生平

时势趋然

张合于黄巾之乱的时候，以韩馥的军司马身份参与镇压叛乱。韩馥死后，效力于袁绍。在攻打公孙瓒时立下不少战功，升为宁国中郎将。在官渡之战中，曹操袭击乌巢，张合说：「曹公兵精，往必破琼等；琼等破，则将军事去矣，宜急引兵救之。」但郭图却说：「合计非也。不如攻其本营，势必还，此为不救而自解也。」张合反驳：「曹公营固，攻之必不拔，若琼等见禽，吾属尽为虏矣。」结果袁绍听信郭图，不听张合的劝阻，派他攻打曹操军营，结果不但没攻下，缺乏救援的乌巢也被劫了。郭图的计谋失败后，诬陷张合失败后出言不逊，张合等将领惧怕被追究，于是投降了曹操。曹操对张合的投降感到高兴，亲自迎接并称「如微子去殷，韩信归汉也」，此后担任著偏将军、封都亭侯。

随后的南征北战，张合表现出了他的武将风姿。攻邺城，渤海败袁尚、袁谭，征乌丸，围雍奴，讨柳城，征东莱，讨管承、陈兰、梅成，平马超，破韩遂，围安定，降杨秋，与夏侯渊讨鄜贼梁兴及武都氐，平宋建，灭张鲁，屡建战功。

坚整严备

后来张合颇受曹操重用，张合跟随太祖（曹操）到渭南，击溃了马超、韩遂，保卫了安定城，也令马超的部将杨秋投降。后张合、夏侯渊一起征讨盘踞在鄜城的贼寇梁兴和武都一代的氐族叛军，再次击败了马超的部队，平定了宋建统治的地区。张合在对马超和韩遂的讨伐有功，更先后与张辽、徐晃及夏侯渊搭挡。

215年汉中之战曹操亲率大军进攻汉中，从散关入，派张合率五千步兵在前开道，一直到阳平。张鲁投降，在曹操平定汉中亦立下不少战功。曹操回军，留张合与夏侯渊、徐晃等守汉中，以拒刘备。同年，张合率五千步兵南下进攻巴西郡，欲迁徙当地百姓到汉中。刘备派征虏将军张飞领万馀精兵为巴西郡太守，抗击张合。张合军进至岩渠，与张飞相拒五十馀日，张飞率精兵万馀人从小道进攻张合，由于山道狭窄，首尾不能相救，张合军被击破，张合弃马缘山和手下十馀人退回南郑。升迁荡寇将军。

建安二十三年（218年），刘备进攻汉中，屯于阳平，夏侯渊、张合、徐晃等率军迎击，张合负责防守广石。

刘备亲自率精兵万馀人，分为十部，夜间猛攻张合。张合率亲兵与蜀军进行对抗，刘备不能攻克张合。

曹刘两军相峙多时，建安二十四年（219年）正月，刘备军在走马谷放火烧营，张合守东围，夏侯渊守南围，刘备军向张合那面进攻，张合不利，夏侯渊调一半兵力来增援，并救火，途中遇上刘备军，被黄忠率军所杀。曹军大败，张合同败军一起退守阳平关东。司马郭淮和督军杜袭收敛散卒，推举张合继夏侯渊为魏军主帅。张合出任，指挥士兵，布置营寨，军心安定。不久，曹操遣使令张合假节。刘备欲渡汉水来攻，见魏军在汉水以北列阵相迎，刘备于是放弃渡河，隔水相持。曹操亲自进攻汉中，不能取胜，于是撤出汉中的部队，令张合屯兵于陈仓。

「刘备屯阳平，合屯广石。备以精卒万馀 ，分为十部，夜急攻合 。合率亲兵搏战，备不能克。」陈寿后评称张合用兵以巧变称，而此战则显示出他的严整坚重。刘备起自河北，又曾北从袁绍，对张合向来应有所知，阳平广石之役可能给了刘备对张合的能耐有了强烈的认知。

