Early reign

Born on 5 February 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing, the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the personal name Xuanye (玄烨 Xuanye; Manchu transliteration: hiowan yei). He was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning), on 7 February 1661. However, his era name "Kangxi", only started to be used on 18February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year.

Sinologist Herbert Giles, drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox."

Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang (in the name of Shunzhi Emperor) had appointed the powerful men Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as regents. Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement.

In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong, also titled Koxinga.

In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Dowager Empress Xiaozhuang, who had raised him. and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River; repair of the Grand Canal; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688.

Kangxi's relatives from the Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor.

Military achievements

Army

The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor; however, it was larger than in the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao.

The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle.

By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns. This was because commanders' statuses had become hereditary; a general gained his position based on the contributions of his forefathers.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories

After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin. Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt.

Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.

Taiwan

In 1683, the naval forces of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan—organized under the Zheng dynasty as the Kingdom of Tungning—were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang. Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng", and was inducted into the Eight Banners as a member of the Han Plain Red Banner. His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops (, tengpaiying)—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin.

A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan (朱弘桓), the son of Zhu Yihai. The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" ( Tianhou) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" ( Tianfei). Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with Guanyin and the Virgin Mary.

The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the Fujian and Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the Hakka, who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning Punti people for the next few centuries.

Russia

In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin.

The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China.

Mongolia

The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 亲王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni.

Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Tümen Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor.

In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in the following year.

Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing

In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui, modern Inner Mongolia, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.

Tibet

In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade.

The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet (翊法恭顺汗 Yìfǎ Gōngshùn Hán, literally Buddhism Respecting, Deferential Khan). The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.

Muslims

Manchu emperor Kangxi incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai (Kokonor) were plotting with Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.

Chinese nobility

The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi (五经博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì) to the descendants of Shao Yong, Zhu Xi, Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (Ran Qiu, Ran Geng, Ran Yong), Bu Shang, Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius), and the Duke of Zhou's offspring.

Economic achievements

The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were:

:1668 (7th year of Kangxi): 14,930,000 taels

:1692: 27,385,631 taels

:1702–1709: approximately 50,000,000 taels with little variation during this period

:1710: 45,880,000 taels

:1718: 44,319,033 taels

:1720: 39,317,103 taels

:1721 (60th year of Kangxi, second last of his reign): 32,622,421 taels

The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor) advice on how to make the economy more efficient.

Cultural achievements

During his reign, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters, which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary. This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty. However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials.

In 1705, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, a compilation of Tang poetry, the Quan Tangshi, was produced.

The Kangxi Emperor also was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries, such as Ferdinand Verbiest, whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček, who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order.

From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe, which would later develop to become the Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University.

The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. Thomas Pereira taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet; later the emperor would play on it himself. He also invented a Chinese calendar. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during the Kangxi Emperor's reign.

Christianity

In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy, they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing and artillery, the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning.

The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite. In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized Catholicism, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people.

However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "idolatry". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI, who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of the Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years.

On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die, which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble".

Succession disputes

A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne – the Nine Lords' War.

In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren, died while giving birth to his second surviving son Yinreng, who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be a perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince.

Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子党), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods.

Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707, the emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi, in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest. Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son, knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended the eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused the Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness.

In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing the Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing. However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat, and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity, which would only be opened after his death.

Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" and "Fourth Lord Party".

Death and succession

Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in the political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang, was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng. The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti, whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with the ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti.

In the evening of 20 December 1722 before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, 16th and 17th princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua, Hebei.

A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor, has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang, the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang, though this is never treated seriously by scholars.

Personality and achievements

The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the Qing dynasty. The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng, then to the Manchus in 1644, and the installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived the central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications.

The Kangxi Emperor was a workaholic, rising early and retiring late, reading and responding to numerous memorials every day, conferring with his councilors and giving audiences – and this was in normal times; in wartime, he might be reading memorials from the warfront until after midnight or even, as with the Dzungar conflict, away on campaign in person.

The Kangxi Emperor devised a system of communication that circumvented the scholar-bureaucrats, who had a tendency to usurp the power of the emperor. This Palace Memorial System involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes that only he and the official had access to. This started as a system for receiving uncensored extreme-weather reports, which the emperor regarded as divine comments on his rule. However, it soon evolved into a general-purpose secret "news channel." Out of this emerged a Grand Council, which dealt with extraordinary, especially military, events. The council was chaired by the emperor and manned by his more elevated Han Chinese and Manchu household staff. From this council, the mandarin civil servants were excluded – they were left only with routine administration.

The Kangxi Emperor managed to woo the Confucian intelligentsia into co-operating with the Qing government, despite their deep reservations about Manchu rule and loyalty to the Ming. He appealed to this very sense of Confucian values, for instance, by issuing the Sacred Edict in 1670. He encouraged Confucian learning and made sure that the civil service examinations were held every three years even during times of stress. When some scholars, out of loyalty to the Ming, refused to take the exams, he hit upon the expedient of a special exam to be taken by nomination. He personally sponsored the writing of the Ming Official History, the Kangxi Dictionary, a phrase-dictionary, a vast encyclopedia and an even vaster compilation of Chinese literature. To promote his image as a "sage ruler," he appointed Manchu and Chinese tutors with whom he studied the Confucian classics and worked intensively on Chinese calligraphy.

In the one military campaign in which he actively participated, against the Dzungar Mongols, the Kangxi Emperor showed himself an effective military commander. According to Finer, the emperor's own written reflections allow one to experience "how intimate and caring was his communion with the rank-and-file, how discriminating and yet masterful his relationship with his generals".

As a result of the scaling down of hostilities as peace returned to China after the Manchu conquest, and also as a result of the ensuing rapid increase of population, land cultivation and therefore tax revenues based on agriculture, the Kangxi Emperor was able first to make tax remissions, then in 1712 to freeze the land tax and corvée altogether, without embarrassing the state treasury (although the dynasty eventually suffered from this fiscal policy).

