中国哲学书电子化计划 数据维基 | |
简体字版 |
司马迁[查看正文] [修改] [查看历史]ctext:760586
显示更多...: 人物生平 早期经历 自序 获罪 卒殁 历史评价 主要作品 《史记》 其他作品 家族 直系祖先 后代 传说 后世纪念 影视 注释
人物生平
早期经历
司马迁,生于汉景帝、汉武帝年间,司马谈是太史令,所以司马迁在十岁时已能阅读诵习古文《尚书》、《左传》、《国语》等书。司马迁早年受学于孔安国、董仲舒等大儒,并畅游各地,采集传闻。十九岁时,他从长安出发,足迹遍及江淮和中原地区,并对所到之处的风俗进行考察,采集传说。早期迁仕为郎中,奉使西征巴蜀以南,略邛、莋、昆明,还报命。」二十五岁时,以使者监军的身份,出使西南夷,担负起在西南设郡的任务。足迹遍及「邛、莋、昆明」等地。汉武帝元封元年(前110年)司马谈去世,三年之后,司马迁承袭父职,任太史令,同时也继承父亲遗志(司马谈临终曾对司马迁说:「余死,汝必为太史;为太史,无忘吾所欲论著矣。」),准备撰写一部通史。汉武帝太初元年(前104年),司马迁与唐都、落下闳等共同定立了「太初历」,该历法改变了秦代使用的颛顼历以十月为岁首的习惯,而改以正月为岁首。从而奠定了其后两千年来所尊奉的历法基础。之后司马迁便潜心修史,开始了《史记》的写作,开创纪传体史学,称太史公。
自序
• 自称其先祖是颛顼时期的天官。《史记·太史公自序》记载「昔在颛顼,命南正重以司天,北正黎以司地。唐、虞之际,绍重、黎之后,使复典之,至于夏、商,故重、黎氏世序天地。
• 而九世祖是秦国的大将司马错。
• 《史记·太史公自序》中,司马迁说:「迁生龙门,耕牧河山之阳。年十岁则诵古文。」
• 《史记·太史公自序》中,司马迁说:「(他)二十而南游江、淮,上会稽,探禹穴,窥九疑,浮沅、湘。北涉汶、泗,讲业齐鲁之都,观夫子遗风,乡射邹峄;厄困蕃、薛、彭城,过梁、楚以归。」
获罪
早在司马迁撰写《史记》时,汉武帝翻阅《孝景本纪第十一》和《今上本纪第十二》后,认为司马迁的敍述有意贬损自己,不禁勃然大怒,命人削去了书简上的字,并把这些书简扔掉了,可见当时汉武帝对司马迁已经甚为不满。
汉武帝天汉二年(公元前99年),名将「飞将军」李广的孙子李陵主动请缨出击匈奴,兵败被俘,汉武帝震怒。满朝文武都认为李陵叛降,全家当诛。而在这时,身为太史令的司马迁却为李陵辩护。他认为李陵兵败投降是因为「矢尽道穷,救兵不至」,而且李陵是希望「欲得其当而报汉」。李陵虽然兵败,但是他以少胜多,以弱胜强,「其所摧败,功亦足以暴于天下」。
司马迁这番表述却没有得到汉武帝的理解,汉武帝认为他是藉李陵之功,诋毁这场战争的主帅李广利(此人为汉武帝宠姬李夫人的哥哥),进而批评自己用人不当,造成军事失利,再加上司马迁在撰写史记时,内容有意贬损汉武帝的心结,在大怒下将司马迁投入牢狱,以「诬罔」(欺骗皇帝)的罪名判处死刑。当时的死刑有两种方式可以充抵,第一种是「令死罪入赎钱五十万减死一等」。另一种是按照汉景帝时期所颁布的法律「死罪欲腐者,许之」,处以腐刑(阉割)。由于没有足够的金钱可以赎身,司马迁只得接受腐刑。对此他曾表示过「祸莫憯于欲利,悲莫痛于伤心,行莫丑于辱先,而诟莫大于宫刑。刑馀之人无所比数非一世也」 。
关于司马迁下狱,另有一说是司马迁举荐李陵所导致的。
卒殁
对于司马迁的死,历史上没有明确记载,使得卒年无法确定,死因也众说纷纭。
有史料认为司马迁一直到汉昭帝年间善终,有人认为司马迁完成《史记》之后,便隐居山野,不知所终,故无从䅲考。1916年,王国维第一次将司马迁生卒年作为学术问题进行考证,以为卒年「绝不可考……然视为与武帝相终始,当无大误」。从巫蛊之乱到汉武帝去世这一段时间,司马迁是否仍在世,不可考。
东汉卫宏《汉书·旧仪注》:「司马迁作《景帝本纪》极言其短,及武帝过,武帝怒而削去之,后坐举李陵,陵降匈奴,故下迁蚕室,有怨言,下狱死。」指司马迁最终仍因口出怨言被下狱而死。
历史评价
• 朱子《语类》〈历代一〉言道:「司马迁才高,识亦高,但粗率。」
• 曾国藩〈圣哲画像记〉说:「太史公称庄子之书皆寓言,吾观子长所为《史记》,寓言亦居十之六七。班氏闳识孤怀,不逮子长远甚」。
• 鲁迅在《汉文学史纲要》里称赞《史记》是「史家之绝唱,无韵之离骚」。
• 郑樵称:「六经之后,唯有此作」。
• 赵翼《廿二史札记》说:「司马迁参酌古今,发凡起例,创为全史,本纪以序帝王, 世家以记侯国,十表以系时事,八书以详制度,列传以志人物,然后一代君臣政事贤否得失,总汇于一编之中。自此例一定,历代作史者遂不能出其范围,信史家之极则也。」
• 黄淳耀(明)评论:「太史公以孤愤之故,叙广不啻出口,而传卫青若不值一钱,然随文读之,广与青之优劣终不掩。」
• 黄震(宋)在《史记评林》中则认为:「凡看卫霍传,须合李广看。卫霍深入二千里,声振华夷,今看其传,不值一钱。李广每战辄北,困踬终身,今看其传,英风如在。史氏抑扬予夺之妙,岂常手可望哉?」
主要作品
《史记》
《史记》对后世史学和文学的发展都产生了深远影响。其首创的纪传体编史方法为后来历代「正史」所传承。同时,《史记》还被认为是一部优秀的文学著作,在中国文学史上有重要地位。被鲁迅誉为「史家之绝唱,无韵之离骚」。
司马迁著《史记》,其史学观念在于「究天人之际,通古今之变,成一家之言」。司马迁探求的天人之际,并非承认天的神秘力量反而重视天人之间关系的演变,从而了解「古今之变」的关键,探求出历史动态发展变化的层面,最终完成「一家之言」。而他的撰述动机,主要有以下三方面:
