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中國哲學書電子化計劃 數據維基
-> 清

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typedynasty
namedefault
name大清
name國朝
authority-wikidataQ8733
link-wikipedia_zh清朝
link-wikipedia_enQing_dynasty
清朝(1616年2月17日、1636年5月15日或1644年6月5日-1912年2月12日),正式國號為大清(ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ |v = daicing gurun |a = daiqing gurun),對外使用中國(ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ|z= dulimbai gurun)、中華大清國大清國大清帝國等名稱,又稱滿清(манж Чин)、皇清,是中國曆史上由滿人建立的一個大一統朝代,亦為中國歷史上最後一個帝制王朝,統治者為起源於明代建州女真的愛新覺羅氏。

滿人源自女真,皇族愛新覺羅氏為建州女真一部,隸屬明朝建州衛管轄之部眾。建州衛是明朝在中國東北南部設立的一個羈縻衛所,屬於明朝邊的羈縻防行政單位,曾隸屬于奴兒幹都司管轄,而愛新覺羅氏世代為建州左衛都指揮使。1616年,女真族人努爾哈赤在今中國東北地區建國稱汗,建立大金(史稱後金),定都赫圖阿拉,又稱為「興京」(今遼寧新賓)。1636年,努爾哈赤的繼承者皇太極在盛京(今瀋陽)稱帝,定國號為「大清」,當時其領土僅止於中國東北及漠南地區,但已對退守長城以南的明朝造成重大威脅。1644年,大順李自成率軍攻陷北京,明朝滅亡。同年,吳三桂部等原明朝殘餘軍隊為對抗李自成而歸降清軍,由此清軍進入山海關內,在擊敗農民軍後遷都北京,並開始大規模南下。其後的數十年時間內,清朝陸續消滅華北殘餘明朝勢力、李自成的大順軍、張獻忠的大西國、南明和明鄭等勢力,統一中國全境。歷經康熙雍正乾隆三帝,清朝的綜合國力及經濟文化逐步得到恢復和發展,統治著遼闊的領土及藩屬國,史稱康雍乾盛世,是清朝發展的高峰時期,亦是中國專制王朝歷史上最輝煌的時期之一。

清朝政治制度基本上沿襲明朝高度權力集中,不設宰相,其最高決策單位隨皇帝的授權而變動,例如議政王大臣會議、軍機處、總理衙門等,除提升行政效率外,也使皇帝能充分掌權。但清朝廷的勤奮也用在嚴苛的法治上,清中期文字獄興盛,若有疑似反清復明的運動與散播被認為不利皇帝的消息,往往會引來冤獄,牽連多人受害。軍事方面,清朝在初期建樹巨大,原先以旗人的八旗軍為核心精銳,龐大的綠營為主力,而後期逐漸以綠營和地方團練如湘軍、淮軍為支柱。清朝領土在歷史上具有重要意義,清初期所進行的陸上與海上擴張,以及對邊疆地區的強而有力的施政,奠定了現代中國所繼承的基本版圖與統治。清極盛時除去對外戰爭暫時佔領的土地,僅實質控制下的領土便達1310萬平方公里,在中國歷史上僅次於元朝,即使在清末也維持1130萬平方公里之巨。政治穩定、廣泛種植新作物與賦稅制度的改變,使得中國人口最後突破以往的平均值,達到四億左右。國內與國外的貿易提升,帶動經濟農業與手工業的發展。

外交接觸方面,除了與周邊東亞國家有往來,當時正值航海時代的歐洲人直接透過海路來與中國貿易和傳教活動,當時主要集中於廣州,不過西方列強在18世紀左右憑藉著工業化的突破,開始大幅拉開國力差距,鴉片戰爭開啟中國近代歷史,使中國從東亞的中心變成列強環伺的國家。列強迫使清廷簽訂不平等條約,以武力獲得在華利益。清朝在抵抗外侮與內憂的同時,也一直處於改革派與守舊派拉鋸的局面。在列強入侵的同時西方科學與文化亦引入中國,讓清朝發起一連串的改革與革命,如洋務運動,促使中國文化的成長與革新。然而甲午戰爭的失敗使改革的努力受到沉重打擊,並使中國國際地位大為降低,列強加速劃分勢力範圍。而其後的維新運動也隨守舊派抵制而告終。在義和團運動排外反列強失敗、引來八國聯軍侵華後,清廷也推動清末新政,雖取得一些成效,但部分內容讓許多立憲派知識分子失望,轉而支持革命。1911年辛亥革命爆發,1912年1月1日中華民國在南京正式成立,同年宣統帝溥儀)於2月12日宣布退位,清朝正式滅亡。

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以上介紹摘自維基百科;若有錯漏,敬請在維基百科上修改來源條目
The Qing dynasty or the Qing Empire, officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led conquest dynasty and the last dynasty in the imperial history of China. It was established in 1636, and ruled China from 1644 to 1912, with a brief restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The multiethnic Qing empire lasted for almost three centuries and assembled the territorial base for modern China. It was the largest Chinese dynasty and in 1790 the fourth largest empire in world history in terms of territory. With a population of 432 million in 1912, it was the world's most populous country.