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Xiaochengren, of the Hešeri clan (孝诚仁皇后 赫舍里氏; 3 February 1654 – 6 June 1674)皇后

　• Chenghu (承祜; 4 January 1670 – 3 March 1672), second son

　• Yunreng, Prince Limi of the First Rank (理密亲王 允礽; 6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), seventh (second) son

• Empress Xiaozhaoren, of the Niohuru clan (孝昭仁皇后 钮祜禄氏; 1653 – 18 March 1678), second cousin皇后

• Empress Xiaoyiren, of the Tunggiya clan (孝懿仁皇后 佟佳氏; d. 24 August 1689), first cousin贵妃→皇贵妃→皇后

　• Eighth daughter (13 July 1683 – 6 August 1683)

　• Miscarriage (August 1689)

• Empress Xiaogongren, of the Uya clan (孝恭仁皇后 乌雅氏; 28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723)德嫔→德妃..仁寿皇太后

　• Yinzhen, the Yongzheng Emperor (世宗 胤禛; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), 11th (fourth) son

　• Yinzuo (胤祚; 5 March 1680 – 15 June 1685), 14th (sixth) son

　• Seventh daughter (5 July 1682 – September 1682)

　• Princess Wenxian of the First Rank (; 10 November 1683 – August/September 1702), ninth daughter

　　• Married Shun'anyan (舜安颜; d. 1724) of the Manchu Tunggiya clan in October/November 1700, and had issue (one son)

　• 12th daughter (14 June 1686 – February/March 1697)

　• Yunti, Prince Xunqin of the Second Rank (; 10 February 1688 – 16 February 1755), 23rd (14th) son

• Imperial Noble Consort Quehui, of the Tunggiya clan (; September/October 1668 – 24 April 1743), first cousin

• Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin, of the Janggiya clan (; d. 20 August 1699)敏妃

　• Yinxiang, Prince Yixian of the First Rank (; 16 November 1686 – 18 June 1730), 22nd (13th) son

　• Princess Wenke of the Second Rank (; 31 December 1687 – 27 July 1709), 13th daughter

　　• Married Cangjin (苍津) of the Onnigud Borjigit clan in August/September 1706

　• Princess Dunke of the Second Rank (; 3 February 1691 – 2 January 1710), 15th daughter

　　• Married Dorji (多尔济; d. 1720) of the Khorchin Borjigit clan in January/February 1709, and had issue (one daughter)

• Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi, of the Gūwalgiya clan (; 3 December 1683 – 30 April 1768)

　• 18th daughter (17 November 1701 – November 1701)

• Noble Consort Wenxi, of the Niohuru clan (; d. 19 December 1694), second cousin贵妃

　• Yun'e, Duke of the Second Rank (; 28 November 1683 – 18 October 1741), 18th (tenth) son

　• 11th daughter (24 October 1685 – June/July 1686)

• Consort Hui, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (; d. 30 May 1670), first cousin twice removed

• Consort Rong, of the Magiya clan (; d. 26 April 1727)

　• Chengrui (承瑞; 5 November 1667 – 10 July 1670), first son

　• Saiyinchahun (; 24 January 1672 – 6 March 1674), fourth son

　• Princess Rongxian of the First Rank (; 20 June 1673 – 29 May 1728), third daughter

　　• Married Örgen (乌尔衮; d. 1721) of the Barin Borjigit clan in June/July 1691

　• Changhua (; 11 May 1674), sixth son

　• Changsheng (长生; 10 September 1675 – 27 April 1677), eighth son

　• Yunzhi, Prince Chengyin of the Second Rank (; 23 March 1677 – 10 July 1732), tenth (third) son

• Consort Hui, of the Yehe Nara clan (; d. 1 May 1732)

　• Chengqing (承庆; 21 March 1670 – 26 May 1671), third son

　• Yunzhi, Prince of the Fourth Rank (; 12 March 1672 – 7 January 1735), fifth (first) son

• Consort Yi, of the Gorolo clan (; d. 2 October 1733)

　• Yunqi, Prince Hengwen of the First Rank (恒温亲王 允祺; 5 January 1680 – 10 July 1732), 13th (fifth) son

　• Yuntang, Prince of the Fourth Rank (; 17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), 17th (ninth) son

　• Yinzi (胤禌; 8 June 1685 – 22 August 1696), 20th (11th) son

• Consort Ping, of the Hešeri clan (平妃 赫舍里氏; d. 18 July 1696)

　• Yinji (; 23 February 1691 – 30 March 1691), 24th son

• Consort Liang, of the Wei clan (; d. 29 December 1711), personal name Shuangjie

　• Yunsi, Prince Lian of the First Rank (廉亲王 允禩; 29 March 1681 – 5 October 1726), 16th (eighth) son

• Consort Cheng, of the Daigiya clan (成妃 戴佳氏; d. 18 December 1740)

　• Yunyou, Prince Chundu of the First Rank (淳度亲王 允佑; 19 August 1680 – 18 May 1730), 15th (seventh) son

• Consort Xuan, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (; d. 12 September 1736), third cousin

• Consort Ding, of the Wanlioha clan (; January/February 1661 – 24 May 1757), personal name Niuniu (妞妞)定嫔..定妃

　• Yuntao, Prince Lüyi of the First Rank (; 18 January 1686 – 1 September 1763), 21st (12th) son

• Consort Shunyimi, of the Wang clan (; d. 19 November 1744)

　• Yunxu, Prince Yuke of the Second Rank (; 24 December 1693 – 8 March 1731), 25th (15th) son

　• Yunlu, Prince Zhuangke of the First Rank (; 28 July 1695 – 20 March 1767), 26th (16th) son

　• Yinxie (胤祄; 15 May 1701 – 17 October 1708), 28th (18th) son

• Consort Chunyuqin, of the Chen clan (; d. 12 January 1754)

　• Yunli, Prince Guoyi of the First Rank (; 24 March 1697 – 21 March 1738), 27th (17th) son

• Concubine An, of the Li clan (安嫔 李氏)

• Concubine Jing, of the Wanggiya clan (敬嫔 王佳氏)

• Concubine Duan, of the Dong clan (端嫔 董氏; d. 1702)

