歷史

討伐董卓

東漢末年，吳郡富春人孫堅任破虜將軍受烏程侯、領豫州刺史、長沙太守，曾經參戰黃巾之亂、西涼邊章之亂、區星之亂。率兵積極參與討伐董卓期間建立許多戰功擔任先鋒、斬殺華雄、擊退呂布、率先進入洛陽、董卓逼迫求和等事蹟，後因依附袁術捲入袁術與袁紹的政鬥。

191年（初平三年），孫堅應袁術要求征討袁紹盟友荊州襄陽劉表、黃祖時戰死，年僅三十七歲。

統一江東

孫堅死後，侄孫賁繼承領導之位，投靠袁術。後孫堅長子孫策投身于袁術帳下，向袁術借兵馬率兵攻佔揚州。在袁術自行稱帝後，孫策、孫賁等與其決裂，自立門戶。孫策先後擊敗劉繇、許貢、嚴白虎、王朗等揚州割據勢力，奠定孫吳開國基礎。曹操控制的許昌朝廷拜其為討逆將軍，襲封烏程侯，又冊封吳侯。建安五年（200年）夏，孫策被吳郡太守許貢的門客襲擊，不久傷重去世，時年二十六歲。

孫策臨終前命二弟孫權繼位執掌江東。因孫策為漢臣，孫權也並非孫策子，故未得繼承漢庭官位和吳侯爵位。孫權繼承其兄遺志，在短時間內穩住了江東形勢。其後孫權一方面鎮壓揚州境內的山越反叛，同時三征黃祖，謀求佔領荊州和江夏。

爭奪荊州

建安十三年（208年），荊州牧劉表死。曹操軍也在這時南下征荊州。繼任荊州牧的劉琮投降曹操。曹操在獲得荊州之後，進一步謀劃攻打孫權佔據的江東。孫權派部下魯肅到劉備處探索軍情，魯肅得知劉備欲投奔蒼悟太守吳巨後，便勸說他改投孫權。於是劉備就派諸葛亮前往東吳會合孫權，在赤壁黃蓋火燒敵船大破曹操三十萬大軍（後世稱赤壁之戰）。此後曹操退守北方，佔據荊州北部的南陽郡、章陵郡、江夏郡局部及南郡局部地區即後來的襄陽郡。孫權派周瑜、呂蒙、甘寧、程普、韓當、周泰、蔣欽等將領攻占夷陵、江陵、部分武陵郡，及部分長沙郡即後來的漢昌郡。

這一時期，劉備則去攻打荊州南部的長沙、桂陽、武陵、零陵四郡。周瑜主張自江陵入蜀再奪取襄樊，也曾與呂范提出控制劉備，但魯肅建議扶持劉備一同抗曹。周瑜死後，孫權聽從魯肅建議，將所占南郡及其周邊的部分武陵郡、長沙郡借給劉備以及確認他分得荊南四郡，督導荊州，以希藉助劉備的力量抵抗曹操在江陵一帶的軍事壓力。同時在建安十五年，孫權取得了交州。在劉備取蜀之後，孫權向劉備索要長沙、零陵、桂陽，但劉備託辭拒絕，孫權遂派呂蒙奪取三郡。最後雙方同意恢復盟友關係，以湘江為界，長沙、桂陽、江夏屬孫權；零陵、武陵、江陵屬劉備。主張結盟劉備的魯肅死後，建安二十四年，劉備手下總管荊州的關羽作出一連串傲慢舉動，其勢力過大更讓孫權感到威脅，乃至後悔當初聽了魯肅的建議。呂蒙向孫權提議襲擊關羽，奪取江陵、襄陽和白帝城，分別由孫皎、呂蒙、潘璋把守，再派蔣欽巡江，全據長江，孫權部下也多建議奪取荊州。因此孫權向朝廷稱臣，曹操答應割讓漢南的襄陽等地給孫權，孫權派呂蒙趁關羽攻襄陽時奪取江陵、零陵、武陵、宜都等地，是為白衣渡江，並殺死敗逃的關羽，至此劉備勢力退出荊州，孫權受封為驃騎將軍、假節、兼荊州牧、南昌侯。但呂蒙、孫皎、蔣欽也皆在此時病故。

220年曹操死，勢力由其子曹丕繼承。因曹丕錯判形勢命曹仁火燒襄陽而去，襄陽為孫權所得。同年，曹丕篡位建立曹魏，東漢滅亡。曹丕隨即以孫權未經自己許可就擅自奪取襄陽為由，派曹仁、徐晃奪回襄陽。次年劉備稱帝，建立蜀漢，而孫權也以劉璋為益州牧、周泰為漢中太守，並在三峽設立與劉備區劃同名的固陵郡並以潘璋為太守，計劃入蜀。劉備稱帝後，即以復仇之名向孫權發動夷陵之戰。孫權先向曹丕稱臣，沿用曹魏黃初年號，被封為大將軍、吳王、使持節、督交州，兼任荊州牧，都武昌（今鄂州市），以避免兩線作戰。222年，劉備在猇亭秭歸一帶被吳鎮西將軍陸遜擊敗，幾乎全軍覆沒。孫權也因面臨曹魏進攻，與劉備互派使者講和。劉備不久就駕崩於白帝城。劉備死後，掌權的蜀漢丞相諸葛亮遣鄧芝出使吳國，孫權同意吳蜀恢復同盟。