In the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, leader of the House of Aisin-Gioro and a Ming vassal, began organizing "Banners" which were military-social units that included Manchu, Han, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci united clans to create a Manchu ethnic identity and officially proclaimed the Later Jin dynasty in 1616. His son Hong Taiji declared a new dynasty, the Qing, in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital Beijing in 1644, but Ming general Wu Sangui opened the Shanhai Pass to the armies led by the regent Prince Dorgon, who defeated the rebels and seized the capital. Resistance from the Ming loyalists in the south and the Revolt of the Three Feudatories delayed the complete conquest until 1683. The Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722) consolidated control and carried out the early Qing emperors' program of maintaining Manchu identity, supporting Tibetan Buddhism, while presenting themselves as ideal Confucian rulers. They governed using Confucian bureaucratic institutions, retaining the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with the Manchu officials. They also adapted the ideals of the Chinese tributary system in asserting superiority over peripheral countries such as Korea and Vietnam, while extending control over Tibet and Mongolia.

The height of Qing glory and power was reached in the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735-1796). He led the Ten Great Campaigns that extended Qing control into Inner Asia and personally supervised Confucian cultural projects. After his death, the dynasty faced , internal revolts, population growth, economic disruption, official corruption, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindsets. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars, European powers led by Great Britain imposed "unequal treaties", free trade, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under foreign control. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in Central Asia led to the death of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. The Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the Self-Strengthening Movement. Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, led to loss of suzerainty over Korea and cession of Taiwan to Japan. The ambitious Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 proposed fundamental change, but the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), who had been the dominant voice in the national government for more than three decades, turned it back in a coup.

In 1900 anti-foreign "Boxers" killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the foreign powers invaded China and imposed a punitive Boxer Indemnity. In response, the government initiated unprecedented fiscal and administrative reforms, including elections, a new legal code, and abolition of the examination system. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries worked to overthrow the dynasty, while reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao worked to transform the Manchu Empire into a modern Han Chinese nation. After the deaths of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911 led to the Xinhai Revolution. The abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on 12 February 1912, brought the dynasty to an end. General Yuan Shikai became President of the Republic of China but his attempt to become Emperor ushered in a period of prolonged instability: the Warlord Era.

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以上介紹摘自維基百科;若有錯漏,敬請在維基百科上修改來源條目

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吳三桂rebelled-against1674/1/23康熙癸丑年十二月壬子
朱一貴rebelled-against1721/4/26 - 1721/5/25康熙辛丑年四月
李沅發rebelled-against1849/12/14道光二十九年十一月甲午
林爽文rebelled-against1787/2/14乾隆五十一年十二月丙寅
楊起隆rebelled-against1674/1/28康熙癸丑年十二月丁巳
洪秀全rebelled-against1850/7/9 - 1850/8/7道光三十年六月345229
苗沛霖rebelled-against1861/10/27咸豐十一年九月己酉
清太宗ruled1636/2/7崇德元年正月丁未
清世祖ruled1643/9/22崇德八年八月辛未1661/2/5順治十八年正月丁巳
清聖祖ruled1661/2/6順治十八年正月戊午
清世宗ruled1722/12/21康熙六十一年十一月乙未
清高宗ruled1735/10/9雍正十三年八月庚寅1796/2/8乾隆六十年十二月丁未
清仁宗ruled1796/2/9嘉慶元年正月戊申
清宣宗ruled1820/9/3嘉慶二十五年七月庚辰1850/2/25道光三十年正月丁未
清文宗ruled1850/2/26道光三十年正月戊申1861/8/22咸豐十一年七月癸卯
清穆宗ruled1861/8/23咸豐十一年七月甲辰1875/1/12同治十三年十二月甲戌
清德宗ruled1875/1/13同治十三年十二月乙亥1908/11/14光緒三十四年十月癸酉
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