• 司马迁为了继承其父司马谈编订史书的遗志,完成撰述《史记》的宏愿。司马氏在周朝时世为史官,春秋时期虽然失去官职,司马谈却把修撰史书视为自己的神圣职责,一心继承先人久绝的世业—太史令,重现孔子撰述《春秋》的精神,整理和论述上代历史。《隋书·经籍志》说:「谈乃据《左氏春秋》、《国语》、《世本》、《战国策》、《楚汉春秋》,接其后事,成一家之言。」可见司马谈有意继续编订《春秋》以后的史事。汉武帝元封元年,武帝进行封禅大典,司马谈身为太史令,却无缘参与当世盛事,引为终生之憾,忧愤而死。他死前将遗志嘱咐儿子司马迁说:「今天子接千岁之统,封泰山,而余不得从行,是命也夫!余死,汝必为太史,无忘吾所欲论著矣……」司马迁则回答道:「小子不敏,请悉论先人所次旧闻。」可知司马迁乃秉承父亲的遗志完成史著。而《史记》以「封禅书」为其八书之一,即见其秉先父之意。
• 司马迁想继承《春秋》精神。司马迁在zh-hans:《太史公自序》; zh-hant:〈太史公自序〉;说:「先人有言,自周公卒,五百岁而有孔子,孔子卒后,至于今五百岁,有能绍明世,正《易传》、继《春秋》、本《诗》、《书》、《礼》、《乐》之际,意在斯乎?意在斯乎?小子何敢让焉?」此正暗示其有明道义,显扬志业人物的使命。《春秋》的下限,到鲁哀公获麟之年,此后的史事就没有完整的史籍记载。司马迁是绍继《春秋》,并以汉武帝元狩元年「获麟」及太初元年改历下限,撰写史记。然而,司马迁继承《春秋》,不仅是要形式上承继周公以来的道统,反而是重视《春秋》的性质,他在《太史公自序》说:「夫《春秋》,上明三王之道,下辨人事之纪,别嫌疑,明是非,定犹豫,善善恶恶,贤贤贱不肖,存亡国,继绝世,补敝起废,王道之大者也……《春秋》以道义,拨乱世,反之正,莫近于《春秋》。」可见司马迁对「春秋之义」和「春秋笔法」心仪已久,这是他要承孔子的真意、秉承《春秋》褒贬精神,撰述《史记》。
• 司马迁要肩负史家职责。据《后汉书·百官志》载,「太史令」只是俸禄六百石的小官,职责仅在于管理图籍,掌管星象天文,最多也只是记录上代及当代事情,并无著述的责任。然而,司马谈和司马迁明显不满足于「拾遗补蓺」。司马谈早有整理上代历史的计划,可惜却「发愤而卒」,临终前叮嘱司马迁:「自获麟以来四百有馀岁,而诸侯相兼,史记放绝……余为太史而弗论载,废天下之史文,余甚惧焉,汝其念哉!」,认为他们既为太史令,则有完成前代历史记述的任务。司马迁在《太史公自序》也指出身为太史的职责说:「且余尝掌其官,废明圣盛德不载,灭功臣、世家、贤大夫之不述,隳先人之言,罪莫大焉。」因此,司马迁一心秉承先人世传及「述往事以思来者」的责任感,决意撰述《史记》。在《报任安书》中亦透露著述《史记》的目的,他说「凡百三十篇,亦欲以究天人之际,通古今之变,成一家之言。」可见他不但要完成太史令的责任,更要尽史学家的职责。
民国史学家吕思勉先生考证文风等各个方面,认为 《史记》当中有一大部分甚至是极大部分并非司马迁所作,而是司马迁抄篡古书所得,《序》和《论赞》部分基本可以肯定是他自己所作,但仍然有可能为其父亲司马谈所作,无法加以考证。
其他作品
• 《报任少卿书》(《报任安书》)
• 《悲士不遇赋》
家族
直系祖先
• 九世祖,武将司马错,战国时期秦国人。秦惠文王时期,司马错曾与张仪辩论,辩论内容被收入《战国策·秦策》,后收入《古文观止》,名为《司马错论伐蜀》。辩论胜利后,秦惠文王派司马错等人出兵巴蜀,得胜而守之。
• 七世祖,司马靳为名将武安君白起副手,参与长平之战,坑杀赵卒四十万人,司马错、司马靳等军事之功为秦国奠定了一统天下的军事基础。
• 五世祖,司马昌
• 四世祖,司马无泽
• 祖父,司马喜
• 父亲是西汉武帝时期太史令司马谈。司马谈是当时一位非常杰出的学者,著有《论六家要旨》一文,系统总结了从春秋至汉初间阴阳、儒、墨、法、名、道各家思想的利弊得失,并对道家思想进行了高度肯定。该文是对春秋战国以来的诸子百家思想的高度概括和凝练总结。司马谈在约汉武帝建元六年至元封元年间任太史令。
后代
• 司马迁的儿子在史籍中没有记载,王莽当政时曾考求其后人,封为「史通子」。司马迁有一女,嫁安平敬侯杨敞,生杨忠和杨恽。在汉宣帝的时候,杨恽被封为平通侯,这时候他看到当时朝政清明,想到他的外祖父司马迁这部巨著正是重见天日的时候,于是上书汉宣帝,把《史记》献了出来,从此天下人得以共读这部伟大的史著。
传说
韩城民间传说:司马迁因为李陵事件获罪后,其族人多改姓避祸。或将「司」加一竖改姓「同」;或将「马」加两点改姓「冯」。所以,现在芝川镇西原上徐村同姓、冯姓的人,都是他的同族后裔。
随清娱为司马迁的侍妾。年十七归司马迁,随其游历名山。数百年后,唐代褚遂良任同州刺史,得清娱托梦,醒后便为她立碑撰写墓志。
明代史学家柯维骐以司马迁为榜样专心著《宋史新编》,竟毅然自宫。
后世纪念
• 现在,陕西韩城芝川镇南原头上有司马迁墓和祠。芝川镇西原上徐村有司马迁故里、祖墓碑。据载韩城「城内有太史公祠,年月邑人莫不祭之。有孝廉徐氏携香火入试燕京,号称『助文』。」至今韩城人仍有每逢节庆就祭拜司马迁的习俗,传说可以保佑远行之人,尤其是远行的士人举子得到平安与功名。
• 日本历史小说家福田定一(1923-1996)笔名为「司马辽太郎」,乃取「远不及司马迁」之意。
• 英国知名汉学家Jonathan Dermot Spence的中文汉名「史景迁」,乃取「景仰太史公司马迁」之意。
影视
• 1997年电视剧《司马迁与汉武帝》:仇永力
• 2001年电视剧《大汉天子》:李晟毓
• 2005年电视剧《汉武大帝》:王往
注释
