生平经历

乱世即位

汉献帝刘协是汉灵帝刘宏的儿子，汉少帝刘辩的庶弟，母亲是美人王荣（五官中郎将王苞的孙女）。因汉灵帝何皇后性强忌威慑后宫，王荣刚怀孕时害怕，服药欲堕胎，而胎安不动，又数次梦到肩负著太阳行走，是为吉兆。刘协出生后，母亲王荣即被何皇后毒杀，他由祖母董太后抚养成人。中平六年（189年）四月，汉灵帝崩，刘协的异母兄刘辩即位，是为汉少帝，封刘协勃海王，又改封陈留王。

袁绍等人诛杀宦官时，他随刘辩被宦官张让和段圭绑架，遇到董卓。董卓曾和少帝谈话，少帝语无伦次，再和刘协谈话，刘协则将事情经过完整交代。董卓以为刘协贤能，且为董太后所养，又自以为与董太后同族，再加上要显示自己的权力，遂有废立之意。

中平六年（189年），董卓为了立威，废少帝，于九月甲戌日（9月28日）立当时九岁的刘协为皇帝。关东诸侯起兵讨伐董卓时，董卓杀少帝、何太后，火烧都城雒阳，挟刘协迁都长安。初平三年（192年），司徒王允成功诛杀董卓，但不久董卓的部下李傕、郭汜即攻陷长安，杀死大批大臣，再次挟持献帝。后来李郭二人内讧战斗，民不聊生，献帝与一批朝臣于兴平二年（195年）七月逃离长安，途中多次成为李傕、郭汜、张济、杨奉等军阀争夺挟制的目标。

迁至许都

汉献帝与朝臣历经一年才于建安元年（196年）七月到达旧都雒阳。不过雒阳早经董卓撤离时焚烧，宫室尽毁，百官披荆棘藏身断壁之间，更加粮草断绝。八月，朝臣曹操从雒阳挟刘协到许县，称许都，作为其「奉天子以令不臣」战略的一部分，刘协成为一位毫无实权的傀儡皇帝。宫中的守卫和侍从其实都是曹操的人，此前侍中台崇、尚书冯硕等官员被曹操杀死，此外议郎赵彦曾经向献帝进言分析局势和对策，因而被曹操杀害。汉献帝对曹操颇有微词。

建安五年（200年），大臣董承连同与王子服、种辑、刘备等人谋划对付曹操，董承却被曹操所刺。曹操欲杀董承之女董贵人，献帝以董贵人怀有汉室的血脉拒绝，但最终董贵人仍被曹操弑杀。

建安十八年（213年）时，曹操将三个女儿曹宪、曹节和曹华送入汉献帝后宫为夫人，年纪最小的曹华在国待年。次年，三女都被封为贵人。

建安十九年（214年），献帝的皇后伏寿之前写信给父亲伏完图谋诛杀曹操之事泄露，曹操大怒，逼献帝废后，更先替献帝写好诏书，命郗虑持节接收皇后印绶，又命尚书令华歆领兵入宫捉拿伏寿。伏寿躲在墙壁之中但被华歆发现拉出，经过外殿时见献帝，伏寿哭著说：「不能复相活邪？（不能再救救我吗？）」献帝答：「我亦不知命在何时。（我亦不知我何时会死。）」又对身旁的郗虑说：「郗公，天下宁有是邪？（郗公，天下间有这样的事吗？）」伏寿后被幽闭至死（《曹瞒传》称当场被弑），所生的两位皇子亦以毒酒毒害，伏氏宗族有百多人亦被处死，伏寿母亲盈等十九人都被流放到涿郡。

建安二十年正月（215年），立贵人曹节为皇后。

建安二十五年（220年）正月，曹操去世。三月献帝改元延康。十月乙卯日（11月25日），献帝在繁阳的受禅台之上将帝位「禅让」给曹丕，东汉结束。

禅让之后

曹丕篡汉后，封刘协为山阳公（属司隶河内郡），「邑一万户，位在诸侯王上，奏事不称臣，受诏不拜，以天子车服郊祀天地，宗庙、祖、腊皆如汉制，都山阳之浊鹿城」（《后汉书》本纪）。曹丕并对卫臻说「天下之珍，吾与山阳共之」（《三国志·卫臻传》）。而刘备一方误以为刘协被杀，给其上諡号为孝愍皇帝。