举接代位

夏侯渊死后，汉中地区的魏军群龙无首，军司马郭淮见状，便说：「张将军乃国家之名将，为刘备所忌惮；今日事态紧急，非张将军不能安定军心。」于是立刻被推举为主将，并迅速重整因失去大将而混乱的军队。而当刘备听闻黄忠斩杀了夏侯渊，却说：「要杀就杀张合，杀夏侯渊有什么用！」

外勒戎旅

延康元年，曹丕即魏王位后，任命张合为左将军，进封都乡侯爵位。等到曹丕登基之后，又进封他为鄚侯，命令张合与曹真率领兵马征伐盘踞在安定一代的卢水胡人和东部羌人。

战斗结束后，曹丕又在洛阳宫召见了张合、曹真，派张合南下与夏侯尚一起进攻东吴政权的江夏郡。张合独自率领几路大军渡过长江，夺取了百里洲上的吴军堡垒。而《吴主传》的记录比较详细：「秋九月，魏乃命曹休、张辽、臧霸出洞口，曹仁出濡须，曹真、夏侯尚、张合、徐晃围南郡。权遣吕范等督五军，以舟军拒休等，诸葛瑾、潘璋、杨粲救南郡。二年春正月，曹真分军据江陵中州。」

魏明帝曹睿即位后，派张合来到南方，驻扎荆州，和司马懿一起进攻孙权的部将刘阿等人，大军来到祁口，与吴军激战，打败了刘阿所部。

临阵制变

228年街亭一役是张合一生最成功的战役，蜀汉丞相诸葛亮进行第一次北伐，其中的街亭之战，曹睿给张合加官特进，让他总督各路军马，在街亭阻挡诸葛亮的部将蜀汉马谡。马谡弃守五路总口，只给王平五千兵马，继而依傍险要的南山扎寨，没有下山占据城池而守。张合包围马谡于高山上，断绝了他取水的道路，然后发起进攻，大败马谡，之后见到王平领千人鸣鼓自守，怀疑有伏兵而不再追击。此后攻回早先叛降诸葛亮的南安、天水、安定三郡。

而魏明帝亦下诏说：「贼亮以巴蜀之众，当虓虎之师。将军被坚执锐，所向克定，朕甚嘉之。益邑千户，并前四千三百户。」

屈指可数

街亭之战大获全胜后，张合一度被朝廷调回到荆州支援司马懿与吴国作战，受命为节度使督导关中诸军。他到达荆州时，正好是冬天河流水浅的时候，大船无法通行，只好住扎在方城。

这时诸葛亮又再出祁山急攻陈仓，曹睿急召张合到京城，还亲自到河南城巡视，设置酒宴为张合送行，询问道：「等将军你到了，诸葛亮会不会已经攻下陈仓？」张合知道诸葛亮的军队孤军深入，没有太多粮食，不能久攻，却说：「不用等臣到，诸葛亮就先撤退；我屈指一算，诸葛亮的军粮维持不了十天。」《资治通鉴》记载为张合回答曹睿的话时，用手指算著说：「在臣下抵达的时候，诸葛亮早就退了。」

曹睿遣南北军士三万及分遣武卫、虎贲使卫张合。张日夜兼程赶路，还没到达，诸葛亮的粮食已尽，领兵退去；将军王双追赶，被诸葛亮击杀。魏明帝诏张合还京都，拜征西车骑将军。

「屈指」意为用手指计算事物的数量，后来成语「屈指可数」就从《三国志·张合传》演变而出，用来形容数量很少。

战死木门

公元231年，诸葛亮第四次北伐，张合受命带兵进驻洛阳，诸葛亮因担心祁山粮道截断，下令蜀军回退，命魏延诱敌，姜维断后。张合在木门道追击蜀军交战，遭到姜维伏击，身中数十箭，不治而死。据《魏略》记载，司马懿强行命令张合追击，以致张合身亡。

张合死后，朝廷赐给他壮侯的谥号，他的儿子张雄继承了他的爵位。张合征战多年，屡立战功，明帝分给他食邑，封他的四个儿子为列侯，赐给他的小儿子关内侯的爵位。

特徵

张合虽为将亦爱乐儒士，尝荐同乡卑湛经明修行，诏曰：「昔祭遵为将，奏置五经大夫，居军中，与诸生雅歌投壶。今将军外勒戎旅，内存国朝。朕嘉将军之意，今擢湛为博士。」（被皇帝下诏嘉奖，将张合比作爱好儒学的东汉大将祭遵，并将卑湛提升为博士。）