Sima Qian (; ; – ) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206 – AD220). He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his Records of the Grand Historian, a general history of China in the Jizhuanti style (纪传体) covering more than two thousand years beginning from the rise of the legendary Yellow Emperor and the formation of the first Chinese polity to the reigning sovereign of Sima Qian's time, Emperor Wu of Han. As the first universal history of the world as it was known to the ancient Chinese, the Records of the Grand Historian served as a model for official history-writing for subsequent Chinese dynasties and the Chinese cultural sphere (Korea, Vietnam, Japan) up until the 20th century.
Sima Qian's father Sima Tan (司马谈) first conceived of the ambitious project of writing a complete history of China, but only completed some preparatory sketches at the time of his death. After inheriting his father's position as court historian in the imperial court, he was determined to fulfill his father's dying wish of composing and putting together this epic work of history. However, in 99 BC, he would fall victim to the Li Ling affair for speaking out in defense of the general, who was blamed for an unsuccessful campaign against the Xiongnu. Given the choice of being executed or castrated, he chose the latter in order to finish his historical work. Although he is universally remembered for the Records, surviving works indicate that he was also a gifted poet and prose writer, and he was instrumental in the creation of the Taichu calendar, which was officially promulgated in 104 BC.
As his position in the imperial court was "Grand Historian" (tàishǐ 太史, variously translated as court historian, scribe, or astronomer/astrologer), later generations would accord him with the honorific title of "Lord Grand Historian" (Tàishǐ Gōng 太史公) for his monumental work, though his magnum opus was completed many years after his tenure as Grand Historian ended in disgrace and after his acceptance of punitive actions against him, including imprisonment, castration, and subjection to servility. He was acutely aware of the importance of his work to posterity and its relationship to his own personal suffering. In the postface of the Records, he implicitly compared his universal history of China to the classics of his day, the Guoyu by Zuoqiu Ming, Lisao by Qu Yuan, and the Art of War by Sun Bin, pointing out that their authors all suffered great personal misfortunes before their lasting monumental works could come to fruition. Sima Qian is depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu (无双谱, Table of Peerless Heroes) by Jin Guliang.