建立東吳

由于孫權拒絕將兒子孫登派去曹魏做人質，于是斷絕了與曹魏的短暫同盟，並自立年號黃武脫離與曹魏的臣屬關係，導致曹丕先後三次對吳用兵曹丕伐吳，均被打退，占領了東吳數個縣城，亦反被東吳收複蘄春。後曹休又在228年在石亭之戰對吳用兵，亦遭陸遜、全琮和朱桓等人迎擊而敗死。

孫權稱帝

黃龍元年（229年，魏太和三年，蜀漢建興七年）四月丙申，孫權稱帝，國號吳，改元黃龍，是為吳大帝，並派使者告知蜀漢。蜀漢官員多以孫權為僭越，但諸葛亮認為眼下應該聯吳抗魏，如果追究孫權僭越只會讓兩國陷入長期戰事，便派使者慶賀孫權稱帝，並接受孫權在共同滅魏之後平分天下的約定；然蜀漢使者鄧芝亦對孫權指出，一旦滅魏，兩國必有一戰。

嘉禾二年（233年），孫權封割據遼東的公孫淵為燕王，派太常張彌、執金吾許晏、將軍賀達領兵一萬多人並送去金銀財寶，加其九錫，欲立淵為燕王，然淵亦恐吳國無法及時支援又覬覦財物，便斬殺使者。同時數次攻打魏國，也削弱魏國兵力收取數城。次年諸葛亮死後，孫權以為曹魏要滅蜀漢，增兵巴丘助蜀漢守御，也準備一旦蜀漢敗亡則與曹魏分割蜀漢的地盤。

嘉禾六年（237年）公孫淵自立燕王，改元紹漢，建立燕國。次年正月向東吳稱臣，但隨即在八月被魏臣司馬懿率兵平定，公孫淵戰敗身亡，燕國政權覆滅。

赤烏四年（241年），孫權的長子孫登薨逝。次年孫權立最年長的在世皇子即三子孫和為太子，不久又封四子孫霸為魯王，引發「二宮之爭」，又稱「南魯黨爭」，朝中大臣亦分為兩派。最終孫和被廢，孫霸被賜死，最後七子孫亮被立為太子，其母潘淑被立為皇后。吳經此事件，非但皇室遭刑，而且舉國分歧，埋下內部鬥爭的禍根。潘皇后意圖效仿西漢呂太后臨朝稱制，結果被自危的宮女們所殺，一說此事亦系大臣背後指使。

朝政多變

252年，執掌江東五十二年的孫權駕崩，享年七十一歲。孫亮即位，改元建興。由諸葛恪、孫弘、孫峻等輔政。孫弘謀害諸葛恪，諸葛恪在孫峻幫助下殺孫弘。253年，諸葛恪征淮南，慘敗。諸葛恪被孫峻所殺，大權落入孫峻之手。孫峻逼死廢太子孫和、孫登唯一在世兒子吳侯孫英、孫權幼女孫魯育等。曹魏將領毌丘儉、文欽在壽春起兵討伐權臣司馬師兵敗，壽春大量人口逃往東吳，孫峻趁機出兵淮南，卻反被魏將諸葛誕追殺，留贊等陣亡。諸葛恪、孫峻都有進取徐州之意，都未果。

256年孫峻病死後，事付從弟偏將軍孫綝。孫綝處決重臣滕胤、呂據等。諸葛誕又在壽春起兵討伐司馬師的弟弟權臣司馬昭，請求東吳相助，于是孫綝出兵三萬，並封諸葛誕官爵。由于諸葛誕對魏吳邊境的合肥新城要塞不再設防，合肥成為空城，一部分吳軍因而得以進入壽春城。但魏將王昶據守夾石，江陵守將施績和全熙遭其牽制，無法赴援。魏軍又焚毀了吳軍的糧食。孫綝見作戰不利，歸咎自家大將朱異並將其處斬，率軍返回，諸葛誕也最終敗亡，吳軍也未能有效占領合肥等地。後孫綝又廢孫亮為會稽王，改立其兄孫休為帝。不久孫綝三族又為孫休所殺，孫亮亦被孫休逼死。

