon hearing of Tongwan's fall, Helian Ding disengaged from Daxi and joined Helian Chang at Shanggui as well.

In 428, Daxi and Qiudun Dui, trying to capture Helian Chang, instead became trapped by Helian Chang in the city of Anding (安定, in modern Pingliang, Gansu). However, Daxi's subordinates Yuchi Juan (尉遲眷) and Anchi Jia (安遲頡) made a surprise attack and captured Helian Chang. Helian Ding took over as the emperor of Xia. Meanwhile, Emperor Taiwu treated Helian Chang as an honored guest, supplying Helian Chang with the same supplies that he himself used, and he married his sister Princess to Helian Chang and created him the Duke of Kuaiji; he also rewarded Yuchi and Anchi greatly and created them dukes. Subsequently, Daxi, humiliated that his subordinates captured Helian Chang and he himself appeared helpless, aggressively pursued Helian Ding, but instead was defeated and captured by Helian Ding. In fear, Qiudun and Tuoba Li (拓拔禮) the Prince of Gaoliang abandoned Chang'an as well and fled to Puban, allowing Xia to recapture Chang'an. In anger, although Qiudun had been a high-level official for him since the days that he was crown prince, he had Anchi execute Qiudun and take over his position. For the time being, Emperor Taiwu left Helian Ding alone, while preparing an assault on Rouran instead, since Rouran had been harassing the northern border region.

In light of the Xia campaign, the historian Sima Guang wrote this commentary about Emperor Taiwu, in his Zizhi Tongjian:

In 429, with only Cui Hao in support and most other officials opposing, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran. (The officials who opposed largely worried that Emperor Wen of Liu Song, who had for years wanted to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River that Emperor Mingyuan captured in 422 and 423, would attack.) Emperor Taiwu pointed out that even if Liu Song could attack, it became even more crucial to defeat Rouran first, lest that Rouran attacked at the same time that Liu Song did. He surprised Yujiulü Datan, whose people scattered, forcing him to flee. However, as he chased Yujiulü Datan, he himself became hesitant to advance further, and he withdrew. Only later did he hear that he was in fact very close to Yujiulü Datan's position and could have captured the Rouran khan had he chased further, and he regretted his withdrawal. On the way back, he also attacked Gaoche tribes, and along with the Rouran tribes that he captured, he resettled them south of the Gobi Desert and had them exercise agriculture. From this point on, Northern Wei's northern provinces became rich and no longer lacked livestock and leather. He greatly rewarded Cui, and from this point Cui's advice became what he accepted at all times.

In spring 430, Liu Song launched a major attack, and Emperor Taiwu, judging his own defenses south of the Yellow River to be unable to withstand a Liu Song attack, withdrew them north, judging correctly that Liu Song forces would stop at the Yellow River, planning to counterattack in the winter after the river froze. Meanwhile, hearing that Liu Song and Xia had subsequently entered into a treaty to attack him and divide Northern Wei lands, he judged correctly that despite the treaty Liu Song had no intention to cross the Yellow River north, and he decided to destroy Xia once and for all. In fall 430, he made a surprise attack on the new Xia capital Pingliang (平涼, also in modern Pingliang), while Helian Ding was engaging Western Qin's prince Qifu Mumo, putting Pingliang under siege, but although he then sent Helian Chang to Pingliang to try to persuade its defender, Helian Shegan (赫連社干, younger brother to both Helian Chang and Helian Ding), to surrender, Pingliang would not fall quickly. However, the Northern Wei general Tuxi Bi (吐奚弼) engaged Helian Ding as Helian Ding was trying to relieve Pingliang, defeating him and surrounding him at the Chungu Plains (鶉觚原, in modern Pingliang). Northern Wei forces surrounded him, and his army became hungry and thirsty. After several days, he forcibly fought his way out of the siege, but his forces mostly collapsed, and he himself was badly injured. He gathered the remaining forces and fled to Shanggui. Around the new year 431, Helian Shegan surrendered. Nearly all former Xia territory was now in Northern Wei hands. (Upon recovering Daxi Jin from Xia captivity, Emperor Taiwu punished him for his failures by temporarily making him the imperial porter in charge of serving meals, but soon pardoned him and restored him to his princely title.) (By 432, Helian Ding was no longer able to hold Shanggui, and he, after destroying Qifu Mumo's Western Qin, tried to head west to attack Northern Liang, but was intercepted by the khan of Tuyuhun, Murong Mugui (慕容慕璝), defeated, and captured. In 433, Murong Mugui, with promises of rewards, turned Helian Ding over to Emperor Taiwu, and he had Helian Ding executed.)

While Emperor Taiwu was on his Xia campaign, his generals, as he instructed, crossed the Yellow River when it froze in winter 430, and quickly recaptured Luoyang and Hulao. They soon forced the retreat of the main Liu Song force, under the command of the Liu Song general Dao Yanzhi (到彥之), and trapped the remaining Liu Song troops at Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan). A relief mission by the Liu Song general Tan Daoji could not reach Huatai, and by spring 431, Huatai fell. All the lands lost to Liu Song a year earlier had been regained. (Emperor Taiwu, in another action typical of him, rewarded the Liu Song general Zhu Xiuzhi (朱脩之), who had held Huatai for months faithfully, by giving him a daughter of an imperial clan member in marriage.)