显示更多...: Early life and education As Han court official The Li Ling affair Later years and death Records of the Grand Historian Format Influences and works influenced Innovations and unique features Literary figure Other literary works Astronomer/astrologer Family Unsubstantiated descendants
Early life and education
Sima Qian was born at Xiayang in Zuopingyi (around present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi Province). He was most likely born about 145, though some sources give his birth year as about 135. Around 136, his father, Sima Tan, received an appointment to the relatively low-ranking position of "grand historian" (tàishǐ 太史, alt. "grand scribe" or "grand astrologer"). The grand historian's primary duty was to formulate the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious or inauspicious, and present it to the emperor prior to New Year's Day. Besides these duties, the grand historian was also to travel with the emperor for important rituals and to record the daily events both at the court and within the country. By his account, by the age of ten Sima was able to "read the old writings" and was considered to be a promising scholar. Sima grew up in a Confucian environment, and Sima always regarded his historical work as an act of Confucian filial piety to his father.
In 126, around the age of twenty, Sima Qian began an extensive tour around China as it existed in the Han dynasty. He started his journey from the imperial capital, Chang'an (near modern Xi'an), then went south across the Yangtze River to
Changsha Kingdom (modern Hunan Province), where he visited the Miluo River site where the Warring States era poet Qu Yuan was traditionally said to have drowned himself. He then went to seek the burial place of the legendary rulers Yu on Mount Kuaiji and Shun in the Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan County, Hunan). He then went north to Huaiyin (modern Huai'an, Jiangsu Province) to see the grave of Han dynasty general Han Xin, then continued north to Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, where he studied ritual and other traditional subjects.
As Han court official
After his travels, Sima was chosen to be a Palace Attendant in the government, whose duties were to inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Wu in 122 BC. Sima married young and had one daughter. In 110 BC, at the age of thirty-five, Sima Qian was sent westward on a military expedition against some "barbarian" tribes. That year, his father fell ill due to the distress of not being invited to attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting his time was running out, he summoned his son back home to take over the historical work he had begun. Sima Tan wanted to follow the Annals of Spring and Autumn—the first chronicle in the history of Chinese literature. It appears that Sima Tan was only able to put together an outline of the work before he died. In the postface of the completed Shiji, there is a short essay on the six philosophical schools that is explicitly attributed to Sima Tan. Otherwise, there are only fragments of the Shiji that are speculated to be authored by Sima Tan or based on his notes. Fueled by his father's inspiration, Sima Qian spent much of the subsequent decade authoring and compiling the Records of the Grand Historian, completing it before 91 BC, probably around 94 BC. Three years after the death of his father, Sima Qian assumed his father's previous position as taishi. In 105 BC, Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general affairs of state.
The Li Ling affair
In 99 BC, Sima became embroiled in the Li Ling affair, where Li Ling and Li Guangli, two military officers who led a campaign against the Xiongnu in the north, were defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu attributed the defeat to Li Ling, with all government officials subsequently condemning him for it. Sima was the only person to defend Li Ling, who had never been his friend but whom he respected. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's defence of Li as an attack on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to death. At that time, execution could be commuted either by money or castration. Since Sima did not have enough money to atone his "crime", he chose the latter and was then thrown into prison, where he endured three years. He described his pain thus: "When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his underlings you are seized with terror ... Such ignominy can never be wiped away." Sima called his castration "the worst of all punishments".
In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on as a palace eunuch to complete his histories, rather than commit suicide as was expected of a gentleman-scholar who had been disgraced by being castrated. As Sima Qian himself explained in his Letter to Ren An:
Later years and death
Upon his release from prison in 97/96 BC, Sima Qian continued to serve in the Han court as zhongshuling (中书令), a court archivist position reserved for eunuchs with considerable status and with higher pay than his previous position of historian.
The Letter to Ren An was written by Sima Qian in reply to Ren An in response to the latter's involvement in Crown Prince Liu Ju's rebellion in 91 BC. This is the last record of Sima Qian in contemporary documents. The letter is a reply to a lost letter by Ren An to Sima Qian, perhaps asking Sima Qian to intercede on his behalf as Ren An was facing execution for accusations of being an opportunist and displaying equivocal loyalty to the emperor during the rebellion. In his reply, Sima Qian stated that he is a mutilated man with no influence at court. Some later historians claimed that Sima Qian himself became implicated in the rebellion as a result of his friendship with Ren An and was executed as part of the purge of the crown prince's supporters in court; however, the earliest attested record of this account dates from the 4th century. Moreover, it has also been pointed out that Sima Qian would have been reluctant to render substantive aid to Ren An, given the severe consequences that he suffered for supporting General Li Ling, as well as Ren An's failure to act on his behalf during the Li Ling affair. Although there are many theories regarding the exact dating as well as the true nature and purpose of the Letter to Ren An, one common interpretation suggests that the letter, in part, tacitly expressed a refusal to play an active role in securing a reduced punishment for Ren An.