　• Second daughter (17 April 1671 – March/April 1673)

• Concubine Xi, of the Hešeri clan (僖嫔 赫舍里氏; d. 31 October 1702)

• Concubine Tong, of the Ula Nara clan (通嫔 那拉氏; d. 1 August 1744), personal name Yanjimai (檐吉迈)贵人..通嫔

　• Princess Chunque of the First Rank (固伦纯慤公主; 20 March 1685 – 22 April 1710), tenth daughter

　　• Married Ts'ering (策棱; d. 1750) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in June/July 1706, and had issue (one son)

• Concubine Xiang, of the Gao clan (襄嫔 高氏; d. 14 August 1746), personal name Zaiyi (在仪)秀贵人..襄嫔

　• Yinji (胤禝; 25 October 1702 – 28 March 1704), 29th (19th) son

　• 19th daughter (30 March 1703 – February/March 1705)

　• Yunyi, Prince Jianjing of the Third Rank (简靖贝勒 允禕; 1 September 1706 – 30 June 1755), 30th (20th) son

• Concubine Xi, of the Chen clan (熙嫔 陈氏; April/May 1690 – 1 February 1737)倩贵人..熙嫔

　• Yunxi, Prince Shenjing of the Second Rank (慎靖郡王 允禧; 27 February 1711 – 26 June 1758), 31st (21st) son

• Concubine Jin, of the Sehetu clan (谨嫔 色赫图氏; d. 23 April 1739)绮贵人..谨嫔

　• Yunhu, Prince Gongqin of the Third Rank (恭勤贝勒 允祜; 10 January 1712 – 12 February 1744), 32nd (22nd) son

• Concubine Jing, of the Shi clan (静嫔 石氏; 13 December 1689 – 10 July 1758)贵人..静嫔

　• Yunqi, Prince Cheng of the Third Rank (诚贝勒 允祁; 14 January 1714 – 31 August 1785), 33rd (23rd) son

• Concubine Mu, of the Chen clan (穆嫔 陈氏; d. 1727)贵人

　• Yunbi, Prince Xianke of the First Rank (; 5 July 1716 – 3 December 1773), 34th (24th) son

• Noble Lady Bu, of the Joogiya clan (; d. 21 February 1717)

　• Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank (; 9 June 1674 – March/April 1710), fifth daughter

　　• Married Ga'erzang (; 1675–1722) of the Kharchin Ulanghan clan in November/December 1692, and had issue (one daughter)

• Noble Lady, of the Nara clan

　• Wanfu (; 4 December 1675 – 11 March 1679), ninth son

　• Yinzan (; 10 April 1679 – 30 April 1680), 12th son

• Noble Lady, of the Gorolo clan

　• Princess Kejing of the First Rank (; 4 July 1679 – March/April 1735), sixth daughter

　　• Married Dondob Dorji (敦多布多尔济; d. 1743) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in December 1697 or January 1698 and had issue (three sons)

　• Yinju (胤䄔; 13 September 1683 – 17 July 1684), 19th son

• Noble Lady, of the Yuan clan (; d. 25 September 1719)常在

　• Princess Quejing of the Second Rank (; 16 January 1690 – 1736), 14th daughter

　　• Married Sun Chengyun (; d. 1719) in 1706

• Noble Lady, of the Chen clan (贵人 陈氏)

　• Yinyuan (胤禐; 2 March 1718), 35th son

• Mistress, of the Zhang clan

　• First daughter (23 December 1668 – November 1671)

　• Fourth daughter (16 March 1674 – January/February 1679)

• Mistress, of the Wang clan (王氏)

　• 16th daughter (27 November 1695 – October/November 1707)

• Mistress, of the Liu clan

　• 17th daughter (12 January 1699 – December 1700 or January 1701)

• Mistress, of the Niohuru clan

　• 20th daughter (20 November 1708 – January/February 1709)

Ancestry

生平经历

幼年继位

顺治十一年三月十八日（1654年5月4日），玄烨出生于紫禁城景仁宫内，是顺治帝的第三子，生母为孝康章皇后佟佳氏。其父亲顺治帝在位十八年之中没有册立过皇太子。顺治十八年正月初六（1661年2月4日）顺治帝早逝，时年仅23岁。两年后，康熙二年（1663年）康熙帝的生母孝康章皇后佟佳氏亦病逝。

顺治帝染上天花第3天时，接受汤若望的建议，因年幼的玄烨曾得过天花具有免疫力，也因从天花疾病幸存下来而被获选立为皇太子，1661年2月4日，福临急召礼部侍郎王熙和原内阁学士麻勒吉，以口述遗诏的形式成立。顺治十八年正月初七（1661年2月5日）玄烨登基时，只有八岁，次年正月（1662年2月）改元康熙。

因康熙帝尚年幼，顺治帝的遗诏同时指派四大臣辅政大臣索尼、苏克萨哈、遏必隆、鳌拜，辅佐康熙帝，因此清朝的政局不受康熙帝实际掌控。

执政时期

康熙八年（1669年）五月，康熙帝发动突袭，捉拿了鳌拜之后，掌握朝政。

先前鳌拜掌权时，钦天监官杨光先勾结鳌拜反对西洋学说，发生历狱案，汤若望被判处死刑。八月，因为杨光先从前依附鳌拜捏词陷害汤若望，康熙帝并趁此时间给汤若望平反以往不明之冤。

康熙年间，宣布停止圈地，放宽垦荒地的免税年限。他还著手整顿吏治，恢复了京察、大计等考核制度。为了防止被臣下蒙蔽欺骗，康熙还亲自出京巡视，了解民情吏治。其中最著名的是六次南巡，此外还有三次东巡、一次西巡，以及数百次巡查京畿和蒙古，此举极大的促进了康熙对民情的了解，他还亲自巡视黄河河道，督察河工，并下令整修永定河河道。

康熙是清朝历史上在位时间最长的皇帝。康熙坐镇北京取得了对三藩、沙俄的战争胜利，消灭在台湾的明郑政权，另一方面，康熙创立「多伦会盟」取代战争，联络蒙古各部；意图以条约确保清朝政府在黑龙江的领土控制。文治武功取得巨大成绩的康熙帝，群臣一再商议给他上尊号，康熙多次表示「断不受此虚名」，这在历朝帝王中十分罕见。