In summer 431, Emperor Taiwu made his first proposal of a marriage between the two imperial families to Liu Song. (Based on subsequent events, it appeared to be a proposal of marriage between a son of his and a daughter of Emperor Wen's, but by this point it was not completely clear.) Emperor Wen responded to it ambiguously. From this point on, Emperor Taiwu would repropose the marriage on a nearly yearly basis, with the same kind of response from Emperor Wen. At the same time, however, he did enter into peaceful relations with Rouran, by returning a number of captured Rouran generals.

Middle reign

In spring 432, Emperor Taiwu honored his wet nurse, Nurse Empress Dowager Dou, empress dowager. He also created one of Helian Bobo's daughters as his empress, and his oldest son Tuoba Huang, by his deceased concubine Consort Helan, crown prince.

In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Xia destroyed, began to attack Northern Yan in earnest. By fall 432, he had put Northern Yan's capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) under siege. While he had several victories over Northern Yan forces, he chose to withdraw at the start of winter, after seizing a large number of Northern Yan's people and forcibly resettling them in his own state. For the next few years, he would launch yearly attacks against Northern Yan with the same pattern—seeking to weaken Northern Yan gradually. While Emperor Taiwu was concentrating on Northern Yan, he also had Northern Liang on his mind, but at the advice of his minister Li Shun (李順), he decided to wait until Northern Liang's long-time prince, Juqu Mengxun, died.

In winter 432, the Northern Yan emperor Feng Hong's son Feng Chong (馮崇), who had feared that his father would put him to death because of false accusations by his stepmother Princess Murong, surrendered the important Northern Yan city of Liaoxi (遼西, in modern Tangshan, Hebei) to Northern Wei. To reward Feng Chong, Emperor Taiwu not only sent his brother Tuoba Jian (拓拔健) the Prince of Yongchang to save Feng Chong from his father's siege, but created him the Prince of Liaoxi with 10 commanderies as his fief.

In 433, Juqu Mengxun died, and Emperor Taiwu began to consider conquering Northern Liang. Still, initially, he continued to accept Juqu Mengxun's son Juqu Mujian as a vassal, and he took Juqu Mujian's sister as an imperial consort.

In spring 434, Helian Chang, for reasons lost to history, fled out of Pingcheng and apparently tried to start a rebellion. He was killed in battle, and Emperor Taiwu had Helian Chang's brothers put to death.

Also in spring 434, after initially refusing a peace offer from Northern Yan, Emperor Taiwu accepted after Feng Hong made an offer to give his daughter to Emperor Taiwu as a consort and returned the detained Northern Wei ambassador Huniuyu Shimen (忽忸于什門), who had been imprisoned by Feng Hong's brother and predecessor Feng Ba in 414 after being commissioned by Emperor Mingyuan. Emperor Taiwu, however, ordered Feng Hong to also send his crown prince Feng Wangren (馮王仁) to Pingcheng to meet him, and Feng Hong refused, ending the brief peace, and by summer 434, Northern Wei resumed its periodic attacks on Northern Yan. Meanwhile, around this time, he also took the sister of Rouran Chilian Khan Yujiulü Wuti, Lu Zuo Zhaoyi, as an imperial consort and married his sister or cousin Princess Xihai to Yujiulü Wuti, to further cement the peaceful relations.

In fall 434, while attacking the Xiongnu rebel Bai Long (白龍), Emperor Taiwu took Bai's forces lightly, and was nearly captured in an ambush, saved only by the efforts of his guard Houmochen Jian (侯莫陳建). He subsequently defeated Bai and slaughtered Bai's tribe.

In 436, Feng Hong sent another embassy, offering to send Feng Wangren as a hostage. Emperor Taiwu, not believing in Feng Hong's offer, refused, and prepared a final assault. When he arrived at Helong, however, Feng Hong had already requested assistance from Goguryeo, which sent troops to assist Feng Hong's plans of relocating his people to Goguryeo soil, and because Emperor Taiwu's general Tuxi Bi was drunk, the Northern Wei forces could not give chase, and in anger, Emperor Taiwu imprisoned and then demoted both Tuxi and his deputy, the general E Qing (娥清) to being common soldiers, although he subsequently made them generals again. He then sent messengers to Goguryeo, demanding that Goguryeo turn Feng Hong over. Goguryeo's King Jangsu refused, albeit humbly requesting to serve Emperor Taiwu together with Feng Hong. Emperor Taiwu, at the suggestion of his brother Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) the Prince of Leping, did not immediately carry out a campaign against Goguryeo. (By 438, however, Feng Hong and Goguryeo would have a fall out, and King Jangsu would have Feng Hong executed.)