The early 20th century scholar Wang Guowei stated that there are no reliable records establishing when Sima Qian died. He and most modern historians believe that Sima Qian spent his last days as a scholar in reclusion after leaving the Han court, perhaps dying around the same time as Emperor Wu in 87/86 BC.
Records of the Grand Historian
Format
Although the style and form of Chinese historical writings varied through the ages, the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) has defined the quality and style from then onwards. Before Sima, histories were written as certain events or certain periods of history of states; his idea of a general history affected later historiographers like Zheng Qiao (郑樵) in writing Tongzhi and Sima Guang in writing Zizhi Tongjian. The Chinese historical form of dynasty history, or jizhuanti history of dynasties, was codified in the second dynastic history by Ban Gu's Book of Han, but historians regard Sima's work as their model, which stands as the "official format" of the history of China. The Shiji comprises 130 chapters consisting of half a million characters.
The jizhuanti format refers to the organization of the work into benji (本纪) or 'basic annals' chapters containing the biographies of the sovereigns ('sons of heaven') organized by dynasty and liezhuan (列传) or 'ordered biographies' chapters containing the biographies of influential non-nobles, sometimes for one prominent individual, but often for two or more people who, in Sima Qian's judgment, played similarly important roles in history. In addition to these namesake categories, there are chapters falling under the categories of biao (表) or 'tables', containing graphical chronologies of royalty and nobility, and shu (书) or 'treatises', consisting of essays giving a historical perspective on various topics like music, ritual, or economics. Most importantly, the shijia (世家) chapters, or 'house chronicles', document important events in the histories of the rulers of each of the quasi-independent states of the Zhou dynasty (orginially serving as vassals to the Zhou kings), as well as the histories of contemporary aristocratic houses established during the Han dynasty.
In all, the Records consist of 12 Basic Annals, 10 Tables, 8 Treatises, 30 House Chronicles, and 70 Ordered Biographies. The last of the Ordered Biographies is the postface. This final chapter details the background of how the Shiji was composed and compiled, and gives brief justifications for the inclusion of the major topics, events, and individuals in the work. As part of the background, the postface provides a short sketch of the history of the Sima clan, from legendary times to his father Sima Tan. It also details the dying words of Sima Tan, tearfully exhorting the author to compose the present work, and contains a biographical sketch of the author himself. The postface concludes with a self-referential description of the postface as the 70th and last of the Ordered Biographies chapters.
Influences and works influenced
Sima was greatly influenced by Confucius's Spring and Autumn Annals, which on the surface is a succinct chronology from the events of the reigns of the twelve dukes of Lu from 722 to 484 BC. Many Chinese scholars have and still do view how Confucius ordered his chronology as the ideal example of how history should be written, especially with regards to what he chose to include and to exclude; and his choice of words as indicating moral judgements Seen in this light, the Spring and Autumn Annals are a moral guide to the proper way of living. Sima took this view himself as he explained:It and Autumn Annals distinguishes what is suspicious and doubtful, clarifies right and wrong, and settles points which are uncertain. It calls good good and bad bad, honours the worthy, and condemns the unworthy. It preserves states which are lost and restores the perishing family. It brings to light what was neglected and restores what was abandoned. Sima saw the Shiji as being in the same tradition as he explained in his introduction to chapter 61 of the Shiji where he wrote: "Some people say 'It is Heaven's way, without distinction of persons, to keep the good perpetually supplied. ' Can we say then that Po I and Shu Ch'I were good men or not? They clung to righteousness and were pure in their deeds ... yet they starved to death ... Robber Chih day after day killed innocent men, making mincemeat of their flesh ... But in the end he lived to a great old age. For what virtue did he deserve this? ... I find myself in much perplexity. Is this so-called 'Way of Heaven' right or wrong?" To resolve this theodical problem, Sima argued that while the wicked may succeed and the good may suffer in their own life-times, it is the historian who ensures that in the end good triumphs. For Sima, the writing of history was no mere antiquarian pursuit, but was rather a vital moral task as the historian would "preserve memory", and thereby ensure the ultimate victory of good over evil. Along these lines, Sima wrote: "Su Ch'in and his two brothers all achieved fame among the feudal lords as itinerant strategists. Their policies laid great stress upon stratagems and shifts of power. But because Su Ch'in died a traitor's death, the world has united in scoffing at him and has been loath to study his policies ... Su Ch'in arose from the humblest beginnings to lead the Six States in the Vertical Alliance, and this is evidence that he possessed an intelligence surpassing the ordinary person. For this reason I have set forth this account of his deeds, arranging them in proper chronological order, so that he may not forever suffer from an evil reputation and be known for nothing else". Such a moralizing approach to history with the historian high-guiding the good and evil to provide lessons for the present could be dangerous for the historian as it could bring down the wrath of the state onto the historian as happened to Sima himself. As such, the historian had to tread carefully and often expressed his judgements in a circuitous way designed to fool the censor.