元興元年（264年），孫休駕崩。這時蜀漢剛滅亡，吳軍西進失利，交趾又叛吳降魏，東吳國內形勢不穩，欲立一個較年長的君主。左典軍萬彧向丞相濮陽興、左將軍張布推薦孫和的長子孫皓即位。孫皓即位之初曾一度施行仁政，下令撫恤國內人民，又開倉振貧、減省後宮宮女、放生宮內多餘珍禽異獸，一時被譽為明君。然而隨著時間推移，其殘暴一面逐漸開始顯露，以致民怨不絕，幸賴陸抗、陸凱等大臣全力支撐國局。

晉滅吳

曹魏滅亡蜀漢後不久，司馬昭之子司馬炎即代魏受禪稱帝，建立晉朝，是為晉武帝。

孫皓年間，東吳連年北伐，也取得收複交趾、在西陵之戰中擊退晉軍平定叛將步闡之亂、孫慎掠奪江夏、汝南人口等軍事成果，但勝少負多，終無力改變吳弱晉強的局面。

274年，陸抗病死。咸寧五年（280年），晉武帝下令分六路大舉伐吳。晉軍勢如破竹，晉將王渾、杜預、王濬和賈充等人相繼擊破吳將張悌、沈瑩、孫震、張象、伍延、薛瑩、胡衝和孫歆等人，奪取西陵、江陵、武昌等重鎮，並繞過防禦嚴密的濡須和東關而取道相對薄弱的歷陽，吳國的長江防線快速崩潰。晉軍水軍也從益州順江而下，東吳建平太守吾彥未能阻止。孫皓安排駐守交、廣二州的軍隊也因路途遙遠及遭遇郭馬之亂而未能參戰。

此戰中晉將杜預率領十萬大軍繼續前次伐吳的攻勢，孫皓緊急下令張悌率領七八千人抵禦，杜預擊潰了張悌大軍，直逼建業。孫皓手下已無人為他賣命，自知大勢已去。便等西晉大軍攻來時，在石頭城上宣佈投降。至此，東吳滅亡，三國歸西晉。吾彥及交州刺史陶璜、廣州刺史滕修等得知東吳已經滅亡，也向西晉投降。

吳國滅亡時，領州四、郡四十三、縣三百一十三、戶五十二萬三千、吏三萬二千、兵二十三萬、男女口二百三十萬、米穀二百八十萬斛，舟船五千餘艘，後宮五千餘人。

疆域和行政區劃

政治

東吳在政治上大體跟東漢相近，地方上仍實行州郡制，中央方面也是同樣。唯一不同者，則是東吳受江南本地豪族影響，單是在朝朝臣，就有不少顧姓人士（如顧雍）、朱姓人士（如朱桓，朱然為丹揚郡人）、陸姓人士（如陸遜）和張姓人士（如張溫），就是後世所稱吳四姓，這些士族都是漢朝時長居江南的望族。