In late 436, the peaceful relations that Northern Wei had with Rouran since 431 ended, for reasons no longer known. Rouran continued its harassment of Northern Wei's northern border regions.

In 437, the marriage negotiations that Emperor Taiwu had with Liu Song's Emperor Wen appeared to reach some fruition, as Emperor Wen sent his official Liu Xibo (劉熙伯) to Northern Wei to discuss details of how one of his daughters would be married into the Northern Wei imperial household, but at this time, Emperor Wen's daughter died, and the negotiations ended.

Also in 437, exasperated by the rampant corruption that his local officials were engaging in (which was somewhat necessary for them because at this point, no Northern Wei officials received a salary), he issued an edict creating incentives for low-level officials and commoners to report officials for corruption. However, the edict did not have its calculated effect, as the people who had evidence of the officials' corruption instead used the knowledge to blackmail the officials, and the officials continued to be corrupt.

Later in 437, Emperor Taiwu married his sister Princess Wuwei to Juqu Mujian, and Juqu Mujian sent his heir apparent Juqu Fengtan (沮渠封壇) to Pingcheng to be a hostage. Despite this, he continued to consider conquering Northern Liang, but at Li Shun's urging, delayed it.

In 438, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran, but Rouran forces largely eluded his, and he made little gain.

In 439, aggravated that Juqu Mujian's sister and sister-in-law Lady Li (with whom Juqu Mujian was having an affair) had tried to poison Princess Wuwei, and also unhappy that Juqu Mujian had friendly relations with Rouran, decided to launch a major attack on Northern Liang. Li Shun, who had previously advised him to attack Northern Liang, by this point had somehow switched positions and, along with Tuxi Bi, opposed such military actions, stating falsely that there was so little water and grass for grazing in Northern Liang that Northern Wei troops would suffer from thirst and hunger. At Cui Hao's insistence, however, Emperor Taiwu believed that he could conquer Northern Liang, and he launched the campaign. He quickly reached the Northern Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) in the fall, capturing it after a short siege. Meanwhile, Yujiulü Wuti had launched a surprise attack on Pingcheng to try to save Northern Liang, but was repelled. (Cui Hao, who was a political enemy of Li Shun's, would attribute Li's switch in position to bribes by Juqu Mujian, and later Emperor Taiwu would force Li to commit suicide.) Northern Liang territory was largely in Northern Wei's control, and although both Juqu Mujian's brother Juqu Wuhui and Tufa Baozhou (禿髮保周), a son of Southern Liang's last prince Tufa Rutan, would try to hold various parts of Northern Liang territory, by 440 Tufa Baozhou would be dead by suicide after failures, and by 441 Juqu Wuhui had fled to Gaochang. Northern China was now united under Emperor Taiwu's reign, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. He continued to treat Juqu Mujian as a brother-in-law, and Juqu Mujian was allowed to continue carry the title of Prince of Hexi.

Late reign

In 442, at Kou Qianzhi's urging, Emperor Taiwu ascended a platform and formally received Taoist amulets from Kou, and changed the color of his flags to blue, to show his Taoist beliefs and to officially approve Taoism as the state religion. From that point on, it became a tradition for Northern Wei emperors, when they took the throne, to receive Taoist amulets. Also at Kou and Cui Hao's urging, he started building Jinglun Palace (靜輪宮), intended to be so high that it would be quiet and close to the gods. (Crown Prince Huang, a Buddhist, opposed the construction project on the basis of cost, but Emperor Taiwu disagreed with him.)

An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti stability and anti family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nofullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti Buddhist campaign.

In fall 443, while attacking Rouran, Emperor Taiwu suddenly encountered Yujiulü Wuti, and Crown Prince Huang, who was with him, advised an immediate attack, but Emperor Taiwu hesitated, allowing Yujiulü Wuti to escape. From that point on, Emperor Taiwu began to listen to Crown Prince Huang's advice in earnest, and in winter 443, he authorized Crown Prince Huang to carry out all imperial duties except the most important ones, under assistance from Qiumuling Shou (丘穆陵壽), Cui, Zhang Li (張黎), and Tuxi Bi. Crown Prince Huang soon instituted a policy to encourage farming—by mandatorily requiring those who had extra cattle to loan them to those without, to be animals of burden, with the lease being paid for by those without cattle by tilling the grounds of the cattle owners, increasing the efficiency of the farmlands greatly.

In 444, the first major incident of much political infighting during Emperor Taiwu's late reign occurred. Dugu Jie (獨孤絜), a high-level official, who had opposed attacking Rouran, was accused by Cui Hao of being so jealous of Cui, whose suggestions of attacking Rouran were accepted by Emperor Taiwu, that he sabotaged Emperor Taiwu's war efforts by giving the generals the wrong times for rendezvous, and then further planning to have Emperor Taiwu captured by Rouran and then making Emperor Taiwu's brother Tuoba Pi emperor. Emperor Taiwu put Dugu to death, and Tuoba Pi died from anxiety. Further, because Dugu implicated them while being interrogated, fellow officials Zhang Song (張嵩) and Kudi Lin (庫狄鄰) were also put to death.