曹魏青龙二年（234年）三月庚寅（4月21日），刘协驾崩，享年五十四岁。曹睿闻讯后，「素服发哀，遣使持节典护丧事……追諡山阳公曰『孝献皇帝』，册赠玺绂……车旗服章丧葬礼仪，一如汉氏故制」，并宣布大赦天下。八月壬申（9月30日），刘协被安葬于山阳国，陵曰禅陵，置园邑。諡号为孝献皇帝。

大事记

光和四年（181年）

• 三月癸巳（4月2日），刘协出生，为祖母孝仁董皇后所养。刘协母为王美人（王荣），在庚子日（4月9日）为何皇后鸩杀。

中平六年（189年）

• 四月，孝灵帝刘宏去世，皇子刘辩即位，是为少帝（弘农怀王），封弟刘协为渤海王。七月，改封刘协为陈留王。八月，张让等杀害大将军何进，董卓入京。

• 九月甲戌（9月28日），董卓废少帝为弘农王，立陈留王为皇帝。丙子（9月30日），董卓鸩弑何太后。乙酉（10月9日），以太尉刘虞为大司马，卓自为太尉。领前将军事，加节传、斧钺、虎贲，更封郿侯。丙戌（10月10日），太中大夫杨彪为司空。甲午（10月18日），豫州牧黄琬为司徒。

• 十一月，以董卓为相国，赞拜不名，入朝不趋，剑履上殿。十二月戊戌（无此日），以司徒黄琬为太尉，司空杨彪为司徒，光禄勋荀爽为司空。

• 诏除光熹、昭宁、永汉三号，还复中平六年。

初平元年（190年）

• 正月，关东州郡起兵以讨伐董卓，推袁绍为联军盟主。癸丑（3月5日），董卓鸩弑废帝弘农王刘辩。二月，迁都长安，驱徙雒阳百姓悉西入关中。三月乙巳（4月27日），车驾入长安。董卓焚雒阳宫室，杀袁绍族人太傅袁隗、太仆袁基，夷其族。

初平二年（191年）

• 二月丁丑（3月25日），董卓自任太师。袁术遣将孙坚与董卓将胡轸战于阳人，轸军大败。董卓遂盗掘雒阳诸帝陵。夏四月，董卓入长安。

• 七月癸卯（8月18日），以光禄大夫淳于嘉为司空，太常马日磾为太尉。十月壬戌（11月5日），董卓杀卫尉张温。十一月，公孙瓒与青州黄巾军大战于勃海东光，大破黄巾军。

初平三年（192年）

• 正月，袁术遣孙坚攻刘表，坚军败；是月袁绍与公孙瓒战于界桥（今河北威县北），瓒军败。四月辛巳（5月22日），司徒王允与吕布诛董卓；东郡太守曹操大败黄巾军于寿张。五月，董卓部将李傕、郭汜、樊稠、张济等反。六月戊午（6月28日），攻陷长安，太常种拂、太仆鲁旭、大鸿胪周奂、城门校尉崔烈、越骑校尉王颀并战殁。杀害司隶校尉黄琬、司徒王允及其妻子。九月，李傕自为车骑将军，郭汜为后将军，樊稠为右将军，张济为镇东将军。

初平四年（193年）

• 三月，袁术杀扬州刺史陈温，据淮南。曹操父曹嵩为陶谦别将所斩。秋，曹操引兵击陶谦，夺徐州十馀城，坑杀男女数十万口。冬十月，公孙瓒杀大司马刘虞，据幽州。

兴平元年（194年）

• 正月辛酉（2月20日），改元兴平。甲子（2月23日），献帝加元服。三月，韩遂、马腾与郭汜、樊稠战于长平观，遂、腾败绩，左中郎将刘范、侍中马宇、谏议大夫种劭战殁。是月，曹操攻徐州陶谦。夏，使荀彧、程昱守鄄城，复征陶谦，拔五城，遂略地至东海。还过郯，谦将曹豹与刘备屯郯东，曹操破刘备，攻襄贲（今山东苍山县南）。八月，冯翊羌叛，寇属县，郭汜、樊稠击破之。十二月，扬州刺史刘繇与袁术将孙策战于曲阿，繇军败绩，孙策遂据江东。