東吳滅亡後，史學家張勃作《吳錄》，以天命符瑞、讖緯等稱東吳為正統，但未能與曹魏、蜀漢正統觀抗衡。

封爵的大臣

受封者：112位

皇族：52位

• 儲君

　• 孫登：太子－220年，孫權長子

　• 孫和：太子－241年、南陽王－252年，孫權三子

　• 孫亮：太子－250年、會稽王－258年、侯官侯－260年，孫權七子

　• 孫𩅦：太子－262年、豫章王－264年，孫休長子

　• 孫瑾：太子－264年，孫皓長子

• 郡王

　• 孫權

　　• 孫霸：魯王－241年，四子

　　• 孫奮：齊王－252年、章安侯－258年，五子

　　• 孫休：琅琊王－253年，六子

　• 孫休

　　• 孫𩃙：汝南王－264年，次子。

　　• 孫壾：梁王－264年，三子

　　• 孫𠅨：陳王－264年，四子

　• 孫皓

　　• 孫虔：淮陽王－264年、魯王－273年，次子

　　• 東平王－269年、齊王－273年，三子

　　• 陳留王–273年

　　• 章陵王–273年

　　• 成紀王–278年

　　• 宣威王–278年

　　• 中山王–280年

　　• 代王–280年

:::其餘孫皓十一位兒子名與封號均不詳。

• 縣侯

　• 孫策

　　• 孫紹：吳侯－229年，上虞侯

　　　• 孫奉：上虞侯

　• 孫權

　　• 孫慮：建昌侯－228年，二子

　　　• 孫英：吳侯，孫登次子

　　　• 孫皓：烏程侯，孫和長子

　　　• 孫德：錢唐侯，孫和二子

　　　• 孫謙：永安侯，孫和三子

　　　• 孫基：吳侯，孫霸二子

　　　• 孫壹：宛陵侯，孫霸三子

　• 孫靜

　　• 孫奐：沙羡侯－226年，孫靜四子

　　　• 孫承：沙羡侯，孫靜之孫

　　　• 孫胤：丹陽侯，孫靜之孫

　　　• 孫晞，丹陽侯，孫靜之孫

　　　　• 孫峻：富春侯－253年，孫靜曾孫

　　　　• 孫綝：永寧侯，孫靜曾孫

　　　　• 孫恩：縣侯，孫靜曾孫

　　　　• 孫據：縣侯，孫靜曾孫

　　　　• 孫幹：亭侯，孫靜曾孫

　　　　• 孫闓：亭侯，孫靜曾孫

　• 孫堅族孫

　　• 孫桓：丹徒侯，孫河三子

　　• 孫韶：建德侯，孫河侄子

　　　• 孫楷：臨成侯，孫韶長子

　　　• 孫越：建德侯，孫韶次子

• 鄉侯

　• 孫松：都鄉侯，孫翊子

　• 孫鄰：都鄉侯-214年，孫賁長子

　　• 孫苗：都鄉侯，孫鄰長子

• 亭侯

　• 孫賁：都亭侯，孫羌長子

大臣：62位

• 縣侯（一等侯爵）

　• 徐琨：廣德侯－200年代

　　• 徐矯：廣德侯

　　• 徐祚：廣德侯、徐矯之弟

　• 步騭：廣信侯－211年、臨湘侯－229年

　　• 步協：臨湘侯－247年

　　　• 步璣：臨湘侯

　• 賀齊：山陰侯－216年

　• 潘璋：溧陽侯－219年

　• 陸遜：華亭侯－219年、婁侯－220年、江陵侯－222年

　　• 陸抗：江陵侯－245年

　　　• 陸晏：江陵侯－274年

　• 呂蒙：孱陵侯－220年

　　• 呂霸：孱陵侯－220年

　　• 呂琮：孱陵侯，呂霸之兄

　　• 呂睦：孱陵侯，呂霸之弟

　• 諸葛瑾：宣城侯－220年、宛陵侯－222年

　　• 諸葛融：宛陵侯－241年

　• 周泰：陵陽侯－220年

　　• 周邵：陵陽侯

　　• 周承：陵陽侯，周邵之弟

　• 朱然：西安鄉侯－220年、永安侯－222年、當陽侯－223年

　　• 施績：當陽侯－249年

　• 呂岱：都鄉侯－220年、番禺侯－226年

　　• 呂凱：番禺侯－256年

　• 全琮：陽華亭侯－220年、錢塘侯－222年前

　　• 全懌：錢塘侯

　• 張昭：由拳侯－221年、婁侯－229年

　　• 張休：婁侯－236年

　• 呂範：宛陵侯－221年、南昌侯－228年前

　　• 呂據：南昌侯－228年

　• 滕胤：都亭侯－221年、高密侯－256年前

　　• 滕牧：高密侯－264年，滕胤族弟

　• 朱桓：新城亭侯、嘉興侯－222年

　　• 朱異：嘉興侯－238年

　• 朱治：毗陵侯－222年

　　• 朱才：毗陵侯－224年

　　　• 朱琬：毗陵侯

　• 孫邵：陽羨侯－222年

　• 韓當：都亭侯－222年、石城侯－223年

　　• 韓綜：石城侯－226年

　• 蔣壹：宣城侯－222年

　• 徐盛：蕪湖侯－224年前

　　• 徐楷：蕪湖侯－224年

　• 顧雍：醴陵侯－226年

　　• 顧濟：醴陵侯－243年

　　• 顧裕：醴陵侯、顧濟之兄

　• 芮玄：溧陽侯－226年前

　• 潘濬：劉陽侯－229年前

　　• 潘翥：劉陽侯－239年

　• 朱據：雲陽侯－229年

　　• 朱宣：雲陽侯，朱據之孫

　• 諸葛恪：都鄉侯－234年、陽都侯－252年