In summer 444, eight nephews of the Tuyuhun khan Murong Muliyan (慕容慕利延), after their brother Murong Weishi (慕容緯世) had been put to death by their uncle, surrendered to Northern Wei and suggested that he attack Tuyuhun. In response, Emperor Taiwu sent his son Tuoba Fuluo (拓拔伏羅) the Prince of Jin to attack Tuyuhun and defeated Tuyuhun forces, forcing Murong Muliyan to flee into the Bailan Mountains (白蘭山, in modern southwestern Qinghai). In 445, with Emperor Taiwu's distant cousin Tuoba Na (拓拔那) the Prince of Gaoliang in pursuit, Murong Muliyan fled west and occupied Yutian (Khotan). (However, after a few years, Tuyuhun would return to its original position.)

In 445, angry that Zhenda (真達), the king of Shanshan had refused Emperor Taiwu's messengers passage through Shanshan to other Xiyu kingdoms, Emperor Taiwu sent his general Tuwan Dugui (吐萬度歸) to attack Shanshan, and by fall 445 Zhenda had surrendered. Northern Wei occupied Shanshan.

In fall 445, responding to prophecies that "Wu" would destroy Wei, a Xiongnu man, Gai Wu, started an uprising against Northern Wei at Xingcheng (杏城, in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi), and he was quickly joined by a large number of other Xiongnu and Han people. Gai also submitted as a vassal to Liu Song, seeking Liu Song aid. Initial attempts by local officials to stamp out Gai's rebellion failed, and Gai became stronger and stronger, claiming the title of Prince of Tiantai. In spring 446, Emperor Taiwu personally attacked and defeated Gai's ally, the Han rebel Xue Yongzong (薛永宗), before facing Gai. Gai fled into the mountains, and Emperor Taiwu carried out harsh reprisals against those who had supported Gai, slaughtering them without mercy. After Emperor Taiwu reached Chang'an, he found a number of Buddhist temples with weapons in them, and he believed that the monks must be working with Gai, so he slaughtered the monks in Chang'an. Cui used this opportunity to encourage Emperor Taiwu to slaughter all monks throughout the empire and destroy the temples, statues, and sutras, and notwithstanding Kou's opposition, Emperor Taiwu proceeded to slaughter the monks in Chang'an, destroy the statues, and burn the sutras. He then issued an empire-wide prohibition of Buddhism. Crown Prince Huang, however, used delaying tactics in promulgating the edict, allowing Buddhists to flee or hide, but it was said that not a single Buddhist temple remained standing in Northern Wei. This was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu.

In spring 446, believing incorrectly that the Liu Song governor of Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong), Du Ji (杜驥), was about to defect to him, Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren (拓拔仁, Tuoba Jian's son) the Prince of Yongchang to try to escort Du, and to attack Liu Song's Qing, Yan (兗州, modern western Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, and while Northern Wei forces did not capture or hold those provinces, those provinces were greatly disturbed by the attack.

In summer 446, Gai returned to Xingcheng and restrengthened himself quickly. Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren to attack him, and Tuoba Na captured Gai's two uncles. Initially, Gai's uncles were to be delivered to Pingcheng, but the general Buliugu Qi (步六孤俟) suggested instead to make an oath with Gai's uncles and have them assassinate Gai. Tuoba Na agreed, and Gai's uncles assassinated him, ending Gai's rebellion.

In 447, believing that Juqu Mujian had secretly hidden Northern Liang treasures that he had claimed to be lost to pillaging troops, Emperor Taiwu first slaughtered nearly the entire Juqu clan, and then forced Juqu Mujian and Consort Juqu to commit suicide.

In 448, Emperor Taiwu created his general Chudahan Ba (出大汗拔) the Prince of Shanshan, effectively making Shanshan a part of his empire. He also had Tuwan Dugui attack a number of other Xiyu kingdoms, forcing their submission.

In winter 448 and spring 449, Emperor Taiwu and Crown Prince Huang attacked Rouran together, but Rouran's Chuluo Khan, Yujiulü Tuhezhen eluded them and did not engage them. In fall 449, however, Tuoba Na was able to inflict heavy losses on Rouran, and for several years Rouran did not attack.

In 450, Emperor Taiwu, accusing Liu Song's Emperor Wen of having fostered Gai's rebellion, attacked Liu Song, putting Xuanhu (懸瓠, in modern Zhumadian, Henan) under siege for 42 days but could not capture it, and he withdrew.