兴平二年（195年）

• 二月，李傕杀樊稠而与郭汜相攻。三月丙寅（4月22日），李傕胁帝幸其营，焚宫室。四月甲午（5月20日），立贵人伏氏为皇后。丁酉（5月23日），郭汜攻李傕，矢及御前。是日，李傕移帝幸北坞。闰五月辛巳（7月6日），李傕自为大司马。六月庚午（无此日），张济自陕来和傕、汜。

• 秋七月甲子（无此日），车驾东归。郭汜自为车骑将军，杨定为后将军，杨奉为兴义将军，董承为安集将军，并侍送乘舆。张济为票骑将军，还屯陕。八月甲辰（9月27日），幸新丰。冬十月戊戌（11月20日），郭汜使其将伍习夜烧所幸学舍，逼胁乘舆。杨定、杨奉与郭汜战，破之。壬寅（11月24日），幸华阴，露次道南。

• 十一月庚午（12月22日），献帝幸弘农，李傕、郭汜等追乘舆，战于东涧，王师败绩，杀光禄勋邓渊、卫尉士孙瑞、廷尉宣播、大长秋苗祀，步兵校尉魏桀、侍中朱展、射声校尉沮儁。壬申（12月24日），幸曹阳，露次田中。杨奉、董承引白波帅胡才、李乐、韩暹及匈奴左贤王去卑，率师奉迎，与李傕等战，破之。庚辰（1月1日），车驾乃进。李傕等复来追战，王师大败，杀略宫人，少府田芬、大司农张义等皆战殁。进幸陕，夜度河。

• 十二月己亥（1月20日），幸安邑。庚子（1月21日），拜胡才为征东将军，张杨为安国将军。乙卯，（2月5日）张杨来朝，与董承谋以乘舆还雒阳；诸将不听，杨还野王。是岁，袁绍遣将麴义与公孙瓒战于鲍丘，瓒军大败。

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建安元年（196年）

• 正月癸酉（2月23日），大赦天下，改元建安。二月，韩暹攻卫将军董承。六月乙未（7月14日），幸闻喜。七月甲子（8月12日），车驾至雒阳，宫室前已焚毁，献帝居于中常侍赵忠宅。八月癸卯（9月20日），安国将军张杨为大司马，韩暹为将军，杨奉为车骑将军。时值饥荒，尚书郎以下官员挖野菜充饥，百官宫人多饿死，士兵亦剽杀官员。辛亥（9月28日），镇东将军曹操自领司隶校尉，录尚书事。曹操杀害侍中台崇、尚书冯硕等。封卫将军董承为辅国将军，伏完等十三人为列侯，赠沮儁为弘农太守。庚申（10月7日），迁都许。

• 九月己巳（10月16日），车驾到许，幸曹操营。甲戌（10月21日），以曹操为大将军，封武平侯。始立宗庙社稷于许。十一月丙戌（1月1日），曹操自为司空，行车骑将军事，百官总己以听。吕布袭徐州，刘备投奔曹操。

建安二年（197年）

• 春，袁术自称天子。三月，诏将作大匠孔融持节拜袁绍为大司马。九月，曹操东征袁术，袁术败走南渡淮水。

建安三年（198年）

• 四月，使谒者仆射裴茂诏关中诸将段煨等讨李傕，夷其三族，传李傕首到许。十一月，杨丑杀大将军张杨。十二月癸酉（2月7日），曹操斩吕布。

建安四年（199年）

• 三月，袁绍灭公孙瓒于易京。

建安五年（200年）

• 正月，车骑将军董承、偏将军吴子兰、王子服、越骑校尉种辑、议郎吴硕受密诏诛曹操，事泄。壬午（2月11日），曹操杀害董承等，夷三族。曹操东击刘备，破之，刘备奔青州。六月，孙策死。