　• 丁奉：都亭侯－252年、都鄉侯－252年、安豐侯－255年

　• 全尚：都亭侯－252年、永平侯－253年

　• 文欽：譙侯－255年

　• 陸凱：都鄉侯－255年、嘉興侯－264年

　• 濮陽興：外黃侯－256年

　• 何洪：永平侯－264年

　　• 何邈：永平侯

　• 何蔣：溧陽侯－264年

　• 何植：宣城侯－264年

　• 陸景：毗陵侯－264年後

　• 張悌：山都侯－279年

　• 虞汜：餘姚侯

　• 諸葛誕：壽春侯

• 鄉侯（二等侯爵）

　• 沈珩：永安鄉侯

　• 周胤：都鄉侯－229年

　• 是儀：都亭侯、都鄉侯－229年

　• 陳表：都鄉侯－236年

　• 鐘離牧：都鄉侯－236年

　• 張承：都鄉侯

　　• 張震：都鄉侯－245年

　• 全吳：都鄉侯

• 亭侯（三等侯爵）

　• 步闡：西亭侯－247年

　• 韋昭：高陵亭侯－264年

　• 華覈：徐陵亭侯－264年

　• 駱統：新陽亭侯

　• 谷利：都亭侯—215年

　• 陳脩：都亭侯－220年

　• 陸胤：都亭侯－258年

　　• 陸式：都亭侯

　• 魯淑：都亭侯

　　• 魯睦：都亭侯

　• 程咨：亭侯－229年

　• 全緒：亭侯－253年

　• 文雍：亭侯－256年

　• 凌封：亭侯

　　• 凌烈：亭侯，凌封之弟

　• 幹統：都亭侯

• 關內侯

　• 黃柄：關內侯－229年

　• 周魴：關內侯

• 列侯

　• 陳永：侯

　• 王氏三人：列侯，王夫人之弟

獲諡的大臣

宰輔名列

;首輔

• 孫邵（王相）

• 顧雍（丞相）

• 陸遜（丞相）

• 步騭（丞相）

• 朱據（丞相）

• 諸葛恪（太傅兼領大將軍）

• 孫峻（丞相兼領大將軍）

• 孫綝（丞相兼領大將軍）

• 濮陽興（丞相）

• 陸凱（左丞相）、萬彧（右丞相）

• 張悌（丞相）

;大司馬

• 呂範

• 朱然、全琮（分領左右大司馬）

• 呂岱

• 滕胤

• 施績、丁奉（分領左右大司馬）

• 范慎（太尉）

• 陸抗

• 諸葛靚（《晉書》記載）

軍事

吳軍以舟師為主，步兵次之。孫吳水軍發達，在濡須口和西陵設有水軍基地，在侯官（今福建閩侯）設有造船廠。其所造名為「長安」的戰船，可載士兵千餘人。其精銳軍隊有車下虎士、丹陽青巾軍與交州義士等。孫吳還有設有山越兵、蠻兵、夷兵等少數民族部隊。由于比較特殊的社會政治環境，孫吳除了有世兵制外，還有世襲領兵制。各將領所領軍隊算是其部曲，軍隊除了服從中央指揮參與戰役，但還要為其將領提供其它耕種雜役等。在將領死後軍隊須繼續聽令將領之子或其弟等繼承者。

經濟

由於吳據處江南，而這一帶在三國時還是人煙不稠密之地，孫權一登位後就設置農官，實行屯田。由於地處海邊，吳國在造船和鹽業都相當發達，甚至遠超曹魏，同時海上貿易亦有所興起。單是所生產的船隻，高度已達五層，動輒可載數千人。

孫吳所處的江南，社會經濟起步較晚，在三國時還是人口稀薄之地。然而由於這裡戰亂較少，使得北方人民大量遷居，帶來先進生產技術和勞動力。孫權登位後設置農官，實行屯田制，江南地區的農業生產和社會經濟得到發展。紡織業方面，江南以產麻布出名，豫章郡（治所在今江西省南昌市）的雞鳴布名傳千里。三吳出產「八蠶之綿」，諸暨、永安一帶所產絲的質量很高。冶鑄業以武昌（今湖北省鄂州市）為最發達，孫權曾在此地開採銅礦，打造兵器。孫吳在海鹽（今浙江嘉興海鹽）、沙中（今江蘇蘇州常熟）設官員，來管理這兩地的鹽業生產；在建安郡（治所在今福建省福州市）設典船校尉，海船南抵南海、北達遼東。海上貿易亦有所興起，孫吳的商業都市以建業（今江蘇省南京市）、吳郡（今江蘇省蘇州市）、番禺（今廣東省廣州市）為主，其中番禺以國外貿易為主。

人口

孫權在早期即擊敗江夏太守黃祖，虜掠男女數萬口。他建國後為了提昇人口數，平定山越並以其「羸者充戶，強者補兵」，並且騷擾淮南來獲得人口。

依據《三國志.吳書》有傳，孫吳於222年改元黃武年間時，人口大概約二百八十餘萬，士兵二十四萬人；在吳國強盛時期(252年)人口將近三百萬，士兵約三十六萬。

文化

文學

孫吳作家有張紘、薛綜、華覈、韋昭等。張紘為孫權長史，與建安七子中的孔融、陳琳等友善。薛綜為江東名儒，居孫權太子師傅之位。華覈則是孫吳末年作家。

韋昭善寫史，著有吳鼓吹曲十二曲，內容為整部孫吳發展史，與繆襲的魏鼓吹曲十二曲南北相對。他又著有《吳書》55卷等。

近年長沙也出土一批以紀錄東吳史料為主的《三國吳簡》，對於深入研究東吳的土地制度、賦稅制度、司法制度及有關的典章制度，具有非常重要的價值。

宗教

三國時期的佛教重鎮，北方以洛陽為主，南方則為建業。孫吳方面，當支謙、康僧會先後入吳，受孫權推崇並支持發展。孫皓稱帝時，本要毀壞佛寺，因康僧會說法感化，終而放棄。在蜀漢，佛教不是很興盛，規模不大。