Later in 450, a major political mystery occurred in Northern Wei—for reasons not completely clear now, Emperor Taiwu had Cui Hao put to death, along with his particular cadet branch of his clan and any other person named Cui from Cui's home commandery of Qinghe (清河, roughly modern Xingtai, Hebei), as well as the cadet branches of several other clans with marital relations to Cui's. The publicly announced reason was that Cui had unduly revealed imperial infamy, when he wrote and published an official history, but what Cui did was never fully stated. The modern historian Bo Yang speculated that Cui had revealed that Emperor Taiwu's grandfather Emperor Daowu had been a traitor, and also that Cui was then in a major political confrontation with Crown Prince Huang, who manufactured part of the charges against Cui. (See here for details.) However, Bo's speculation, while having some evidentiary support, is not close to being conclusively shown, and why Emperor Taiwu suddenly so rashly and so severely punished the man that he had trusted for decades is fairly unclear. (It should be further noted that during the entire incident, Cui was described as being so fearful that he could not speak a single word, which appeared highly inconsistent with Cui's personality and character, suggesting that Cui had himself been poisoned; it should be further noted that immediately after executing Cui, Emperor Taiwu expressed regret of having done so.)

In fall 450, Liu Song's Emperor Wen launched a major attack on Northern Wei, again hoping to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River, making a two-pronged attack—with the eastern prong attacking Qiaoao (碻磝, in modern Liaocheng, Shandong) and Huatai, and the western prong attacking Shancheng and Tong Pass. Under Emperor Taiwu's orders, Northern Wei forces abandoned Qiaoao while defending Huatai, and he himself headed south to relieve Qiaoao while having Crown Prince Huang head north to defend against a potential Rouran attack. The Liu Song general Wang Xuanmo (王玄謨), whose army was strong, initially received popular support among the people near Huatai, but lost that popularity when he demanded that those who joined his forces to provide a large supply of pears—800 per household. With the popular support lost, he was unable to capture Huatai quickly, and as Emperor Taiwu arrived, the Liu Song forces collapsed. Upon hearing this, although the western Liu Song forces, under command of the general Liu Wenjing (柳文景), were successful in capturing Shancheng and Tong Pass and preparing to descend into the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen withdrew them.

In retaliation for the Liu Song attack, Emperor Taiwu launched an all-out attack against Liu Song's northern provinces. Tuoba Ren quickly captured Xuanhu and Xiangcheng (項城, in modern Zhoukou, Henan) and pillaging his way to Shouyang. Emperor Taiwu himself advanced on Pengcheng, but did not put that heavily fortified city under siege; rather, he advanced south, claiming that he would cross the Yangtze River and destroy the Liu Song capital Jiankang. Both his main army and the other branch armies that he sent out carried out heavy slaughters and arsons, laying Liu Song's Huai River region to waste. Around the new year 451, Emperor Taiwu had reached Guabu (瓜步, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), across the river from Jiankang, but at this point he reproposed the marriage-peace proposal he made earlier—that if Emperor Wen married a daughter to one of his grandsons, he would be willing to marry a daughter to Emperor Wen's son, Liu Jun (who was then defending Pengcheng), to establish long-term peace. Emperor Wen's crown prince Liu Shao favored the proposal, but Jiang Dan (江湛) opposed, and the marital proposal was not accepted. In spring 451, worried that his forces were being overstretched and would be attacked in the rear by the Liu Song forces garrisoned at Pengcheng and Shouyang, Emperor Taiwu began a withdraw, and on the way, insulted by the Liu Song general Zang Zhi (臧質), he put Xuyi (盱眙, in modern Huai'an, Jiangsu) under siege, and, after both sides suffered heavy losses but with the defense holding, quickly withdrew. This campaign appeared to heavily wear out both empires and demonstrated the cruel parts of Emperor Taiwu's personality well, as Sima Guang described it in this manner:

:The Wei forces laid South Yan, Xu, North Yan, Yu, Qing, and Ji Provinces to waste. The Song deaths and injuries were innumerable. When Wei forces encountered Song young men, the forces quickly beheaded them or cut them in half. The infants were pierced through with spears, and the spears were then shaken so that the infants would scream as they were spun, for entertainment. The commanderies and counties that Wei forces went through were burned and slaughtered, and not even grass was left. When sparrows returned in the spring, they could not find houses to build nest on, so they had to do so in forests. Wei soldiers and horses also suffered casualties of more than half, and the Xianbei people were all complaining.

Another part of Emperor Taiwu's personality that was revealed as how, even as the states were engaging wars, he was maintaining formal protocols of détente. For example, when he was outside of Pengcheng, he requested Liu Jun supply him with wine and sugercanes, while offering Liu Jun a gift of camels, mules, and coats. Later, he requested oranges and gambling supplies from Liu Jun, while offering Liu Jun blankets, salts, and pickled beans. Similar things happened as he was at Guabu, as he requested and sent gifts to and from Emperor Wen. (How Zang aggravated him was by sending him urine when he requested wine, thus breaking the pattern of formal exchanges of gifts.)