• 七月，立皇子刘冯为南阳王。壬午（8月9日），南阳王刘冯薨。九月，曹操与袁绍战于官渡。十月，袁绍军大溃，前后所杀七万馀人。

建安六年（201年）

• 十一月，曹操攻刘备。刘备奔刘表，屯新野。

建安七年（202年）

• 五月庚戌，袁绍去世。于阗国献驯象。

建安八年（203年）

• 袁谭、袁尚争冀州。

建安九年（204年）

• 八月戊寅，曹操大破袁尚，平冀州，曹操自领冀州牧。

建安十年（205年）

• 正月，曹操破袁谭于青州，斩之。四月，黑山贼张燕率衆降。

建安十一年（206年）

• 三月，曹操破高干于并州，夺之。七月，武威太守张猛杀雍州刺史邯郸商。

建安十二年（207年）

• 八月，曹操大破乌桓于柳城，斩其蹋顿。十一月，辽东太守公孙康杀袁尚、袁熙。

建安十三年（208年）

• 六月癸巳，曹操自为丞相。七月，曹操南征刘表。八月壬子，曹操杀害太中大夫孔融，夷其族。是月，刘表卒，少子刘琮立，刘琮以荆州降操。

• 冬，曹操以舟师伐孙权，孙权将周瑜与曹操战于乌林、赤壁，曹军大败。

建安十四年（209年）

• 十月，荆州地震。

建安十五年（210年）

• 刘备以孙权行车骑将军，刘备领荆州牧，屯公安。七月，曹操征孙权。

建安十六年（211年）

• 九月庚戌，曹操与韩遂、马超战于渭南，遂等大败，关西平。是岁，刘备入益州。

建安十七年（212年）

• 五月癸未（无此日），诛卫尉马腾，夷三族。八月，马超破凉州，杀刺史韦康。九月庚戌，立皇子刘熙为济阴王，刘懿为山阳王，刘邈为济北王，刘敦为东海王。

建安十八年（213年）

• 正月庚寅，复禹贡九州。五月丙申，曹操自立为魏公，加九锡。是岁，曹操进三女曹宪、曹节、曹华为夫人。

建安十九年（214年）

• 四月，刘备破刘璋，领益州牧。十月，曹操遣将夏侯渊讨宋建于枹罕，获之。十一月丁卯，曹操弑皇后伏寿，灭其族及二皇子。

建安二十年（215年）

• 正月甲子（3月6日），立贵人曹节为皇后。七月，曹操夺汉中，张鲁降。

建安二十一年（216年）

• 四月甲午，曹操自进号魏王。七月，匈奴南单于来朝。

建安二十二年（217年）

• 六月，丞相军师华歆为御史大夫。

建安二十三年（218年）

• 正月甲子（2月18日），金禕与少府耿纪、丞相司直韦晃、太医令吉本、吉本子吉邈、吉邈弟吉穆等起兵诛曹操，不克，夷三族。

建安二十四年（219年）

• 五月，刘备破曹操，取汉中。七月庚子（无此日），刘备称汉中王。关羽伐曹操将曹仁，擒于禁于樊城。十一月，孙权将吕蒙袭取荆州，杀害关羽。

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延康元年（220年）

• 正月庚子（3月15日），魏王曹操去世。世子曹丕袭位。三月，改元延康。

• 冬十月乙卯（11月25日），献帝被迫禅位，十月辛未（12月11日），魏王曹丕篡汉自立。十一月癸酉（12月13日），奉刘协为山阳公，行汉正朔，封邑一万户。四皇子封王者，皆降为列侯。