藝術

孫吳有很多擅長各種藝術的名士，時人稱為吳國八絕。有吳範、劉惇、趙達、嚴武、皇象、曹不興、宋壽和鄭嫗等人。例如嚴武擅下圍棋，同輩中無人能勝，有「棋聖」之稱。至於曹不興則擅繪畫、皇象則擅書法。

孫吳曹不興，擅長寫生與繪佛畫，被譽為「佛畫之祖」，作品有《維摩詰圖》、《釋迦牟尼說法圖》等等。他曾把五十尺絹連在一起，畫一人像，心明手快，運筆而成。其作品富有立體感，世人有「曹衣出水」之稱，號「曹家樣」。孫吳吳王趙夫人，吳丞相趙達之妹，善於書法山水繪畫，時人譽為「針絕」。她為孫權繪各國山川地形圖，實開山水畫之首。

孫吳的著名碑刻有《天發神讖碑》、《禪國山碑》、《谷朗碑》等。其中《天發神讖碑》以圓馭方，勢險局寬，氣勢雄偉奇恣。皇象擅小篆、隸書，尤精章草。流傳作品有《急就章》、《文武將隊帖》及《天發神讖碑》等。

科技

孫吳位於江南地區，水路發達，造船技術發達。其戰船有的上下五層，有的還能容納士兵三千人。

外族

在嶺南地區有俚人，範圍涵蓋孫吳廣州、交州及蜀漢益州南部。孫權也展開海上的發展，他派衛溫、諸葛直泛海到夷洲（一說為台灣，一說為琉球）、亶洲補充人口，另派使臣到遼東、朝鮮半島、林邑（今越南南部）、扶南（今柬埔寨）和南洋群島等地溝通聯繫，這些都擴大孫吳在海外的影響力。大秦商人和林邑使臣也曾到達吳都建業。

君主列表

;腳註

世系圖

註釋

History

Beginnings and founding

Towards the end of the Han dynasty, Sun Ce, the eldest son of the warlord Sun Jian, and his followers borrowed troops from the warlord Yuan Shu and embarked on a series of military conquests in the Jiangdong and Wu regions between 194 and 199, seizing several territories previously occupied by warlords such as Liu Yao, Yan Baihu and Wang Lang. Sun Ce broke off relations with Yuan Shu around 196–197 after the latter declared himself emperor—an act deemed as treason against Emperor Xian, the figurehead ruler of the Han dynasty. The warlord Cao Cao, who was the de facto head of government in the Han imperial court, asked Emperor Xian to grant Sun Ce the title of "Marquis of Wu".

Sun Ce was assassinated in the summer of 200 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Sun Quan. Sun Quan, like his elder brother, also paid nominal allegiance to Emperor Xian while maintaining autonomous rule over the Wu territories. In 208, Sun Quan allied with the warlord Liu Bei and they combined forces to defeat Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Sun Quan and Liu Bei maintained their alliance against Cao Cao after the battle for the next ten years or so, despite having some territorial disputes over Jing Province. In 219, Sun Quan severed ties with Liu Bei when he sent his general Lü Meng to invade Liu's territories in Jing Province. Guan Yu, who was defending Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quan's forces. After that, the boundaries of Sun Quan's domain extended from beyond the Jiangdong region to include the southern part of Jing Province, which covered roughly present-day Hunan and parts of Hubei.

In 220, Cao Cao's son and successor, Cao Pi, ended the Han dynasty by forcing Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour and established the state of Cao Wei. Sun Quan agreed to submit to Wei and was granted the title of a vassal king, "King of Wu", by Cao Pi. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han. In 222, Liu Bei launched a military campaign against Sun Quan to take back Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, leading to the Battle of Xiaoting. However, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's general Lu Xun and was forced to retreat to Baidicheng, where he died a year later.

Liu Bei's successor, Liu Shan, and his regent, Zhuge Liang, made peace with Sun Quan later and reaffirmed their previous alliance. Sun Quan declared independence from Wei in 222, but continued to rule as "King of Wu" until 229, when he declared himself "Emperor of Wu". His legitimacy was recognised by Shu.

To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Wu" (吳) is also known as "Eastern Wu" (東吳; Dōng Wú) or "Sun Wu" (孫吳).

Sun Quans reign

Sun Quan ruled for over 30 years and his long reign resulted in stability in southern China. During his reign, Wu engaged Wei in numerous wars, including the battles of Ruxu (222–223), Shiting (228), and Hefei (234). However, Wu never managed to gain any territory north of the Yangtze River while Wei also never succeeded in conquering the lands south of the Yangtze.

A succession struggle broke out between Sun Quan's sons in the later part of his reign—Sun Quan installed Sun He as the crown prince in 242 after his former heir apparent, Sun Deng, died in 241, but Sun He soon became involved in a rivalry with his younger brother, Sun Ba. The conflict resulted in the emergence of two rivalling factions, each supporting either Sun He or Sun Ba, in Sun Quan's imperial court. Sun Quan eventually deposed Sun He and forced Sun Ba to commit suicide, while Lu Xun and many other ministers who took either Sun He's or Sun Ba's side in the struggle met with unhappy ends. Sun Quan appointed his youngest son, Sun Liang, as the crown prince after the incident.