Sima himself in the conclusion to chapter 110 of the Shiji declared that he was writing in this tradition where he stated:"When Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, he was very open in treating the reigns of Yin and Huan, the early dukes of Lu; but when he came to the later period of Dukes Ding and Ai, his writing was much more covert. Because in the latter case he was writing about his own times, he did not express his judgements frankly, but used subtle and guarded language." Bearing this in mind, not everything that Sima wrote should be understood as conveying didactical moral lessons. But several historians have suggested that parts of the Shiji, such as where Sima placed his section on Confucius's use of indirect criticism in the part of the book dealing with the Xiongnu "barbarians" might indicate his disapproval of the foreign policy of the Emperor Wu.
In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a new writing style by presenting history in a series of biographies. His work extends over 130 chapters—not in historical sequence, but divided into particular subjects, including annals, chronicles, and treatises—on music, ceremonies, calendars, religion, economics, and extended biographies. Sima's work influenced the writing style of other histories outside of China as well, such as the Goryeo (Korean) history the Samguk sagi. Sima adopted a new method in sorting out the historical data and a new approach to writing historical records. At the beginning of the Shiji, Sima declared himself a follower of Confucius's approach in the Analects to "hear much but leave to one side that which is doubtful, and speak with due caution concerning the remainder". Reflecting these rigorous analytic methods, Sima declared that he would not write about periods of history where there was insufficient documentation. As such, Sima wrote "the ages before the Ch'in dynasty are too far away and the material on them too scanty to permit a detailed account of them here". In the same way, Sima discounted accounts in the traditional records that were "ridiculous" such as the pretense that Prince Tan could via the use of magic make the clouds rain grain and horses grow horns. Sima constantly compared accounts found in the manuscripts with what he considered reliable sources like Confucian classics like the Book of Odes, Book of History, Book of Rites, Book of Music, Book of Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals. When Sima encountered a story that could not be cross-checked with the Confucian classics, he systemically compared the information with other documents. Sima mentioned at least 75 books he used for cross-checking. Furthermore, Sima often questioned people about historical events they had experienced. Sima mentioned after one of his trips across China that: "When I had occasion to pass through Feng and Beiyi I questioned the elderly people who were about the place, visited the old home of Xiao He, Cao Can, Fan Kuai and Xiahou Ying, and learned much about the early days. How different it was from the stories one hears!" Reflecting the traditional Chinese reverence for age, Sima stated that he preferred to interview the elderly as he believed that they were the most likely to supply him with correct and truthful information about had happened in the past. During one of this trips, Sima mentioned that he was overcome with emotion when he saw the carriage of Confucius together with his clothes and various other personal items that had belonged to Confucius.
Innovations and unique features
Despite his very large debts to Confucian tradition, Sima was an innovator in four ways. To begin with, Sima's work was concerned with the history of the known world. Previous Chinese historians had focused on only one dynasty and/or region. Sima's history of 130 chapters began with the legendary Yellow Emperor and extended to his own time, and covered not only China, but also neighboring nations like Korea and Vietnam. In this regard, Sima was significant as the first Chinese historian to treat the peoples living to the north of the Great Wall like the Xiongnu as human beings who were implicitly the equals of the Middle Kingdom, instead of the traditional approach which had portrayed the Xiongnu as savages who had the appearance of humans, but the minds of animals. In his comments about the Xiongnu, Sima refrained from evoking claims about the innate moral superiority of the Han over the "northern barbarians" that were the standard rhetorical tropes of Chinese historians in this period. Likewise, Sima in his chapter about the Xiongnu condemns those advisors who pursue the "expediency of the moment", that is advise the Emperor to carry policies such as conquests of other nations that bring a brief moment of glory, but burden the state with the enormous financial and often human costs of holding on to the conquered land. Sima was engaging in an indirect criticism of the advisors of the Emperor Wu who were urging him to pursue a policy of aggression towards the Xiongnu and conquer all their land, a policy that Sima was apparently opposed to.
Sima also broke new ground by using more sources like interviewing witnesses, visiting places where historical occurrences had happened, and examining documents from different regions and/or times. Before Chinese historians had tended to use only reign histories as their sources. The Shiji was further very novel in Chinese historiography by examining historical events outside of the courts, providing a broader history than the traditional court-based histories had done. Lastly, Sima broke with the traditional chronological structure of Chinese history. Sima instead had divided the Shiji into five divisions: the basic annals which comprised the first 12 chapters, the chronological tables which comprised the next 10 chapters, treatises on particular subjects which make up 8 chapters, accounts of the ruling families which take up 30 chapters, and biographies of various eminent people which are the last 70 chapters. The annals follow the traditional Chinese pattern of court-based histories of the lives of various emperors and their families. The chronological tables are graphs recounting the political history of China. The treatises are essays on topics such as astronomy, music, religion, hydraulic engineering and economics. The last section dealing with biographies covers individuals judged by Sima to have made a major impact on the course of history, regardless of whether they were of noble or humble birth and whether they were born in the central states, the periphery, or barbarian lands. Unlike traditional Chinese historians, Sima went beyond the androcentric, nobility-focused histories by dealing with the lives of women and men such as poets, bureaucrats, merchants, comedians/jesters, assassins, and philosophers. The treatises section, the biographies sections and the annals section relating to the Qin dynasty (as a former dynasty, there was more freedom to write about the Qin than there was about the reigning Han dynasty) that make up 40% of the Shiji have aroused the most interest from historians and are the only parts of the Shiji that have been translated into English.