In 451, there would be further political turmoil, with Crown Prince Huang and his associates being the victims. Crown Prince Huang had been considered able and all-seeing, but overly trusting of his associates, while privately managing farms and orchards and receiving profits from them. Crown Prince Huang greatly disliked the eunuch Zong Ai, and Zong decided to act first, accusing Crown Prince Huang's associates Chou'ni Daosheng (仇泥道盛) and Ren Pingcheng (任平城) of crimes, and Chou'ni and Ren were executed. Further, many other associates of Crown Prince Huang were dragged into the incident and executed. Crown Prince Huang himself grew ill in anxiety, and died in summer 451. Soon, however, Emperor Taiwu found out that Crown Prince Huang was not guilty, and became heavily regretful of his actions in pursuing the crown prince's associates. He did not create a new crown prince, although he briefly created Crown Prince Huang's son Tuoba Jun the Prince of Gaoyang—but then cancelled that creation, figuring that the heir of the crown prince should not be created a mere imperial prince, suggesting that he intended for Tuoba Jun to inherit the throne.

Because of how much Emperor Taiwu missed Crown Prince Huang, Zong Ai became anxious, and in spring 452 he assassinated Emperor Taiwu. Initially, a number of officials were going to make Emperor Taiwu's son Tuoba Han (拓拔翰) the Prince of Dongping emperor, but Zong also had bad relations with Tuoba Han, and so falsely issued orders in the name of Empress Helian to make another son of Emperor Taiwu's, Tuoba Yu the Prince of Nan'an, emperor, while putting Tuoba Han to death.

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Taiwu, of the Helian clan (太武皇后 赫連氏; d. 453)

• Empress Jing'ai, of the He clan (敬哀皇后 賀氏; d. 428)

　• Tuoba Huang, Emperor Jingmu (景穆皇帝 拓跋晃; 428–451), first son

• Zhaoyi, of the Yujiulü clan (左昭儀 鬱久閭氏)

　• Tuoba Yu, Prince Nan'anyin (南安隱王 拓跋餘; d. 452)

• Jiaofang, of the Yue clan (椒房 越氏)

　• Tuoba Fuluo, Prince Jin (晉王 拓跋伏羅; d. 447), second son

• Jiaofang, of the Shu clan (椒房 舒氏)

　• Tuoba Han, Prince Dongping (東平王 拓跋翰; d. 452), third son

• Jiaofang, of the Fu clan (椒房 弗氏)

　• Tuoba Tan, Prince Linhuaixuan (臨淮宣王 拓跋譚; d. 452), fourth son

• Jiaofang, of the Fu clan (椒房 伏氏)

　• Tuoba Jian, Prince Guangyangjian (廣陽簡王 拓跋建; d. 452), fifth son

• Unknown

　• Tuoba Xiao'er (拓跋小兒)

　• Tuoba Mao'er (拓跋貓兒)

　• Tuoba Zhen (拓跋真)

　• Tuoba Hutou (拓跋虎頭)

　• Tuoba Longtou (拓跋龍頭)

　• Princess Shanggu (上谷公主)

　　• Married Yi Gui of Henan, Prince Xiping (河南 乙瑰), and had issue (one son)

Ancestry

In popular culture

• Portrayed by Canti Lau in the 2016 Chinese TV series The Princess Weiyoung.

生平

拓拔燾即位時，只有十六歲，大臣們都拿他當小孩子看。于是拓拔燾決定先整頓吏治，勵精圖治，令人刮目相看，北魏國力進入鼎盛。427年，拓跋燾在連續兩年突擊統萬城之後，占領胡夏的北部地區（包含首都統萬），並一度攻下關中，胡夏雖遷都至平涼，卻於次年（428年）打敗魏軍並收復關中。北魏在429年北伐柔然大獲全勝之後，趁著柔然近十年都難以恢復的良機，把軍隊主力向南進攻，於430年大敗劉宋與胡夏的聯合攻勢，不但占領胡夏大部分的關隴領土（包含平涼、關中、隴西郡），更在431年從宋軍手中奪回河南四鎮（洛陽、虎牢等），拓拔燾返回首都平城，祭告太廟並舉行盛大的慶功典禮。

撤退到上邽的夏主赫連定，雖於431年滅西秦而稍微挽救了國勢，並意圖再滅北涼以維持胡夏，但卻在432年，被吐谷渾君主慕容慕璝襲擊而俘虜。同年赫連定被送給北魏，拓拔燾將其處死，胡夏亡。436年拓跋燾派軍東征北燕，燕主馮弘在高句麗大軍的保護之下，將首都人民全部東遷高句麗，而魏軍主帥忌憚高軍，坐看燕人東撤；北燕雖然滅亡，但只得空地空城，因此拓跋燾大怒之下處罰了征燕主帥娥清、古弼。439年拓拔燾率大軍圍攻北涼首都姑臧，涼主沮渠牧犍出降，北涼亡。至此，北魏統一華北，與江東的劉宋王朝對峙，形成南北朝的局面。