才能表现

张合为将心思细密，精通历算，又擅长战场规划与谋略，在多次作战前必会分析敌我军势，然后再作详尽的谋略。在多次战役中显示张合并不只是猛将一名，而张合更能称得上智将。例如在袁曹的官渡大战、蜀魏的汉中战、定军山之战都荐举出不少计谋，又或是破谋等例如黄忠的「反客为主」之计、诸葛亮的「埋伏计」和算出蜀军急攻陈仓的粮数等。其中算出蜀军急攻陈仓粮数足以表现出张合的智慧和历法算术。

木门道

231年诸葛亮复出祁山，司马懿派遣费曜、戴淩以四千兵力留守上邽，其馀全部支援祁山，张合认为应当分兵在雍、郿两县以防诸葛亮袭击后方，然而司马懿却担心无法抵御诸葛亮，继而否决分兵的提议，结果诸葛亮反而分兵留攻祁山，亲自率军攻打上邽，不但击破守军，还大量收割麦子，并在撤军时利用怪树滩险恶之地形，暂时性地瘫痪司马懿使之无法交战。张合说：「敌军远道而来，我军的优势不在作战，而是要以长远之计打败敌军。祁山的守军知道大军就在附近，人心自然会稳定，因此我们应当驻守于此，再以奇兵袭击蜀军后方，不宜前进却又不敢作战，而使军心与士气不稳。」司马懿不听，坚持要找诸葛亮，找到之后又登山掘营，避不肯战，因而被部属说「畏蜀如虎」，之后在诸将请命之下才派遣张合攻王平，不能胜，自己率军与诸葛亮正面交锋，结果以大败收场。后诸葛亮退兵，司马懿命令张合追击，张合说：「军法，围城必开出路，归军勿追。」司马懿不听，张合无奈出战，于木门道遭蜀军伏击，中箭阵亡。

张合战死的三种记载：

• 《三国志·张合传》：「合追至木门，与亮军交战，飞矢中合右膝，薨，谥曰壮侯」。

• 裴注引《魏略》：亮军退，司马宣王使合追之，合曰：「军法，围城必开出路，归军勿追。」宣王不听。合不得已，遂进。蜀军乘高布伏，弓弩乱发，矢中合髀。

• 《太平御览·卷291◎兵部二十二○料敌下》引 袁希之《汉表传》：丞相亮出军围祁山，以木牛运粮。魏司马宣王、张合救祁山。夏六月，亮粮尽，军还，至于青封木门。合追之，亮驻军削大树皮，题曰：「张合死此树下。」豫令兵夹道，以数千强弩备之。合果目见，千弩俱发，射合而死。

史料的混乱之处

裴松之在张合传中提到：「臣松之案武纪及袁绍传并云袁绍使张合、高览攻太祖营，合等闻淳于琼破，遂来降，绍众于是大溃。是则缘合等降而后绍军坏也。至如此传，为绍军先溃，惧郭图之谮，然后归太祖，为参错不同矣。」因此究竟是张合先降曹操而后袁绍军大溃，还是袁绍军先大溃而后张合降曹操尚有争议。

《三国志·魏书·张合传》「绍军先溃，惧郭图之谮，然后归太祖」。但《三国志·魏书·武帝纪》和《三国志·袁绍传》均为「袁绍使张合、高览攻太祖营，合等闻淳于琼破，遂来降，绍众于是大溃。」再因，张合、高览领「重兵」来看，应是先归曹操，而袁绍后败。同时《三国志·魏志·荀攸传》亦记载「太祖自将攻破之，尽斩琼等。绍将张合、高览烧攻橹降，绍遂弃军走。合之来，洪疑不敢受，攸谓洪曰：「合计不用，怒而来，君何疑？」乃受之。」。