When Sima placed his subjects was often his way of expressing obliquely moral judgements. Empress Lü and Xiang Yu were the effective rulers of China during reigns Hui of the Han and Yi of Chu, respectively, so Sima placed both their lives in the basic annals. Likewise, Confucius is included in the fourth section rather the fifth where he properly belonged as a way of showing his eminent virtue. The structure of the Shiji allowed Sima to tell the same stories in different ways, which allowed him to pass his moral judgements. For example, in the basic annals section, the Emperor Gaozu is portrayed as a good leader whereas in the section dealing with his rival Xiang Yu, the Emperor is portrayed unflatteringly. Likewise, the chapter on Xiang presents him in a favorable light whereas the chapter on Gaozu portrays him in more darker colors. At the end of most of the chapters, Sima usually wrote a commentary in which he judged how the individual lived up to traditional Chinese values like filial piety, humility, self-discipline, hard work and concern for the less fortunate. Sima analyzed the records and sorted out those that could serve the purpose of Shiji. He intended to discover the patterns and principles of the development of human history. Sima also emphasized, for the first time in Chinese history, the role of individual men in affecting the historical development of China and his historical perception that a country cannot escape from the fate of growth and decay.
Unlike the Book of Han, which was written under the supervision of the imperial dynasty, Shiji was a privately written history since he refused to write Shiji as an official history covering only those of high rank. The work also covers people of the lower classes and is therefore considered a "veritable record" of the darker side of the dynasty. In Sima's time, literature and history were not seen as separate disciplines as they are now, and Sima wrote his magnum opus in a very literary style, making extensive use of irony, sarcasm, juxtaposition of events, characterization, direct speech and invented speeches, which led the American historian Jennifer Jay to describe parts of the Shiji as reading more like a historical novel than a work of history. For an example, Sima tells the story of a Chinese eunuch named Zhonghang Yue who become an advisor to the Xiongnu kings. Sima provides a long dialogue between Zhonghang and an envoy sent by the Emperor Wen of China during which the latter disparages the Xiongnu as "savages" whose customs are barbaric while Zhonghang defends the Xiongnu customs as either justified and/or as morally equal to Chinese customs, at times even morally superior as Zhonghang draws a contrast between the bloody succession struggles in China where family members would murder one another to be Emperor vs. the more orderly succession of the Xiongnu kings. The American historian Tamara Chin wrote that though Zhonghang did exist, the dialogue is merely a "literacy device" for Sima to make points that he could not otherwise make. The favorable picture of the traitor Zhonghang who went over to the Xiongnu who bests the Emperor's loyal envoy in an ethnographic argument about what is the morally superior nation appears to be Sima's way of attacking the entire Chinese court system where the Emperor preferred the lies told by his sycophantic advisors over the truth told by his honest advisors as inherently corrupt and depraved. The point is reinforced by the fact that Sima has Zhonghang speak the language of an idealized Confucian official whereas the Emperor's envoy's language is dismissed as "mere twittering and chatter". Elsewhere in the Shiji Sima portrayed the Xiongnu less favorably, so the debate was almost certainly more Sima's way of criticizing the Chinese court system and less genuine praise for the Xiongnu.
Sima has often been criticized for "historizing" myths and legends as he assigned dates to mythical and legendary figures from ancient Chinese history together with what appears to be suspiciously precise genealogies of leading families over the course of several millennia (including his own where he traces the descent of the Sima family from legendary emperors in the distant past). However, archaeological discoveries in recent decades have confirmed aspects of the Shiji, and suggested that even if the sections of the Shiji dealing with the ancient past are not totally true, at least Sima wrote down what he believed to be true. In particular, archaeological finds have confirmed the basic accuracy of the Shiji including the reigns and locations of tombs of ancient rulers.
Literary figure
Sima's Shiji is respected as a model of biographical literature with high literary value and still stands as a textbook for the study of classical Chinese. Sima's works were influential to Chinese writing, serving as ideal models for various types of prose within the neo-classical ("renaissance" 复古) movement of the Tang-Song period. The great use of characterisation and plotting also influenced fiction writing, including the classical short stories of the middle and late medieval period (Tang-Ming) as well as the vernacular novel of the late imperial period. Sima had immense influence on historiography not only in China, but also in Japan and Korea. For centuries afterwards, the Shiji was regarded as the greatest history book written in Asia. Sima is little known in the English-speaking world as a full translation of the Shiji in English has not yet been completed.
His influence was derived primarily from the following elements of his writing: his skillful depiction of historical characters using details of their speech, conversations, and actions; his innovative use of informal, humorous, and varied language; and the simplicity and conciseness of his style. Even the 20th-century literary critic Lu Xun regarded Shiji as "the historians' most perfect song, a "Li Sao" without the rhyme" (史家之絶唱,无韵之离骚) in his Outline of Chinese Literary History (汉文学史纲要).