自前涼張氏以來，河西地方文化學術比較發達，號稱多士。北魏自道武帝以後，政治上使用漢族高門，汲取不少魏晉典制。431年，藉由同年打敗劉宋的威勢，拓拔燾下詔，徵聘關東地區的數百名士（多為領導地方的世家大族）入朝為官，也就是把山東郡姓如范陽盧氏、博陵崔氏、趙郡李氏等勢力一網打盡，強迫他們到平城擔任無薪水的官職，讓漢人世族的勢力與北魏政權相結合。當時被徵召的名士高允，後來寫了一篇文章〈徵士頌〉來追憶、讚揚此盛事。439年北魏吞併河西後，又有大批河西文士進入北魏統治區域，不少人被徵召到平城去做官，受到重用，北魏的儒學才開始興盛。

之後，拓拔燾又擊潰吐谷渾、柔然，擴地千餘里。他一共七次率軍進攻柔然，太平真君十年(449)大敗柔然，收民畜凡百餘萬，柔然可汗遠遁，北方邊塞再度得到安靜。

他在450-451年對宋的戰爭中，雖然大勝，但人馬死傷近半，又使軍民疲憊，怨聲不已。末期又刑罰殘酷，使國內政治混亂。譬如崔浩修國史詳實記載魏先世事跡，可能涉及某些鮮卑習俗和隱私，有傷體面，拓跋燾不惜發動國史之獄，將三朝功臣司徒崔浩處死，連清河崔氏與浩同宗者以及崔浩姻親范陽盧氏、太原郭氏、河東柳氏都遭族滅。事後拓跋燾說 「崔司徒可惜」，有後悔之意；再如監國執政的太子，也在父子權力衝突下，被宦官宗愛的讒言害死。正平二年二月甲寅（452年3月11日）拓跋燾被宗愛殺死，享年四十五歲，謚號太武帝，廟號世祖。

拓跋燾統治時期，氐、羌、屠各，以及所謂「雜虜」、「雜人」的各族暴亂非常頻繁。太平真君六年（445年）盧水胡蓋吳在關中杏城（今陝西黃陵西南）發動的起義，聲勢最為浩大。蓋吳建號秦地王，有眾十餘萬，得到安定盧水胡劉超、河東蜀薛永宗的響應，拓跋燾調動強大的兵力才鎮壓下去。

拓跋燾受崔浩、寇謙之影響，奉道排佛。鎮壓蓋吳過程中，在長安佛寺中發現大量兵器，認為佛寺與蓋吳通謀，太平真君七年（446年），詔：「諸有佛圖、形像及胡經，盡皆擊破焚燒，沙門無少長悉坑之。」，是為北魏太武帝滅佛，三武滅佛之一（另外兩位是北周武帝和唐武宗）。

才能與性格

拓跋燾天生將才，為人勇健，善于指揮。戰陣親犯矢石，神色自若，命將出師，違其節度者多敗，因此將士畏服，為之盡力。有知人之明，常從士伍中選拔人才。賞不遺賤，罰不避貴，雖所愛之人亦不寬假。他放棄父親拓跋嗣築邊城防禦柔然的政策，主動攻擊柔然並獲得成功。他自奉儉樸，而賞賜功臣絕無吝嗇，幾乎把資源都用在主動出擊的軍功賞賜之上。認為元老功臣勤勞日久，應讓他們以爵歸第，隨時朝見餉宴，百官職務則可另簡賢能。這樣就保証了行政效率，使政治多少能健全發展。他倚重漢人，李順、崔浩、李孝伯等先後掌握朝權，但個性果於殺戮，處死大臣後常懊悔自己太快動刀。

評價

• 北齊史官魏收於《魏書》的「史臣曰」評論說：「世祖聰明雄斷，威靈傑立，藉二世之資，奮征伐之氣，遂戎軒四出，周旋險夷。掃統萬，平秦隴，翦遼海，盪河源，南夷荷擔，北蠕削跡，廓定四表，混一戎華，其為功也大矣。遂使有魏之業，光邁百王，豈非神叡經綸，事當命世。至於初則東儲不終，末乃釁成所忽。固本貽防，殆弗思乎？」

• 唐代某貴族「公子」與世族虞世南的對話：「公子曰：『魏之太祖、太武，孰與為輩？』先生曰：『太祖、太武，俱有異人之姿，故能闢土擒敵，窺覦江外。然善戰好殺，暴桀雄武，稟崆峒之氣焉。至於安忍誅殘，石季龍之儔也。』」

• 北宋司馬光評論說：「（北魏）繼以明元、太武，兼有青、兗，包司、豫，摧赫連，開關中，梟馮弘，吞遼碣，擄沮渠，並河右，高車入臣，蠕蠕遠遁；自河以北，逾於大漠，悉為其有；子孫稱帝者，百有餘年。左袵之盛，未之有也。」