• 蜀地传闻献帝遇害，刘备乃发丧制服，上谥号为「孝愍皇帝」。

黄初二年（221年）

• 四月，刘备称帝于荆蜀。十月，孙权称王于吴。

黄初四年（223年）

• 十二月丙寅（1月20日），魏文帝曹丕赐山阳公夫人汤沐邑，封刘协女刘曼为长乐郡公主，食邑各500户。

青龙二年（234年）

• 三月庚寅（4月21日），刘协驾崩，年五十四，魏明帝曹睿上谥号为「孝献皇帝」。八月壬申（9月30日），以汉天子礼仪葬刘协于禅陵。

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【注】：

臣下

• 尚弘，官至行军校尉，李傕之乱时，汉献帝逃出长安，尚弘力大，背献帝登船，渡河。

• 董承

• 杨彪

• 裴茂

• 王子服

• 种辑

• 吴子兰

• 吉本

• 段煨

• 郗虑

• 伏完

家庭

长辈

• 祖母 董太后

• 父亲 汉灵帝刘宏

• 嫡母 灵思皇后何氏

• 生母 美人王氏（追諡灵怀皇后）

姻亲

• 岳飞

　• 伏完

　• 曹操

• 妻舅

　• 伏典

　• 曹丕

后妃

• 伏寿，元后。

• 曹节，继后，諡号献穆皇后，曹操之女。

• 曹宪，贵人，曹操之女，曹节之姊。

• 曹华，贵人，曹操之女，曹宪、曹节之妹。

• 董氏，贵人，车骑将军董承之女

• 宋都，贵人，常山太守宋泓之女

• 郭宫人

• 赵宫人

子女

儿子

• 刘冯，建安五年（200年）七月封南阳王，同年逝世。

• 刘熙，建安十七年（212年）封济阴王。

• 刘懿，建安十七年（212年）封山阳王。

• 刘邈，建安十七年（212年）封济北王。

• 刘敦，建安十七年（212年）封东海王。

• 另伏寿生有二子，均于200年以后出生，名不详，皆于建安十九年（214年）为曹操所弑。

• 太子，名字不详，早卒。子刘康。

汉献帝禅位时，尚有四皇子在世，曹魏皆封为列侯。

女儿

• 刘曼，魏文帝黄初四年十二月十二日（224年1月20日）封长乐郡公主，食邑五百户。

• 另有二女皆为魏文帝曹丕之嫔。

孙

• 刘康，袭爵山阳公51年，西晋太康六年（285年）逝世。

曾孙

• 刘瑾，刘康子，袭爵山阳公4年，西晋太康十年（289年）逝世。

玄孙

• 刘秋，袭爵山阳公20年，西晋永嘉三年（309年），五胡乱华被杀。

评价

• 袁术：「圣主聪睿，有周成之质。」（《三国志·卷六·魏书六·董二袁刘传第六》）

• 袁山松：「献帝崎岖危乱之间，飘薄万里之衢，萍流蓬转，险阻备经，自古帝王未之有也。观其天性慈爱，弱而神惠，若辅之以德，真守文令主也。曹氏始于勤王，终至陷天，遂力制群雄，负鼎而趋，然因其利器，假而不反，回山倒海，遂移天日。昔田常假汤、武而杀君，操因尧、舜而窃国，所乘不同，济其盗贼之身一也。善乎！庄生之言：窃钩者诛，窃国者为诸侯，诸侯之门仁义存焉。信矣。」

• 范晔：「传称鼎之为器，虽小而重，故神之所宝，不可夺移。至令负而趋者，此亦穷运之归乎！天厌汉德久矣，山阳其何诛焉！」「献生不辰，身播国屯。终我四百，永作虞宾。」

艺术形象

动漫

• 《三国志》

• 《三国演义》

• 《横山光辉三国志》（横山光辉）

• 《苍天航路》（王欣太）

• 《火凤燎原》（陈某）

电影

电视剧

Family background

Liu Xie was born in 181 to Emperor Ling and his Consort Wang. During her pregnancy, Consort Wang, fearful of Emperor Ling's Empress He, had taken drugs that were intended to induce an abortion, but was not successful in her attempt. Soon after she gave birth to Liu Xie, the jealous Empress He poisoned her by putting poison in her food. Emperor Ling was enraged and wanted to depose her, but the eunuchs pleaded on her behalf, and she was not deposed. Liu Xie was raised personally by Emperor Ling's mother Empress Dowager Dong and known by the circumspect title "Marquis Dong". (This is due to superstition; Emperor Ling had lost a number of sons previously, and therefore both Liu Xie and his elder brother Liu Bian were known by such titles; Liu Bian, having been raised by Shi Zimiao (史子眇), was known as "Marquis Shi"). Liu Bian was born of the empress and was older, but Emperor Ling viewed his behaviour as being insufficiently solemn and therefore considered appointing Liu Xie as his crown prince, but hesitated and could not decide.