Other literary works
Sima's famous letter to his friend Ren An about his sufferings during the Li Ling Affair and his perseverance in writing Shiji is today regarded as a highly admired example of literary prose style, studied widely in China even today. The Letter to Ren An contains the quote, "Men have always had but one death. For some it is as weighty as Mount Tai; for others it is as insignificant as a goose down. The difference is what they use it for." (人固有一死,或重于泰山,或轻于鸿毛,用之所趋异也。) This quote has become one of the most well known in all of Chinese literature. In modern times, Chairman Mao paraphrased this quote in a speech in which he paid tribute to a fallen PLA soldier.
Sima Qian wrote eight rhapsodies (fu), which are listed in the bibliographic treatise of the Book of Han. All but one, the "Rhapsody in Lament for Gentlemen who do not Meet their Time" (士不遇赋) have been lost, and even the surviving example is probably not complete.
Astronomer/astrologer
Sima and his father both served as the taishi (太史) of the Former Han Dynasty, a position which includes aspects of being a historian, a court scribe, calendarist, and court astronomer/astrologer. At that time, the astrologer had an important role, responsible for interpreting and predicting the course of government according to the influence of the Sun, Moon, and stars, as well as other astronomical and geological phenomena such as solar eclipses and earthquakes, which depended on revising and upholding an accurate calendar.
Before compiling Shiji, Sima Qian was involved in the creation of the 104 BC Taichu Calendar 太初暦 (太初 became the new era name for Emperor Wu and means "supreme beginning"), a modification of the Qin calendar. This is the first Chinese calendar whose full method of calculation 暦法 has been preserved.
The minor planet "12620 Simaqian" is named in his honour.
Family
Sima Qian is the son of court astrologer (太史令) Sima Tan, who is a descendant of Qin general Sima Cuo (司马错), the commander of Qin army in the state's conquest of Ba and Shu.
Before his castration, Sima Qian was recorded to have two sons and a daughter. While little is recorded of his sons, his daughter later married Yang Chang (杨敞), and had sons Yang Zhong (杨忠) and Yang Yun (杨恽). It was Yang Yun who hid his grandfather's great work, and decided to release it during the reign of Emperor Xuan.
Unsubstantiated descendants
According to local legend, Sima Qian had two sons, the older named Sima Lin (司马临) and younger named Sima Guan (司马观), who fled the capital to Xu Village (徐村) in what is now Shaanxi province during the Li Ling affair, for fear of falling victim to familial extermination. They changed their surnames to Tong (同 = 丨+ 司) and Feng (冯 = 仌 + 马), respectively, to hide their origins while continuing to secretly offer sacrifices to the Sima ancestors. To this day, people living in the village with surnames Feng and Tong are forbidden from intermarrying on the grounds that the relationship would be incestuous.
According to the Book of Han, Wang Mang sent an expedition to search for and ennoble a male-line descent of Sima Qian as 史通子 ("Viscount of Historical Mastery"), although it was not recorded who received this title of nobility. A Qing dynasty stele 重修太史庙记 (Records of the Renovation of the Temple of the Grand Historian) erected in the nearby county seat Han City (韩城) claims that the title was given to the grandson of Sima Lin.
主題 | 關係 |
---|---|
史记 | creator |
史记 | creator |
文献资料 | 引用次数 |
---|---|
北史 | 1 |
河南通志 | 1 |
两汉三国学案 | 3 |
文昌杂录 | 1 |
史讳举例 | 1 |
新唐书 | 2 |
容斋三笔 | 1 |
全上古三代秦汉三国六朝文 | 4 |
御定佩文斋书画谱 | 1 |
续资治通鉴 | 1 |
御定渊鉴类函 | 2 |
万姓统谱 | 1 |
大清一统志 | 3 |
陕西通志 | 1 |
隋书 | 2 |
苌楚斋三笔 | 1 |
明史 | 4 |
资治通鉴考异 | 1 |
全唐文 | 2 |
山堂肆考 | 2 |
皇朝文献通考 | 1 |
御定骈字类编 | 1 |
清稗类钞 | 1 |
汉书 | 4 |
四川通志 | 1 |
四库全书总目提要 | 23 |
文献通考 | 18 |
资治通鉴 | 3 |
通志 | 2 |
后汉书 | 10 |
直斋书录解题 | 12 |
苕溪渔隐丛话 | 1 |
巵林 | 6 |
晋书 | 1 |
辽史 | 2 |
元史 | 1 |
蜀中广记 | 1 |
宋书 | 2 |
名贤氏族言行类稿 | 2 |
江西通志 | 2 |
册府元龟 | 10 |
明史纪事本末 | 1 |
湖广通志 | 1 |
山西通志 | 2 |
授经图义例 | 2 |
史记 | 2 |
宋史 | 16 |
明文海 | 2 |
四库全书简明目录 | 1 |
氏族大全 | 2 |
文选 | 4 |
喜欢我们的网站?请支持我们的发展。 | 网站的设计与内容(c)版权2006-2024。如果您想引用本网站上的内容,请同时加上至本站的链接:https://ctext.org/zhs。请注意:严禁使用自动下载软体下载本网站的大量网页,违者自动封锁,不另行通知。沪ICP备09015720号-3 | 若有任何意见或建议,请在此提出。 |