• 資治通鑑記載： 魏主(指太武帝)為人，壯健鷙勇，臨城對陣，親犯矢石，左右死傷相繼，神色自若；由是將士畏服，咸盡死力。性儉率，服御飲膳，取給而已。群臣請增峻京城及修宮室曰： 「《易》云：『王公設險，以守其國。』又蕭何云：『天子以四海為家，不壯不麗，無以重威。』」帝曰：「古人有言：『在德不在險。』屈丐蒸土築城而朕滅之。 豈在城也？今天下未平，方須民力，土功之事，朕所未為。蕭何之對，非雅言也。」每以為財者軍國之本，不可輕費。至於賞賜，皆死事勳績之家，親戚貴寵未嘗橫有所及。命將出師，指授節度，違之者多致負敗。明於知人，或拔幹於卒伍之中，唯其才用所長，不論本末。聽察精敏，下無遁情，賞不遺賤，罰不避貴，雖所甚愛之人，終無寬假。常曰：「法者，朕與天下共之，何敢輕也。」然性殘忍，果於殺戮，往往已殺而復悔之。

其他

太平真君四年（443年）拓拔燾遣大臣李敞所刻的石刻祝文，存於嘎仙洞內的石壁上。1980年7月30日，中國考古學家米文平等人在此洞發現石刻祝文，結合當時在洞內發現的陶器碎片等，認定此處即為史書中記載的北魏祖庭。但該洞是否確實就是拓跋鮮卑的發源地，史學界尚有爭論。

佛狸祠

江蘇省南京市六合區東南有瓜步山，山上有佛狸祠。

《魏書·世祖紀下》記載：北魏太武帝拓跋燾于宋元嘉二十七年擊敗王玄謨的軍隊以後，在山上建立行宮，即後來的「佛狸祠」。

南宋詩人辛棄疾有《永遇樂·京口北固亭懷古》：「可堪回首，佛狸祠下，一片神鴉社鼓」。後又有《水調歌頭·舟次揚州和楊濟翁周顯先韻》：「誰道投鞭飛渡，憶昔鳴髇血污，風雨佛狸愁。」

東巡御射碑

太延元年（435年）十月，太武帝東巡冀州、定州，二十日甲辰到定州，駐駕于新城宮。十一月十六日己巳，在廣川（河北景縣）校獵。二十三日丙子到達鄴城（河北臨漳），祭祀密太后（太武帝母杜氏）廟，並慰問老年族人，褒禮賢俊。十二月二十日癸卯派遣使者到北嶽恆山祭祀。次年正月初二甲寅從五回道返回平城。

在東巡至河北易縣南管頭之南畫貓村古徐水河谷時，見山岩險峭，景觀奇麗，魏太武帝即興在貓兒岩下演示射術，射出的箭越過貓兒岩有三百多步，魏太武帝又命令隨從擅于射箭的將士數百人都去射箭，武衛將軍昌黎公拓跋丘、前軍將軍浮陽侯拓跋齊、中堅將軍藍田侯豆代田、射聲校尉安武子韓茂、次飛督安熹子李蓋等六人作為魏軍中箭術出眾的代表射箭，但沒有超過魏太武帝的射程。鎮東將軍、定州刺史、樂浪公請求立碑紀念。到太延三年丁丑（437年）碑刻完工，樂浪公已去職，新任刺史征東將軍、張掖公禿髮保周接手此事。

東巡碑碑額題【皇帝東巡之碑】，史籍最早提到北魏太武帝東巡碑，是酈道元《水經注》。酈書之後，宋代樂史《太平寰宇記》卷六七易州滿城縣條，也曾提及此碑，稱引的內容有溢出酈書者。此後東巡碑湮沒無聞將近千年，直到1935年，由徐森玉（鴻寶）先生在河北易縣覓得原碑，把20份拓本帶回北平，次年傅增湘、周肇祥也前往摹拓，東巡碑才重新現身，為藝林所重。今碑已破碎，僅剩殘片若干塊。

家庭

后妃

• 太武皇后，赫連氏

• 敬哀皇后，賀氏，初為夫人，生拓跋晃。追封皇后

• 左昭儀馮氏，北燕昭成帝馮弘季女、北魏遼西王馮崇、馮朗、馮邈妹、柔然可汗斛律妻姐，為文明太后姑母

• 左昭儀閭氏，生南安王拓跋余。原為夫人，吳提妹妹

• 右昭儀沮渠氏，沮渠蒙遜女，即興平公主

• 貴人赫連氏，赫連皇后妹妹

• 貴人赫連氏，赫連皇后妹妹

• 椒房越氏，生晉王拓跋伏羅

• 椒房舒氏，生東平王拓跋翰

• 椒房弗氏，生臨淮王拓跋譚

• 椒房伏氏，生楚王拓跋建

子女

• 拓跋晃，追尊魏景穆皇帝，生母賀皇后

• 拓跋伏羅，北魏晉王，生母越椒房

• 拓跋翰，北魏東平王，生母舒椒房

• 拓跋譚，北魏臨淮王，生母弗椒房

• 拓跋建，北魏楚王，生母伏椒房

• 拓跋余，北魏南安隱王，生母閭左昭儀

• 拓跋小兒，早逝，生母不詳

• 拓跋貓兒，早逝，生母不詳

• 拓跋真，早逝，生母不詳

• 拓跋虎頭，早逝，生母不詳

• 拓跋龍頭，早逝，生母不詳

• 上谷公主，嫁乙瑰

影視形象

注釋

參考