晚年懈怠

康熙晚年懈怠无为，曾说「多一事不如少一事」，「政宽事省」，「凡事不可深究者极多」，不能严禁浮费和规银，宽纵州县火耗和亏空。同时他还标榜仁政，对官吏尽量以宽松待之，导致出现吏治废弛，官场贪污，国库亏空，「大小官员，怠玩成习，徇庇尤甚」，个别地区出现暴动和骚乱，统治秩序奏出了不和谐音符。盛世处于衰微的现象，给继任者雍正帝留下许多隐患。更有甚者指出清朝衰亡，病在康熙。

康熙四十九年（1710年），御史参劾户部堂官希福纳等侵贪户部内仓银六十四万馀两，牵连的官吏多达一百一十二人。康熙说「朕反覆思之，终夜不寐，若将伊等审问，获罪之人甚多矣」。最后只把希福纳革职，其馀官吏则勒限赔款。康熙末年社会矛盾日趋激化，有江苏无锡县人刘三因县令李牧残酷成性，聚数百人于山中反抗，后被捕。

康熙的皇太子两立两废，彻底暴露出嫡长子皇位继承制度的种种弊端，储位之争的时间之长，卷入者之多，波及面之广，以及对皇朝及皇帝本人影响之大，无不超出前代。

去世

康熙六十一年十一月十三日（1722年12月20日），康熙皇帝崩逝于大清顺天府（今北京市）畅春园清溪书屋内，享寿六十八岁，结束了长达六十一年的统治。当时八爷党支持的十四阿哥胤禵远在西北，四阿哥胤禛留京。康熙近臣步军统领隆科多奉康熙帝遗诏，命皇四子胤禛继承皇位，是为雍正皇帝，为康熙帝上庙号圣祖，谥号合天弘运文武睿哲恭俭宽裕孝敬诚信功德大成仁皇帝，安葬于清景陵。

传位

康熙十三年（1674年），康熙立皇后所生的一岁的皇次子胤礽为太子，并亲自抚养。但数十年后由于父子矛盾问题而决定废嫡。废太子后，众皇子觊觎皇位，矛盾更加尖锐，故太子废而复立，但康熙称其旧疾未除，三年后再废太子。康熙六十一年康熙帝驾崩后皇四子胤禛继位。

目前理由众说纷纭：有人认为康熙是希望精明干练的胤禛能大力改革康熙末年的宽纵积弊，而传位于胤禛。还有传说是顾命大臣隆科多和胤禛矫篡遗诏，在十字上加一划、下加一勾，「十」字变成「于」字，故有「传位十四皇子胤禵」窜改为「传位于四皇子胤禛」之传说；但按清宫秘档分析，康熙帝的遗诏是由满、汉、蒙三种语文并列写成，「传位十四皇子胤禵」改为「传位于四皇子胤禛」之传说符合汉字书写逻辑，但却无法符合满文及蒙文书写逻辑，且遗诏全文并未出现「传位于」之类的语句。还有传说真正的遗诏根本不存在，完全由隆科多和胤禛编纂遗诏。

然则传位夺嫡之说，或因雍正推行摊丁入亩、官绅一体当差纳粮之新政、打击贪腐权贵、重用张廷玉、李卫、田文镜等汉人，而引来失势满人权贵之蓄意诬陷。康熙皇帝岂能将九门提督授予不可信赖之人任之，又岂会不知隆科多与雍正之关系而造成众皇子传位纷争？由此而论，康熙让隆科多任九门提督，正是意欲传位于雍亲王，并加以保护的实证之一。

康熙传位雍正之徵兆：

• 徵兆一：「康熙六十年正月，命皇四子雍亲王胤禛、皇十二子贝子胤祹、世子弘晟以御极六十年，告祭永陵、福陵、昭陵。」康熙登基一甲子六十年之重大祭告先祖非同一般，派遣雍亲王胤禛主持，岂能不具备重大意义？为何不是派遣支持皇十四子胤禵、皇八子胤禩、皇九子胤禟、皇十子胤䄉或是皇三子胤祉

• 徵兆二：康熙御极六十年派雍亲王胤禛祭祖此举，让废太子胤礽之师王掞看出端倪，故于三月「大学士王掞密奏请建储，至是监察御史陶彝、任坪、范长发等人曾疏请建储，帝不悦，并掞切责之。诸王、大臣奏请治大学士王掞罪，帝赦不治。」这亦可视为康熙安排接班人的布署迹象之一，毕竟皇十四子胤禵尚且领兵在西北，一旦提早公布，易生事端。

• 徵兆三：「五月壬戌，命抚远大将军胤禵移驻甘州。以年羹尧总督四川陕西，色尔图署四川巡抚。」康熙以皇四子雍亲王胤禛之亲信年羹尧箝制皇十四子胤禵的军后补给已然成形。

• 徵兆四：康熙六十一年四月，「命抚远大将军胤禵复往军前。十月，命雍亲王胤禛率弘升、延信、孙渣济、隆科多、查弼纳、吴尔台察阅京师通州仓廒。」康熙指示由雍亲王胤禛亲率隆科多、查弼纳等众多京师王公重臣，竟然只为「察阅京师通州仓廒」，已有不寻常迹象。

• 徵兆五：「十一月帝不豫，驻跸畅春园。命皇四子胤禛恭代祀天。」康熙驾崩前祀天仍然未派皇三子胤祉、皇八子胤禩、皇九子胤禟、皇十子胤䄉代祀，更未召皇十四子胤禵返京，此时康熙意欲传位于雍亲王皇四子胤禛已然十分明显。