When Emperor Ling died in 189, an influential eunuch official whom he trusted, Jian Shuo, wanted to first kill Empress He's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, and then install Liu Xie on the throne, and therefore set up a trap at a meeting he was to have with He Jin. He Jin found out, and preemptively declared Liu Bian the new emperor. Later that year, Emperor Shao granted Liu Xie the title "Prince of Bohai" (渤海王) and later changed his title to "Prince of Chenliu".

Accession to the throne and collapse of the Han dynasty

Rise of Dong Zhuo

After Liu Bian became emperor, He Jin became the most powerful official in the imperial court, and he and his advisor Yuan Shao quickly entered into a conspiracy to exterminate the eunuchs. They were, however, rebuffed by Empress Dowager He, and they hatched the plan to secretly order a number of warlords to advance on the capital Luoyang to force Empress Dowager He to agree to their demands. One of these warlords was Dong Zhuo, who saw this as an opportunity to control the central government.

He Jin's plan was discovered by the eunuchs, who laid a trap for him and killed him. Yuan Shao then led his forces into the palace and killed the majority of the eunuchs. The remaining eunuchs initially took the young emperor and Liu Xie hostage, but were eventually forced to commit suicide when the battle turned against them. When Dong Zhuo then arrived on scene, he, impressed with his own power and unimpressed with the nervous Emperor Shao, forced the young emperor to yield the throne to Liu Xie (partly because he was raised by Empress Dowager Dong who, while not related to Dong Zhuo, was therefore respected by Dong Zhuo), who then ascended the throne as Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo then murdered Empress Dowager He and the former Emperor Shao, and became firmly in control of the political scene.

Forced relocation west and the death of Dong Zhuo

In the spring of 190, a number of local officials, loosely forming a coalition led by Yuan Shao, quickly rose up against Dong Zhuo. Even though they still feared Dong Zhuo's military power and did not directly advance on Luoyang, Dong Zhuo was also fearful of their collective strength, and therefore determined to move the capital west to the old Han capital Chang'an, closer to his power base in Liang Province (凉州; covering present-day Gansu). On 9 April 190, he forced Emperor Xian to relocate to Chang'an and set fire to Luoyang, leaving it largely in ruins.

After the revolting coalition collapsed, a number of officials, led by Wang Yun and Lü Bu, assassinated Dong on 22 May 192. For a while, it appeared that the Han regime might return to normal, as Wang Yun quickly established relatively friendly relations with the local officials resisting Dong but by this time acting more as local warlords. However, due to Wang Yun's failure to pacify Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, they rose in revolt and killed Wang.

Return to Luoyangs ruins

Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, led by Li Jue and Guo Si, took Emperor Xian and the imperial court under their control. However, Li Jue and Guo Si did not have serious ambitions, and their incompetence in governance furthered the breakdown of the Han Empire into warlord regimes. In 195, Li Jue and Guo Si had a major fallout, and Li took Emperor Xian hostage while Guo took the officials hostage as they battled. Later in the year, after peace talks between Li Jue and Guo Si, they agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to Luoyang, but as soon as Emperor Xian departed Chang'an, they regretted their decision and chased him with their troops. While they were never able to capture him, Emperor Xian's court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself, and once it returned to Luoyang, it lacked even the basic essentials of life. Many officials starved to death. At this time, Yuan Shao's strategist Ju Shou suggested that he welcome Emperor Xian to his base in Ji Province so that he could effectively be in control of the central government, but the other strategists Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong opposed – under the faulty logic that if he did, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan Shao listened to Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong and never again considered welcoming Emperor Xian.

Tight control by Cao Cao

What Yuan Shao would not do, Cao Cao did. Cao Cao was at this time a relatively minor warlord, as the governor of Yan Province (covering present-day western Shandong and eastern Henan), with his headquarters at Xu (present-day Xuchang, Henan). He saw the strategic advantage in having the emperor under his control and protection, and in 196 he marched west to Luoyang and, after securing an agreement with Emperor Xian's generals Dong Cheng and Yang Feng, convincing them of his loyalty, he entered Luoyang and technically shared power with Dong and Yang, but was in fact in command.

Unlike the situation with Dong Zhuo, though, Cao Cao knew how to assuage the other generals and nobles, and while he gave them little power, he made sure that they remained honoured, so minimal opposition against him developed at the imperial court. He then moved the capital to Xu to affirm his control over the central government, and when Yang Feng opposed him, he defeated Yang and was able to move the capital.