关于张合的记载，是《三国志》中较为混乱且前后不甚统一的。但根据其作者陈寿所处朝代为司马晋朝来看，就能明白其中道理。纵观《三国志》《魏书》《魏略》《汉晋春秋》等史料相关记载，张合是司马懿一生中与之争论最多的一位。因而，陈寿身为晋朝的史官，不详细记录张合事迹也在情理之中。

家庭

• 至少有四个儿子

• 长子：张雄，继承张合的爵位。

• 次子：名字不详，被明帝封为列侯。

• 三子：名字不详，被明帝封为列侯。

• 幼子：名字不详，被明帝赐关内侯爵位。

逸话

墓葬

张合葬于木门峡谷中。而时至今日，木门峡谷中仍存有张合坪、张合墓。张家坪〔原名张合坪〕位于木门道峡谷东侧，为诸葛亮与魏将张合作战时的埋伏之处。峡谷西侧为十悄地梁，其下有诸葛亮拴马之处的拴马湾。峡谷低处有一小山石，成椭圆形，名曰石鼓。另外离石鼓不远处有一土堆小丘，形如巨钟，故称土钟。据《三国志·张合传》载：「诸葛亮复出祁山，诏合督诸将西至略阳，亮还保祁山，合追至木门，与亮交战，飞矢中合右膝，谥曰壮侯」。

成语

• 屈指可数：「屈指」意为用手指计算事物的数量，自张合计算诸葛亮急攻兵粮，用手指都可数得出多少天，以此演变意义用作形容数量很少。

武器

在小说《三国演义》里，张合于七十回中就有「张合复回，剌雷铜于马下」，和九十九回中就有「拍马舞枪，冲出重围，无人能挡」。

小说

日本国民作家吉川英治基于《三国演义》翻写而成、在日本最脍炙人口的三国历史小说《三国志》，其中因作者的失误，张合在作品中死了三次，第一次在汝南被关羽所杀，第二次在长阪被赵云所杀，第三次在木门道被诸葛亮所杀。

动画游戏

• 真三国无双系列 / 无双OROCHI系列（光荣公司开发，幸野善之配音）

• 三国演义

• 《苍天航路》（王欣太）

• 《火凤燎原》（陈某）:设定于讨董卓之战登场，为袁方亲信手下，曾在辽原火（赵云）及张辽手中救出袁谭，在官渡之战后因司马懿的离间计下使自己和高览误为曹操内应，后和高览投降曹操。后来于363回狭道真理中，透漏锺繇曾是水镜府专教 "忠义" 的锺老师，而他目前的两位学生是早已达成共识，两位同是姓 "张" 的张辽和张合。

• 《三国志姜维传》(Ratchet):被描写为一个满口美学的人，经常说「XX之美」。

影视

• 中国电视剧《诸葛孔明》（1985年）：潘正民饰演张合。

• 中国中央电视台电视剧《三国演义》（1994年）：徐伟茹饰演青年张合，王化南饰演中年张合，邢国洲饰演老年张合。

• 中国电视剧《三国》（2010年）：谭建昌饰演张合。

• 中国电视剧《曹操》（2013年）：李家饰演张合。

• 中国电视剧《军师联盟》（2017年）：郭家诺饰演张合。

评价

• 陈寿：「合识变数，善处营陈，料战势地形，无不如计，自诸葛亮皆惮之。」「太祖建兹武功，而时之良将，五子为先。于禁最号毅重，然弗克其终。张合以巧变为称，乐进以骁果显名，而鉴其行事，未副所闻。或注记有遗漏，未如张辽、徐晃之备详也。」

• 曹操：「昔子胥不早寤，自使身危，岂若微子去殷、韩信归汉邪？」

• 陈群：「合诚良将，国所依也。」

• 刘备：「当得其魁，用此何为邪！」（要杀就杀张合，夏侯渊算什么！）

• 郭淮：「张将军，国家名将，刘备所惮；今日事急，非张将军不能安也。 」

• 曹睿：「贼亮以巴蜀之众，当虓虎之师。将军被坚执锐，所向克定，朕甚嘉之。益邑千户，并前四千三百户。」、「昔祭遵为将，奏置五经大夫，居军中，与诸生雅歌投壶。今将军外勒戎旅，记忆体国朝。朕嘉将军之意，今擢湛为博士。」