曾在国立故宫博物院展出的康熙皇帝遗诏上并无「传位于四皇子胤禛」，而是写著：

为政举措

政治

康熙八年（1669年），康熙帝时常召集小内监在宫中作「布库」之戏，不过在五月十六日（6月14日）鳌拜进见时，突然下令以大不敬之罪，命少年们将其逮捕。大臣商议鳌拜大罪三十条，请求将他灭族，康熙帝念鳌拜曾救过祖父皇太极的功劳，赦其死罪，改为拘禁，但诛杀了鳌拜的很多弟侄亲随及党羽。仅存的另一辅政大臣遏必隆因为长期勾结鳌拜，被削去太师、一等公。康熙帝由此完全夺回朝廷大权，开始真正亲政的阶段。

康熙勤政，坚持每日御临乾清门会见朝臣处理政务，居住在畅春园、热河行宫以及在出巡途中仍听政不惜。黎明时分，部院大臣，起居注官员到位，各部院衙门依次奏事，皇帝与内阁大臣商决裁断。《起居注》中详细记载了康熙皇帝御门听政现场办公的场景内容。康熙帝晚年还通过赵凤诏贪污案来抑制汉官。

经济

1677年，康熙帝开始了整治黄河工程。到1684年，历时七年的整治黄河工程完成。在康熙五十六年（1717年），出现各地丰收，无灾可免的情况。康熙在晚年亦继续减免天下赋税，蠲免全国各地省份的钱粮，免除多处地区的欠赋。多种措施令到各地的农民都能够休养生息，也防止了地方官吏中饱私囊和横徵暴敛。

康熙帝为了箝制反清复明的活动而致力于打败明郑王朝。拿下台湾之后，康熙开放了海禁，并设立了四个通商口岸。

军事

平定三藩、明郑及反清势力

1673年，因为康熙帝决定削藩，导致平西王吴三桂起兵反清，其他二藩相继响应，整个天下为之一动。三藩势力一时不可阻挡，清廷失去江南半壁江山。而康熙帝在孝庄太后的支持下，沉著应对，积极调兵遣将，三藩之乱最终在1681年被完全扑灭，而国家遭受了较大的损失，在四川、云南以及江西等地有不少人被杀害。

平定台湾

1683年（康熙二十二年），时宪历五月，康熙采纳了安溪大学士李光地的意见，授明郑降将施琅为福建水师提督，时宪历八月丙辰，福建水师提督施琅攻克台湾，郑克塽和刘国轩等上奏归降。

发展军备

康熙年间，由于战争连年不绝，平定三藩之乱以及抵御外来侵略的需要大量制造火器，无论是造炮规模、数量、种类，还是火炮的性能和制造技术，都达到了前所未有的水平。同时，清朝所造的大小铜、铁炮达905门之多，而其中半数以上由南怀仁负责设计监造，就质量而言，其「工艺之精湛，造型之美观，炮体之坚固，均为后朝所莫及」。康熙三十五年（1696年），在对准噶尔部噶尔丹的昭莫多之战中，发挥了重要作用。

清朝初年一时间涌现出许多热心武器装备、致力于引进和仿造西方火器的技术专家。如戴梓就是一位在中国最早制造出具有较高射击速度的管形火器专家，这种火器称为「连珠火铳」。戴梓仿铸技术比南怀仁更为高超，亦成功地仿造了冲天炮「南怀仁谓冲天炮出其国，造之一年不成。上命先生造，八日成，上大悦，率群臣亲试之，即封炮为威远将军，镌治法官名，以示不朽。冲天炮，子在母腹，母送子出，从天而下，片片碎裂，锐不可当。后征噶尔靼，以三炮坠其营，遂大捷」。文献记载的「连珠火铳」与故宫所藏的一支康熙年间外国进献的火枪十分相似，然而在因为冲天炮事件中得罪了南怀仁，被诬陷「私通东洋」，康熙将戴梓流放到了盛京（今渖阳）。

乌兰布通之战后，康熙帝更加重视在战争中发挥火器的战斗威力，使火器营成为清军八旗兵的新的战斗编成。清军最早装备火器的是汉军八旗，随著战事频繁，满洲、蒙古八旗亦迅速装备了火器。至康熙二十二年，在每旗专设一营操练鸟枪。康熙三十年始选满洲、蒙古习火器之兵组建火器营。设鸟枪护军、鸟枪马甲和炮甲三种营兵，满洲、蒙古八旗每佐领下设鸟枪护军3人，鸟枪马甲4人，炮甲1人，共7395人。由于西方经典弹道理论在战斗人员中逐渐普及，火器命中率的提高，极大地提高了火力武器的杀伤力。因此，火器在康熙以后不仅成为八旗的主要武器装备，而且清军还产生了更专门的火器营的战斗编成，完全改变了清军以骑射为主的传统作战方式。

文化

崇尚儒学

康熙崇尚儒学，尤其是程朱理学。他曾多次举办博学鸿儒科，创建了南书房制度，并亲临曲阜拜谒孔庙。康熙还组织编辑与出版了《康熙字典》、《古今图书集成》、《历象考成》、《数理精蕴》、《康熙永年历法》、《康熙皇舆全览图》等图书、历法和地图。

宗教

康熙对于宗教基本上是宽容的，不仅仅是汉传佛教，或者满洲的藏传佛教、萨满教信仰，还褒封道教白云观方丈王常月，并皈依于门下。他甚至也时常听天主教传教士讲道。直到他发现罗马教廷试图干预中国政治，并且皇子信仰基督后以此作为争权夺利的工具，遂开始有所抵制天主教，即中国礼仪之争。

文字狱

康熙也利用戴南山（戴名世）的南山案文字狱事件，株连甚多，来抑制汉族士大夫的反叛思想，甚至桐城派文家方苞都差点遭斩首。

科学

康熙是中国历史上少有的重视自然科学的皇帝，对西方文化也十分感兴趣，自身具有相当高的科学素养，向来华传教士学习代数、几何、天文、医学等方面的知识，并颇有著述。例如：曾从南怀仁学习欧几里得《几何原本》并且每天听讲。后来又学习西方的测量、天文、物理和医学等知识，并在宫中设置了研究化学和药学的实验室。康熙因南怀仁督造火炮方面的功绩，一直对他优礼有加，而南怀仁等西方传教士也促进了伽利略的弹道理论在中国的传播。