Cao Cao then began to issue imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name – including a harshly-worded edict condemning Yuan Shao for taking over nearby provinces – even though it still bestowed Yuan with the highly honorific post of Grand Commandant. Cao Cao and Emperor Xian maintained a superficially cordial relationship, but this did not prevent two major confrontations involving Cao and other court officials.

In early 199, as Cao Cao was facing a major military confrontation against Yuan Shao, Dong Cheng claimed to have received a secret edict issued by Emperor Xian (hidden in a belt), and he entered into a conspiracy with Liu Bei, Zhong Ji (种辑) and Wang Fu (王服) to assassinate Cao Cao. Late in 199, Liu Bei started a rebellion and waited for Dong Cheng to act in the capital, but in 200, Dong's conspiracy was discovered, and he, along with Zhong Ji and Wang Fu, were killed. Liu Bei was later defeated by Cao Cao and forced to flee to Yuan Shao's territory. Dong Cheng's daughter, an imperial consort, was pregnant, and Emperor Xian personally tried to intercede for her, but Cao Cao had her executed anyway.

Emperor Xian's empress, Fu Shou, angry and fearful about how Consort Dong died, wrote her father, Fu Wan (伏完), a letter accusing Cao Cao of cruelty, and implicitly asking her father to start a new conspiracy against Cao. Fu Wan was fearful of Cao Cao and never acted on the letter, in 214, her letter was discovered. Cao Cao was extremely angry and forced Emperor Xian to have Empress Fu deposed. Emperor Xian was hesitant, and Cao Cao sent his soldiers into the palace to put pressure on the emperor. Empress Fu hid inside the walls, but was finally discovered and dragged out. As she was led away, she cried out to Emperor Xian for him to save her life, but his only response was that he could not even know what would happen to him. She was killed, along with her three sons and family. Cao Cao soon forced Emperor Xian to instate his daughter Cao Jie, then an imperial consort, as the new empress.

Abdication and death

Cao Cao died on 15 March 220. His son and successor, Cao Pi, soon forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in favour of himself, ending the Han dynasty. Cao Pi established a new state known as Cao Wei (sometimes known inaccurately as the Kingdom of Wei), and he granted Emperor Xian a noble title – Duke of Shanyang (山阳公). The former Emperor Xian died in 234 and was buried with honours befitting an emperor, using Han ceremonies, and the then emperor of Wei, Cao Rui, was one of the mourners. As Emperor Xian's crown prince was already dead, his grandson Liu Kang inherited his dukedom, which lasted for 75 more years and two more dukes, Liu Jin and Liu Qiu, until the line was exterminated by invading Xiongnu tribes in about 309, during the Jin dynasty. This practice of an emperor conferring hereditary nobility on his predecessor, from whom he usurped the throne, was known as er wang san ke (二王三恪).

Era names

• 189: Yonghan (永汉 Yǒnghàn)

• 190–193: Chuping (初平 Chūpíng|labels=no)

• 194–195: Xingping (兴平 Xīngpíng)

• 196–220: Jian'an (建安 Jiàn'ān|labels=no)

• 220: Yankang (延康 Yánkāng|labels=no)

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress, of the Fu clan (皇后 伏氏; d. 214), personal name Shou (寿)

　• Liu Feng, Prince of Nanyang (南阳王 刘冯; d. 214)

　• Two other sons (d. 214)

• Empress Xianmu, of the Cao clan (献穆皇后 曹氏; 197–260), personal name Jie (节)

　• Princess Changle (长乐公主), personal name Man (曼)

• Guiren, of the Dong clan (董贵人; d. 200)

• Guiren, of the Cao clan ( 曹贵人), personal name Xian (宪)

• Guiren, of the Cao clan ( 曹贵人), personal name Hua (华)

• Unknown

　• Unnamed eldest son

　• Liu Xi, Prince of Jiyin (济阴王 刘熙)

　• Liu Yi, Prince of Shanyang (山阳王 刘懿)

　• Liu Mao, Prince of Jibei (济北王 刘貌)

　• Liu Dun, Prince of Donghai (东海王 刘敦)

　• Two other daughters, both married Cao Pi (187–226)

Ancestry