• 王弘：「昔魏朝酷重张合，谓不可一日无之。及合死，何关兴废？」

• 张预：「孙子曰：「绝山依谷。」合以马谡不下据城而绝其汲道。又曰：「归师勿遏。」合追亮归军，而败覆得也。」

• 李密：「若隋代官人，同吠尧之犬，尚荷王莽之恩，仍怀蒯聩之禄。审配死于袁氏，不如张合归曹；范增困于项王，未若陈平从汉。」

• 朱元璋：「王保保以铁骑劲兵，虎踞中原，其志殆不在曹操下，使有谋臣如攸、彧，猛将如辽、合，予两人能高枕无忧乎。」

• 黄道周：「张合袁将，欲求乌巢。郭图异议，恐败见嘲。特加谮妒，合惧归曹。街亭绝汲，马谡败逃。亮围陈仓，曹虑动摇。合虑无谷，久矣去郊。及救兵到，果属徒劳。谁知再至，木门相遇。飞矢中膝，痛失英豪。」

• 王歆：「张合名将，辽之亚匹，而可与徐晃等比肩。百战汉中，终不能全，是时势使然，非合之过。然备「当得其魁」云云，料贬抑黄忠，而独高张飞意，不可尽信。渊之用兵，不在合下。至后祁山之役，悍拒诸葛，皆合、真之功，观司马懿使合追敌致殁，是懿军略，或在合下。小说家独以懿为亮匹敌，未知是上亮欤，是下亮欤？别传中云合自欲赶敌，懿阻之不听，恐不可信。」

• 蔡东藩：「合为魏著名大将，街亭一役，合实主之；诸葛公计毙此獠，马谡有知，能无快意？」

Service under Han Fu and Yuan Shao

Zhang He was from Mao County (鄚县), Hejian State, which is in present-day Maozhou, Hebei. Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, when the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, he responded to the Han government's call for volunteers to serve in the army and help to suppress the revolt. He was commissioned as a Major and placed under the command of Han Fu, the Inspector of Ji Province (present-day southern Hebei).

In 191, after Han Fu relinquished his control of Ji Province to the warlord Yuan Shao, Zhang He came to serve Yuan Shao and was promoted to the rank of Colonel (校尉). Between 191 and 199, Zhang He fought on Yuan Shao's side in the war between Yuan Shao and his rival Gongsun Zan. In 199, after Yuan Shao had eliminated Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing, Zhang He was further promoted to General of the Household Who Brings Peace to the State for his achievements in battle.

Battle of Guandu

In the year 200, Yuan Shao fought the Battle of Guandu with Cao Cao, a warlord who controlled the Han central government and the figurehead Emperor Xian. When Yuan Shao having a few advantages like a far larger army in the initial stages of the campaign, Zhang He suggested that he avoid direct confrontation with Cao Cao and instead send a light cavalry force south to attack the rear of Cao Cao's camp. Yuan Shao did not heed Zhang He's suggestion and attacked his foe's main force instead. In the first few battles of the campaign, Cao Cao's forces won several victories in which two of Yuan Shao's generals, Yan Liang and Wen Chou, were killed and no progress was made in overrunning Cao Cao's defenses.

Raid on Wuchao

Yuan Shao had sent his general Chunyu Qiong to guard his army's supply depot at Wuchao (乌巢; southeast of present-day Yanjin County, Henan). One night, Cao Cao led a raid on Wuchao to destroy Yuan Shao's supplies.

When news of the attack on Wuchao reached Yuan Shao's camp, Zhang He advised Yuan Shao: "Cao Cao's forces are well-trained so they will definitely defeat Chunyu Qiong. If Chunyu Qiong is defeated, all is lost for you, General. You should immediately dispatch forces to reinforce Wuchao." Yuan Shao's adviser Guo Tu disagreed with Zhang He: "Zhang He's idea isn't right. Why don't we attack Cao Cao's main camp instead? He will definitely head back to defend his camp. In this way, we can stop the attack on Wuchao without having to send reinforcements there." Zhang He replied: "Cao Cao's camp is well-defended and can't be conquered easily. If Chunyu Qiong is taken captive, we will all become prisoners-of-war."