康熙除了学习西方科技之外还会应用实践，其最突出的是用科学方法和西方仪器绘制全国地图。康熙亦会利用巡行和出兵之便，实地测量，吸取经验。在康熙四十六年（1707年）委任耶稣会传教士雷孝思、白晋、社德美及中国学者何国楝、明安图等人走遍各省，运用当时最先进的经纬图法、三角测量法、梯形投影技术等在全国大规模实地测量，并于康熙五十七年（1718年）绘制成《康熙皇舆全览图》，其作被称为在当时世界地理学的最高成就，英国李约瑟亦称之为不但是亚洲当时所有的地图中最好的一幅，而且比当时的所有欧洲地图都要好、更精确。

康熙还以巡视之便访求民间的有才之士，例如将在数学方面有很大成就的梅毂成调进宫中培养深造。梅毂成亦通过学习西方数学知识，重新令在明朝被废弃的中国古代数学受到重视。

由于康熙帝是中国历代帝王中最重视科学、最提倡科学和最精通科学的人，故后代有很多评判和标签加在他身上，他被视为有重大贡献的「科学家皇帝」，或被视为是「窒塞民智」的「罪魁祸首」。有学者及历史学家认为，清朝中后期国力开始远远落后于西方，跟康熙晚年墨守成规和缺乏创新有关，故他应当为中国科技的落后状况负责任；此外，亦有学者认为，康熙由于自身的局限性，对当时的科学内容采取又用之又防之的手段，他又担心先进的西方科技一旦传开，将会极大的动摇以骑射起家的满清的统治，另外，康熙亦被批评阻碍了中国火器的发展。

此外，由于传教士们所宣扬的基督宗教教义与中国的传统文化观念之有很大的差异和分歧，故西学受当时中国各阶层保守人士竭力反对，清初保守派官员杨光先就强调「宁可使华夏无好历法，不可使中国有西洋人」，对传播西学的传教士表示不满。面对士大夫的不满情绪以及罗马教廷对中国文化礼俗的批评，作为中华文化正统的最高代表，康熙特意对理学名臣李光地、熊赐履等说：「汝等知西洋人渐渐作怪乎？将孔夫子亦骂了。予所以好待他者，不过是用其技艺耳。历算之学果然好。你们通是读书人，见外面地方官与知道理者，可俱道朕意。」希望藉助他们剖白他为何使用传教士及其底线所在。与批评西学为「奇技淫巧」的守旧派官僚不同，愿意学习和提倡西学的康熙对西学采取较开明的态度。

民族

康熙对国家的治理中对「汉学」传统的学习与推崇，从各方面接受并正确执行汉族政策，充分正视和运用「汉家」的传统意识，为开创鼎盛局面打下基础。但是康熙作为「天下之主」，为了维护清朝的根本利益，极力标榜「满汉一体」。但是，受本民族利益的驱使和民族情感的困扰，他往往自觉或不自觉地陷入偏徇满洲的境地，在噶礼和张伯行互参案中体现出来。

1690年至1697年多次击败准噶尔部噶尔丹，史称三征噶尔丹。在雅克萨战役，康熙派遣黑龙江将军萨布素成功驱逐沙俄对黑龙江流域的侵略，收复了雅克萨城（旧称阿尔巴津；现俄罗斯联邦斯科沃罗季诺）和尼布楚城（现俄罗斯联邦涅尔琴斯克）。他在京师东北的热河营建了避暑山庄，将其作为蒙古、西藏、哈萨克等部王公贵族觐见的场所，为清朝大肆的修建皇家园林开辟了先河。

外交

中西交流

亦有史学家指出，康熙会欣赏和重用有才华的传教士，西方先进的科学技术也被推崇和应用。康熙曾经委派传教士返回欧洲招募人才，希望增进中西方科技文化交流。而民间与西方传教士能够互相交游，西学在社会中得以自由传播，亦指出分别由康乾皇帝敕辑的丛书－《古今图书集成》和《四库全书》亦收录了传入中国的西方科学技术。

据传教士张诚（J. F. Gerbillon）的日记记载，康熙为了保护传教士不被其他官员陷害而不准他们在有汉人和蒙古人的衙门里翻译任何科学文献。18世纪康熙末期，因罗马教廷发出禁止中国人教徒祭祖的禁令而引发礼仪之争，促使清廷反制并下令「自今以后，若不遵利玛窦规矩，断不准在中国住，必逐回去」。

中俄开始正式接触是在康熙帝时期，签订了《尼布楚条约》以后，两国贸易逐渐繁荣。1715年，俄国传教士首次来华，加强了两国经济、文化之间的交流。康熙晚年，因为俄商来华人数众多；更重要的是俄方一些行为违背了康熙关于安全、和平的原则，因而使中俄关系形势逆转。

海外贸易

然而有文献记载指出，在清朝康熙年间，原本闭关锁国的中国逐渐向外界开放，并维持著国内、近邻贸易以及欧洲贸易。甚至说「全欧洲的贸易量都无法跟巨大的中国贸易量相比」，并且形容中国的各个省就相当于欧洲的各个王国，它们各自拥有自己丰富且多种多样的特产进行贸易，而且这倾向于联盟保护的形式，在所有的城市里也一样，以至官员们在商业界里都拥有自己的股份／分成，他们当中有部分人会将他们的金钱委托给值得信任的人打理以保证他们的资产在商业往来中取得成果，连平民百姓也可以从商业贸易中得益。同时记载了清朝市集的繁华程度和中外商家的贸易情况，又称中国商人在交易时都很诚实可靠，跟日本、巴达维亚（今印尼雅加达）、马尼拉以及欧洲也有贸易来往。《全球通史》里亦指出，康熙时期中国的对外贸易急剧膨胀且发展快速，大量的茶叶、丝绸、棉布、瓷器和漆器经广州口岸运往欧洲销售。

评价

《清史稿》：「圣祖仁孝性成，智勇天锡。早承大业，勤政爱民。经文纬武，寰宇一统，虽曰守成，实同开创焉。圣学高深，崇儒重道。几暇格物，豁贯天人，尤为古今所未觏。而久道化成，风移俗易，天下和乐，克致太平。其雍熙景象，使后世想望流连，至于今不能已。传曰：『为人君，止于仁。』又曰：『道盛德至善，民之不能忘。』于戏，何其盛欤！」