Reigns of Sun Liang and Sun Xiu

Sun Quan died in 252 and was succeeded by Sun Liang, with Zhuge Ke and Sun Jun serving as regents. In 253, Zhuge Ke was assassinated in a coup launched by Sun Jun, and the state power of Wu fell into Sun Jun's hands and was passed on to his cousin, Sun Chen, after his death. During Sun Liang's reign, two rebellions broke out in the Wei garrison at Shouchun (around present-day Shou County, Anhui) in 255 and 257–258. Sun Jun and Sun Chen led Wu forces to support the rebels in the first and second rebellions respectively in the hope of making some territorial gains in Wei, but both revolts were suppressed and the Wu forces retreated after suffering many losses.

Sun Liang was deposed in 258 by Sun Chen, who installed Sun Xiu, another son of Sun Quan, on the throne. Sun Xiu killed Sun Chen later in a coup with the help of Zhang Bu and Ding Feng.

Fall of Wu

Sun Xiu died of illness in 264, a year after Shu was conquered by Wei. At the time, Wu was experiencing internal turmoil because rebellions had broken out in Jiaozhi in the south. The ministers Puyang Xing, Wan Yu and Zhang Bu decided to install Sun He's son, Sun Hao, on the throne.

In the beginning of Sun Hao's reign, the emperor reduced taxes, gave relief to the poor, and granted freedom to a large number of palace maids. However, Sun Hao gradually became more cruel and superstitious and started indulging in wine and women instead of finding ways to revive his declining state. Sun Hao's tyranny caused widespread anger and hatred towards him in Wu, but it was due to the efforts of officials such as Lu Kai and Lu Kang that Wu was able to remain relatively stable and peaceful.

In February 266, Sima Yan ended the state of Cao Wei by forcing its last ruler, Cao Huan, to abdicate in his favour, and then established the Jin dynasty. In 279, Jin forces led by Du Yu, Wang Jun and others attacked Wu from six directions. Sun Hao attempted to put up resistance by sending his armies to fight the Jin invaders, but the Wu forces suffered several consecutive defeats and even the Wu chancellor, Zhang Ti, was killed in action. Seeing that Wu was doomed to fall, Sun Hao surrendered to the Jin dynasty on 31 May 280, marking the end of Wu and the end of the Three Kingdoms period.

Government and military

Despite Sun Quan proclaiming himself emperor in 229, its politics reflected its warlord origins. When Wu was initially founded its military was dominated by famed generals who had gained their positions through prowess and pluck. These generals were celebrated for their individualism.

Politics within the court were often influenced by conflicts between powerful families and individuals. Positions within the court were inherited from one generation to the next unlike the Han dynasty's bureaucracy. However, over time, the influence ultimately would move away from the central government. Outside of the court, families displayed their own independent authority. Wu, at times, was to a certain extent run for the protection of particular families.

The Eastern Wu era was a formative period in Vietnamese history. The ruler of Jiaozhou (modern Vietnam and Guangzhou), Shi Xie, is primarily remembered today in Vietnam as Sĩ Nhiếp. According to Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese." Originally satisfied with Eastern Wu's rule, the Vietnamese opposed Shi Hui's rebellion against Eastern Wu and attacked him for it. However, when the Wu general Lü Dai betrayed Shi Hui and executed the entire Shi family, the Vietnamese became greatly upset. In 248, the people of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen commanderies rebelled. Eastern Wu sent Lu Yin to deal with the rebels. He managed to pacify the rebels with a combination of threats and persuasion. However the rebels regrouped under the leadership of Lady Triệu in Jiuzhen and renewed the rebellion with a march on Jiaozhi. According to the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Annals of Đại Việt), Lady Triệu had long breasts that reached her shoulders and rode into battle on an elephant. After several months of warfare she was defeated and committed suicide.

Language, culture and economy

The culture of Wu was most solidified under the reign of Sun Quan from 229 to 252. Migrations from the north and the needed settlement from the Shanyue barbarians made it possible for the increase in manpower, agriculture, and settling the lower most parts of Wu. Along with that, river transportation became a huge factor and flourished as the Jiangnan and Zhedong canals were finished with construction. After the Battle of Xiaoting and during the invasions of Wu by Wei in the 220s, Shu was able to reestablish their trade and relationships with Wu. Shu's cotton was a great influx for Wu, and the development of shipbuilding, salt, and metal industries was greatly increased.

The fact of inflation and economic problems still were in existence since the Han dynasty. Sun Quan tried to start a currency of large coins manufactured by copper. He also tried to prohibit private minting. This policy was terminated in 246 due to ineffectiveness.