Yuan Shao dispatched a detachment of light cavalry to reinforce Wuchao and sent heavily armed forces to attack Cao Cao's main camp. Cao Cao succeeded in destroying Yuan Shao's supplies at Wuchao, while his main camp successfully resisted Yuan Shao's attacks. Cao Cao scored an overall decisive victory over Yuan Shao in the battle.

Defecting to Cao Caos side

Guo Tu felt embarrassed after seeing that his suggestion had resulted in Yuan Shao's defeat, so he attempted to divert attention away from himself by accusing Zhang He of displaying schadenfreude upon learning of their defeat. Zhang He became afraid when he heard about this, so he defected to Cao Cao's side.

Cao Cao was very pleased when Zhang He came to join him and he told Zhang He: "In the past, Wu Zixu failed to understand the situation and met his downfall. What if he had abandoned Yin like Weizi and defected to Han like Han Xin?"

The fifth-century historian Pei Songzhi pointed out a discrepancy between Zhang He's biography and the biographies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao about the time when Zhang He defected to Cao Cao's side. According to Cao Cao and Yuan Shao's biographies, Yuan Shao sent Zhang He and Gao Lan (高览) to attack Cao Cao's main camp per Guo Tu's suggestion. They defected to Cao Cao when they learnt that Wuchao was lost, and their defection resulted in Yuan Shao's defeat. Based on these two accounts, Zhang He defected to Cao Cao before Yuan Shao's defeat at the Battle of Guandu. On the other hand, Zhang He's biography mentioned that Zhang He defected to Cao Cao after Yuan Shao's defeat at Guandu and after Guo Tu slandered him.

Service under Cao Cao

After his defection, Zhang He was appointed by the Han imperial court (under Cao Cao's control) as a Lieutenant-General (偏将军) and enfeoffed as a Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯). Between 200 and 207, he fought on Cao Cao's side against Yuan Shao's heirs and allies at the battles of Ye (204), Bohai (205) and Liucheng (207). He was promoted to General Who Pacifies the Di (平狄将军) for his contributions.

In 206, Zhang He participated in the campaign against pirate forces led by Guan Cheng (管承) in Donglai Commandery (东莱郡; around present-day Yantai and Weihai, Shandong).

In 209, after the Battle of Red Cliffs, Chen Lan and Mei Cheng (梅成) started a rebellion in Lu County (六县; in present-day Lu'an, Anhui). Cao Cao ordered Zhang Liao to lead a force to suppress the revolt. Zhang He and Niu Gai (牛盖) served as Zhang Liao's deputies and succeeded in eliminating the rebels.

Campaigns in northwestern China

In 211, Zhang He participated in the Battle of Weinan against a coalition of warlords from the Guanzhong region led by Ma Chao and Han Sui. The coalition broke up after Cao Cao defeated the warlords in the battle. Cao Cao sent Zhang He to lead a force to attack one of the warlords, Yang Qiu, at Anding Commandery (安定郡; covering parts of present-day Ningxia and Gansu), and Zhang succeeded in forcing Yang Qiu to surrender.

In 212, Zhang He accompanied Xiahou Yuan on a campaign against another of the warlords, Liang Xing (梁兴), and the Di tribes in Wudu Commandery (武都郡; in present-day Longnan, Gansu). In 214, Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He defeated Ma Chao, who had borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery after being driven out of Guanzhong. They also eliminated rebel forces led by Song Jian (宋建).

Battles in Hanzhong

In 215, when Cao Cao launched a campaign against Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery, he first sent Zhang He to lead an army ahead to attack Liang Xing (梁兴) and the Di tribal king, Dou Mao (窦茂). He ordered Zhang He to lead 5,000 infantry to clear the path after entering Hanzhong via San Pass (散关; southwest of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi). After receiving Zhang Lu's surrender, Cao Cao headed back and left behind Xiahou Yuan, Zhang He and other generals to defend Hanzhong from his rival Liu Bei, who controlled Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) directly south of Hanzhong.