《啸亭杂录》：「仁皇天资纯厚，遇事优容，每以宽大为政，不事溪刻。」

《全球通史》：「康熙有理由这样自信。他统治的大清帝国是世界上最强大、最富庶的国家，就连那些自命不凡的欧洲来访者都不得不承认这一点。」「他在『康熙』这一年号下，统治中国60多年，并成为17世纪的伟大人物。同时康熙又是一位卓越的军事家，一位精细的管理者，一位渊博的学者。」「康熙曾有过几回巡视，他不但视察公共工程、宽赦囚犯、聆听民间疾苦，而且还亲自审阅那些有志向的举子的科考卷子。一位为此而吃惊的教士写道：『康熙甚至会召见那些地位低下的劳工和农夫，并以一种友善可亲的态度同他们交谈，这使他深得人心。』也许是因为经常外出巡行，并能亲临下层，康熙学会了识别18个省中的13个省的方言。」

《剑桥中国清代前中期史》：「玄烨是中华帝国历史上最伟大的统治者之一，他的统治时间不仅仅是最长的，而且也是最具有活力的，在中华帝国的历史上更是最复杂的。也许同时他是冷酷而且粗心大意的，在判断的时候会犯错误，但是他却拥有敏锐的自我分析能力以及对帝国的使命感，这都标志著他是少有的可以随心所欲的改变人类历史进程的人！而且被众多历史学家（包括中国，日本和西方的史家）所注意的是，康熙的统治可与俄国的彼得大帝以及法国的路易十四相媲美，而他们三人的共同特点标志著前工业时代，传统君主王权的最高阶段。」「而且，康熙在很多事上，行事果断，对于统治和文化做出了许多有益的事，而他的人品与品格则成为理解导致清朝秩序巩固的众多因素的入口点。」

南怀仁：「（康熙）亲切地接近老百姓，力图让所有人都能看见自己，就像在北京时的惯例一样，他谕令卫兵们不许阻止百姓靠近。所有的百姓，不管男女，都以为他们的皇帝是从天而降的，他们的目光中充满异常的喜悦。为一睹圣容，他们不惜远涉跑来此地，因为，对他们来讲，皇帝亲临此地是从不曾有过的事情。皇帝也非常高兴于臣民们赤诚的感情表露，他尽力撤去一切尊严的夸饰，让百姓们靠近，以此向臣民展示祖先传下来的朴质精神。」

白晋：「具备天下所有人的优点，在全世界的君主中，康熙帝应列为第一等的英主。」「康熙皇帝的孝顺和感恩是如此罕见，他因此获得了举国百姓的尊敬和拥戴。」

金昌业：「以康熙之俭约，守汗宽简之规模，抑商贸以劝农，节财用以爱民，其享五十年太平，宜矣！」

莱布尼茨：「现世皇帝康熙就是这么一个空前伟大的君主。他对欧洲人颇怀好感，但起初还是不敢违法辅政臣僚的意愿，以国家法规形式公开允准基督教在中国自由传播。直到他亲政之后，方才办到这点。事实证明，正是康熙这一雄才大略才使得欧洲的技艺和科学更换地输入中国。仅此而言，我认为康熙帝一个人比他所有的臣僚都更具远见卓识。我之所以视他为英明的伟人，因为他把欧洲的东西与中国的东西结合起来了。」

伏尔泰：「北京的耶稣会教士，由于精通历算而博得康熙皇帝的欢心，以致这位以善良仁慈、行高德美而驰名遐迩的君主，准许他们在中国传教，并公开讲授基督教义。」

马嘎尔尼：「时至今日，正如耶稣会的传教士们所讲，康熙皇帝对科技有很浓厚的兴趣，但无论如何他的后世子孙并没有继承他的这一优点，甚至也没有继承他的其他优秀品质与聪明才智；因为现在他们的国家政策与王室的虚荣感正在共同抵触著我们所表现出的优秀杰出方面的一切事物，尽管他们毫不怀疑我们的卓越，但是他们还是没有学习会如何利用这些（优秀的科技）。」

曾国藩：「我朝六祖一宗，集大成于康熙。而雍乾以后，英贤辈出，皆若沐圣祖之教，此在愚氓亦似知之。其所以然者，虽大智莫能名也。」「凡前圣所称至德纳行，范无一而不备。上而天象、地舆、历算、音乐、考礼、行师、刑律、农政，下至射御、医药、奇门、王遁，满蒙、西域、外洋之文书字母，殆无一而不通，且无一不创立新法，别启律途。后来高才绝艺，终莫能出其范围。」

梁啓超：「清圣祖尤笃嗜，召西士南怀仁等供奉内廷。风声所被，向慕尤众。」「康熙帝是比较有自由思想的人。他早年间兴文字之狱，大抵都是他未亲政之前的事……本身却是廓达大度的人，不独政治上常采宽仁之义，对于学问，亦有宏纳众流气象。试图他《庭训格言》，便可以窥见一斑了。所以康熙朝学者，没有什么顾忌，对于各种问题，可以自由研究。」

吕思勉：「圣祖是个聪明特达的君主。他乐于求学，勤于办事。于天文、地理、律历、算术……学问，多所通晓。又颇能采用西洋的学问。……他能励精图治，确是实在的。……他能俭于用财，也确是真的。所以当三藩平后，国内已无战事，政治亦颇清明，百姓就得以休养生息。」

蔡东藩：」自古藩镇，鲜有不生变者。撤亦反，不撤亦反；与其迟撤而养旤益深，不若早撤而除患较易。清圣祖力主撤藩，正英断有为之主。洎乎仓卒告警，举朝震动，圣祖独从容遣将，镇定如恒，且不允索额图之请，自损主威，圣祖诚可谓大过人者。「