Eastern Wu was able to make close overseas trade with countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia. Wu also traded with India and the Middle East.

The language of Eastern Wu was identified with Old Jiangdong (古江東方言), the speech of the Jiangdong area (Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, Southern Anhui, Jiangsu); this dialect, which was already different from northern speech, is described in Shishuo Xinyu 世说新语 by Liu Yiqing (刘义庆, 403-444), which narrates that Wang Dao learned the idiom after fleeing in Jiankang, today's Nanjing.

In the end, proto-Wu emerged as the unified proto-language from which every contemporary Wu language is spoken. Wu dialects have striking similarities to Early Middle Chinese as described in the Qieyun phonological system. A reconstruction of proto-Wu was attempted by William Harvey Ballard in 1969.

Civil matters

Personages with clerical or scholarly abilities had roles to play within the state, but the policies were more determined by those of military command. Nevertheless, every Wu army was in need of administrative support and, according to Rafe de Crespigny, certain scholars were "recognised as practical counsellors, regardless of their fighting prowess or their ability to command troops in the field."

Under the reign of Sun Quan, he needed a strong role of advisors and secretaries in order to keep his link of power in a maintained level. Sun Quan's prestige in dealing with hostiles and friendly relations called for the establishment of a controlled form of an imperial government for the empire of Wu. Sun Quan also created the opportunity for people residing within Wu to gain prestige and influence throughout the empire and the surrounding establishments with the duty of being an envoy.

Following the death of Cao Pi in 226, Sun Quan strongly promoted his kingdom to focus on agriculture because the threat from Wei was lifted. However, Lu Xun suggested to Sun Quan that military commanders should become involved in the colonization of land. Sun Quan quickly accepted and he, along with his sons would execute the memorial presented by Lu Xun. However, in 240, Sun Quan restrained Lu Xun's idea and refocused on agricultural works, because Wu came to suffer a severe famine. In 234, when Zhuge Ke was in control of affairs in the south, he strongly ignored the colonisation order and viciously ordered the agriculture factor, often starving enemies into submission.

Legacy

Under the rule of Wu, the Yangtze River Delta region, regarded in early history as a barbaric "jungle", developed into one of the commercial, cultural, and political centres of China. The achievements of Wu in the south marked the coming of Chinese civilization to the farthest southern reaches of the empire.

In 230, the island of Yizhou was reached by the Chinese during the Three Kingdoms period under the reign of Sun Quan. Contact with the native population and the dispatch of officials to an island named "Yizhou" by the Wu navy might have been to Taiwan, but the location of Yizhou is open to dispute; some historians believe it was Taiwan, while others believe it was the Ryukyu Islands. Wu merchants also may have reached Southern Vietnam and Cambodia. Failed protection of Gongsun Yuan also was in existence when the latter rebelled against Wei. This was because of the waterway's difficulties. Such things cost Wu, and the achievements supposedly gained within Yizhou did not cover this problem and Sun Quan lost his vassal.

Later on in the existence of Wu, the once great military was turned to an unimpressive one. It was most likely an easy task to take Hefei from Wei, but Wu could not do so. Since the 230s, this task was made harder due to the "New City", a heavily fortified castle built at Hefei by Wei. One of the greatest failures to accomplish something later on in Wu's reign was during 255 and during the last few years of the 250s. When Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin rebelled against Wei, Wu promised to help the two in Shouchun (around present-day Shou County, Anhui). However, the Wu forces never made it in time before the rebellion was quashed by Sima Shi and the Wei forces. When Zhuge Dan launched a massive full-scale rebellion, the Wu forces suffered a great defeat as they lent a great quantity of manpower to Zhuge Dan's cause. Shouchun was quickly regained by Wei under Sima Zhao's command.

During the conquest of Shu by Wei in 263, Wu could not fully lend support to their allies due to a revolt in Vietnam.

The decline of Wu was long in existence since the death of Lu Xun in 245 and the death of Sun Quan in 252. Sun Quan's successors could do little for the empire. Zhuge Ke was assassinated by Sun Jun in 253 after a failed invasion of Hefei following the Wu victory over an invading Wei force at Dongxing. Ding Feng also ended up killing Sun Chen under orders from Sun Xiu. Corruption plagued Wu, which led to an easy conquest of Wu by the Jin dynasty in 280.

List of territories

List of sovereigns

Emperors family tree

Gallery

File:Three Kingdoms Wu - funeral urn.jpg|An Eastern Wu funeral urn, dating from the third century, on display in a museum in Tokyo, Japan.

File:Sun Quan Tang.jpg|A portrait of Sun Quan painted by Yan Liben in the Tang dynasty.

File:Sun Quan and his brother Sun Ce.jpg|Statues of Sun Quan (left) and Sun Ce.

File:SunQuan MeihuaShan.jpg|A statue of Sun Quan at Meihua Hill, Purple Mountain, Nanjing, Jiangsu.