Later that year, Zhang He pacified Badong (巴东; east of present-day Chongqing) and Baxi (巴西; around present-day Langzhong, Sichuan) commanderies and relocated the residents to Hanzhong. He was defeated by Liu Bei's general Zhang Fei at Dangqu (宕渠; in present-day Qu County, Sichuan) and abandoned his horse and escaped on foot via a shortcut with only a few of his men. He retreated back to Nanzheng County with his remaining troops. He was promoted to General Who Defeats Bandits (荡寇将军) later.

In 218, Liu Bei launched a campaign to seize control of Hanzhong from Cao Cao's forces. He garrisoned his forces at Yangping Pass (阳平关; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi) while Zhang He stationed his troops at Guangshi. Liu Bei divided his thousands of elite soldiers into ten groups and ordered them to attack Zhang He's position at night. Zhang He personally led his men to resist Liu Bei's forces and succeeded in holding off the enemy. In the meantime, Liu Bei set fire to the fences at Zhang He's camp in Zouma Valley. Xiahou Yuan led some soldiers to put out the fire and encountered Liu Bei's force along the way and engaged the enemy. Xiahou Yuan was killed in action while Zhang He retreated. According to the Weilüe, Liu Bei was fearful that Xiahou Yuan would be replaced by Zhang He as the commander of Cao Cao's forces in Hanzhong. He also expressed disappointment after learning that it was Xiahou Yuan, and not Zhang He, who was killed in battle.

Cao Cao's forces in Hanzhong were shocked when they learnt of their commander's death and became worried that Liu Bei might take advantage of the situation to press on the attack. Guo Huai, a Major who served under Xiahou Yuan, expressed support for Zhang He to be the new commander. He said: "General Zhang (He) is a famous general in the Empire. Even Liu Bei is afraid of him. He is the only person capable of restoring stability in this hour of peril." Zhang He assumed the role and reorganised his forces. The other officers were all willing to submit to his command. Stability was restored.

Cao Cao, who was then in Chang'an, sent a messenger to Hanzhong to approve Zhang He's command. In the following year, he personally led an army to Hanzhong to reinforce Zhang He. Liu Bei ordered his forces to remain in their positions in the mountainous regions and refused to engage Cao Cao in battle. Cao Cao eventually gave up on Hanzhong and led his forces out. Zhang He was relocated to a garrison at Chencang (陈仓; present-day Chencang District, Baoji, Shaanxi).

Service under Cao Pi

Cao Cao died in March 220 and was succeeded by his son Cao Pi as the King of Wei (魏王). Cao Pi promoted Zhang He to General of the Left (左将军) and increased his marquis rank to Marquis of a Chief District. Later that year, Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty and established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the new emperor. After his coronation, he promoted Zhang He from a district marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Mao" (鄚侯).

In 221, Cao Pi ordered Zhang He and Cao Zhen to lead forces to attack the Lushui and Eastern Qiang tribes in Anding Commandery (安定郡; covering parts of present-day Ningxia and Gansu).

Battle of Jiangling

In 222, Cao Pi summoned Zhang He and Cao Zhen for an audience with him in the Wei capital Luoyang, and then ordered them, Xiahou Shang and other generals to lead armies to attack Jiangling County, which was controlled by Wei's rival state, Eastern Wu. During the battle, Zhang He supervised the Wei forces as they captured an island on the Yangtze River and started constructing a small castle on it. The battle had an inconclusive overall result because the Wei forces withdrew on their own without making any significant gains.

Service under Cao Rui

Cao Pi died in 226 and was succeeded by his son Cao Rui as the emperor of Wei. Cao Rui ordered Zhang He to garrison in Jing Province to defend Wei's southern border from Eastern Wu. Later on, Zhang He and Sima Yi led troops to attack Wu forces commanded by Liu E and defeated them at Qikou (祁口).

Repelling the first Shu invasion

In 228, Zhuge Liang, the regent of Wei's rival state Shu Han, led the Shu forces on the first of a series of campaigns to attack Wei. Zhang He was recalled back from Jing Province to defend Wei's western borders in the Guanzhong region (covering areas in present-day Gansu and Shaanxi) from the Shu armies. Later that year, he defeated the Shu general Ma Su at the Battle of Jieting by first cutting off the enemy's access to water supplies and then attacking them.