毛泽东：「康熙三征噶尔丹，团结众蒙古部，把新疆牢牢地守住。他进兵西藏，振兴黄教，尊崇达赖喇嘛，护送六世达赖进藏，打败准噶尔人，为维护西南边疆的统一，迈出了关键性的一步。他进剿台湾，在澎湖激战，完成统一台湾的大业。他在东北收复雅克萨，组织东北各族人民进行抗俄斗争，和沙俄签订《尼布楚条约》，保证我永戍黑龙江，取得了独立自主外交的胜利，为巩固东北边疆做出了重大贡献。」

田淼：「康熙作为一代有作为的封建帝王，在政务之馀，花费了大量时间和精力研习西方数学和天文学知识，为西方数学在中国的传播和中国数学的发展做出了非常大的贡献，不能不说是非常可贵的。」

柏杨：「玄烨大帝，这个中国历史上最英明的君主之一，年轻气壮，有刘邦豁达大度的胸襟和李世民知人善任的智慧。」

高阳：「与唐太宗均是第一流的君主，其个人修养和道德言行也是无可挑剔。论述缺点时，谓其晚年因传位而至吏治渐坏。」

钱宗范：「他一生勤奋好学，博览群书。自然科学方面的数学、天文、历法、物理、地理、农学、医学、工程技术；人文方面的经、史、子、集；艺术方面的声律、书法、诗画。他几乎都有所研究。他写出了八九十篇关于自然科学方面的论著，他亲自审定了多种历史方面的书籍，他还精通多种民族语言。」

邵力子：「康熙本人尽管对西方科技感兴趣，但他却丝毫不打算将这种兴趣向官员和民众推广。对于西洋传来的学问，他似乎只想利用，只知欣赏，而从不注意造就人才，更不注意改变风气。

杨启樵：「康熙宽大，乾隆疏阔，要不是雍正的整饬，清朝恐早衰亡。」

轶事典故

刻苦学习

康熙帝幼年继位，立志「为治天下而学」，终身好学不倦，同时勤习骑射，弓马娴熟，体格健壮。其中，刻苦的学习精神和良好的读书方法对他治国理政具有不可替代的作用。康熙从少年时代开始直到晚年，对古代书家作品的学习都不曾间断。《石渠宝笈》和《佩文斋书画谱》著录了较多康熙对古代书迹的题跋。

养生与美食

康熙帝也是一位重视自然科学、精通医道的养生家，相传，八宝豆腐和康熙帝也有渊源。但是康熙晚年多病缠身，还患有高脂血症，这多少与他的饮食失衡有关。

家族

兄弟姐妹

兄弟

姊妹

堂姊妹（父亲养女）

后妃

顺治时期，已有册封封号妃的妃子，如：顺治世祖曾册封号立董鄂氏贤妃，甚至尊上为皇贵妃、皇后；博尔济吉特氏悼妃；博尔济吉特氏静妃。

从康熙登极初，封先朝顺治皇帝已逝的贞妃，可看出：《康熙朝实录》顺治十八年（1661年）二月：「康熙谕礼部、皇考（顺治）大行皇帝御宇时。妃董鄂氏……遂尔薨逝芳烈难泯，典礼宜崇，特进名封，以昭淑德，追封为贞妃。所有应行礼仪，尔部察例具奏」。

康熙初册封号礼的妃嫔，有努尔哈赤太祖、顺治世祖皇帝的妃嫔：皇曾祖寿康太妃（顺治十八年十月）、皇考贞妃（顺治十八年二月）、皇考恪妃（康熙六年）、皇考淑惠妃（康熙十二年）、皇考恭靖妃、皇考端顺妃、皇考宁悫妃，……：著会同礼部，详议典礼。

康熙于前期皆未册立自己的妃嫔的基本徽号礼（例如：孝昭仁皇后、荣妃…诸多妃嫔康熙初期顶多只册到妃）。

康熙前半生，只隆重册立第一任孝诚仁皇后（康熙四年大婚），孝诚仁皇后逝世唯一幼龄儿子胤礽立即被康熙立为皇太子，两年之后，于康熙十六（1677年）开始，才逐一有成批册立妃嫔基本的徽号礼。

皇后

皇贵妃

雍正上位期，未晋尊康熙妃嫔太妃之位，只晋封一批先朝妃嫔妃位。如：雍正元年，追封允祥母敏妃章佳氏为敬敏皇贵妃（已薨逝），并首开皇贵妃能祔葬康熙主陵的先例。雍正二年，雍正养母孝懿仁皇后还在世之妹封为皇考皇贵妃，与诸位康熙妃嫔同时册封。

乾隆朝之后，尊皇祖四太妃位。包括抚养乾隆为皇子时的慈母两位，各加徽号和晋升太妃之位为：寿祺皇贵太妃、温惠贵太妃。

贵妃

妃

嫔

贵人

庶妃

庶妃泛指未经册封的嫔御，有些嫔御虽未经正式册封，但在宫内被称为嫔，甚至贵妃。如顺懿密妃在奏摺内被称为王嫔，平妃赫舍里氏被清初重臣王熙称为贵妃。一些庶妃应能拥有嫔位，甚至妃位的待遇。因为康熙三十六年的《康熙朝满文朱批》显示妃位有六人，而当时正式册封为妃者仅有四人。

常在

答应

康熙帝有大小答应二百多人为谬误，康熙四十六年时，康熙帝的妃子仅有乾清宫主位十六人，大答应十人。康熙朝的乾清宫主位，即指皇后以下，大答应以上的妃子。因此景阳宫主位应非为康熙帝的后妃，或为以景阳宫为主的附属建筑群内的宫女子，如乾清宫主位实际上居住在东六宫、西六宫。另外，毓庆宫主位应为皇太子的妻妾。

格格

乾隆十九年二月，曹八里屯茔地安葬的格格已有144位，地坛后茔地安葬格格1位，以上共145位。未知当中有多少为康熙帝的格格。

子女

康熙共有三十五子、二十女。其中只有20个儿子、8个女儿活到成年。康熙诸子初随「承」、「保」、「长」等字、后均随「胤」字。之后雍正帝胤禛即位后为避帝王讳，诸皇子名中「胤」字改为「允」字。唯怡亲王允祥逝后，雍正帝将其名改回胤祥。

子（按出生顺序）

女

养女

影视形象

注释