Earlier that year, three Wei-controlled commanderies – Nan'an (南安; in present-day Dingxi, Gansu), Tianshui and Anding (安定; covering parts of present-day Ningxia and Gansu) – had responded to Zhuge Liang's call and defected to Shu. Zhang He attacked the three commanderies and took them back for Wei. Cao Rui issued an imperial decree to praise Zhang He for his success in repelling the Shu invasion and reward him by adding 1,000 taxable households to his marquisate. Zhang He had 4,300 households in his marquisate after the increment.

Aborted campaign against Wu

Around the time, the Wei general Sima Yi, who was training naval forces in Jing Province, planned for an invasion of Wu via the Han River, which links to the Yangtze River. Cao Rui ordered Zhang He to lead forces from the Guanzhong region to Jing Province to support Sima Yi. However, when they arrived in Jing Province, it was already in winter and the waters were unsuitable for the larger ships to sail on, hence the campaign was aborted. Zhang He then returned to his garrison at Fangcheng County (方城县; present-day Gu'an County, Hubei).

Predicting the outcome of the Siege of Chencang

In late 228, Zhuge Liang launched a second campaign against Wei and besieged the Wei fortress at Chencang (陈仓; present-day Chencang District, Baoji, Shaanxi), which was defended by Hao Zhao. Cao Rui summoned Zhang He back to the capital Luoyang to discuss plans to counter the Shu invasion but they met in Henan instead. Cao Rui placed Zhang He in command of 30,000 troops and reassigned some of the Imperial Guards to serve as Zhang's bodyguards. He asked Zhang He: "General, if you're late, will Zhuge Liang have already captured Chencang?"

Zhang He predicted that Zhuge Liang's forces could not maintain the siege on Chencang for long because they lacked supplies. He replied: "Zhuge Liang will have already left before I even reach Chencang. I estimate he has less than 10 days worth of supplies." He then led his troops towards Nanzheng County, travelling day and night. The Shu forces retreated. Cao Rui summoned Zhang He back to Luoyang and commissioned him as General of Chariots and Cavalry Who Attacks the West (征西车骑将军).

Death

In 231, when Zhuge Liang launched his fourth invasion of Wei, Cao Rui ordered Sima Yi and Zhang He to lead Wei forces west to counter the invasion. When Zhang He's army arrived in Lueyang County, Zhuge Liang retreated to Mount Qi (the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) to defend his position. When Sima Yi ordered Zhang He to pursue the enemy, Zhang He refused and said that according to classical military doctrine, they should not pursue an enemy force returning to its base. Sima Yi insisted, so Zhang He had no choice but to pursue the retreating Shu forces. He fell into an ambush at Mumen Trail (木门道; near present-day Mumen Village, Mudan Town, Qinzhou District, Tianshui, Gansu) and died after a stray arrow hit him in the right knee. Cao Rui granted him the posthumous title "Marquis Zhuang" (壮侯), which literally means "robust marquis".

Family

Zhang He had four sons, who were all enfeoffed as marquises by Cao Rui in recognition of their father's contributions to Wei. The eldest, Zhang Xiong, inherited his father's title and became the next Marquis of Mao (鄚侯). The youngest son, whose name is unknown, received the peerage of a Secondary Marquis.

Appraisal

Zhang He was described to be a resourceful and proficient military leader who was well versed in geography and capable of making accurate predictions about war situations, to the point where even Zhuge Liang was wary of him. Even though he served in the military, he highly respected Confucian scholars. He once recommended Bei Zhan (卑湛), a learned scholar who was known for his good moral conduct and who was from the same hometown as him, to serve in the Wei government. Cao Rui accepted Zhang He's suggestion and appointed Bei Zhan as an Academician (博士). He also issued an imperial decree to praise Zhang He for not only defending Wei's borders, but also showing concern for the internal preservation of Wei.

In popular culture

Zhang He is a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He also appears in all instalments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series.

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering there is a card named "Zhang He, Wei General" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.