生平

年少成名

張昭年輕時就以博學出名，深受當地士子敬重，擅長隸書，尤其對鑽研《漢書》別有心得。隨白侯子安學習《左氏春秋》，與瑯琊人趙昱、東海人王朗一起聞名也互為友好。張昭成年後曾被舉薦為孝廉，但他推辭沒有接受，徐州出身的名士陳琳對他頗為仰慕。徐州刺史陶謙慕名察舉他為茂才，被張昭拒絕。陶謙認為張昭輕視他，因此將張昭監禁起來。後來受到趙昱求情才被釋放。後來陶謙病逝後，張昭還是為他寫了悼文。

忠輔孫氏

後來張昭因戰亂隨其他難民逃到江東，因孫策親自登門禮賢下士而決定出仕，官拜長史和撫軍中郎將，孫策軍幾乎所有內政事務都由張昭經手處理，為孫策經營江東做出莫大貢獻。

張昭的一位名士好友更在書信中直言孫氏在江南的一番大作為和新氣象都是張昭一人的功勞，然而這份讚譽太過火，好似不把孫策放在眼裡一樣，張昭怕傳出去惹惱孫策而感到十分為難，孫策知情後瀟灑地說：「當年管仲相齊，齊人尊其為仲父，齊桓公也因管仲之才取得霸業；如今子布賢良，由我起用他，單就這點難道不算我的功勞嗎？」語畢哈哈大笑，孫策的豪邁的胸襟氣度化解了張昭的尷尬處境，也讓張昭在此事之後心甘情願死心蹋地為孫策賣命。

託孤重臣

孫策臨終前將弟弟孫權託付給張昭。孫策囑咐張昭說：「如果仲謀才能有限，那麼閣下便取而代之吧。如果我軍最終無法在亂世立足，亦可從容的向西投靠到時最強大的勢力，不必有所顧慮。」孫策去世後孫權非常悲傷，張昭勸孫權說：「身為繼承人，貴在能承先啟後，自立自強，撐起家業。如今天下大亂，盜賊烽煙四起，公子哪有時間悲傷哭泣呢？」他親自扶孫權上馬，陳兵而出，向眾人示意孫權為新主。

孫權出征時讓張昭留守，領幕府事。黃巾餘黨起事，張昭平定之。孫權征合肥，命張昭別討匡琦，張昭又督領諸將，于南城攻破豫章賊帥周鳳等。

口無遮攔

張昭位高權重且個性高傲，常不顧孫權面子直接當面指責他，有一次孫權設酒席，要群臣大醉方歸，張昭聞訊非常憤怒馬上離席。孫權攔住他說：「大家同歡共樂，公為何發怒？」張昭立即答道：「昔日紂王酒池肉林宴飲狂歡，他也認為這是好事而不是壞事。」

孫權深感慚愧，但歡愉的宴會也被他攪和到眾人敗興而歸，不少人認為張昭此舉太小題大作自以為是。由於太常不分場面直斥孫權也讓孫權對他心有芥蒂，超級自以為是的個性也讓其他重臣對他無好感，諸葛恪、甘寧與魯肅等人都曾被張昭批評或輕視。

力主迎曹

張昭對同僚及君主嚴厲，對外敵卻是相當軟弱，時常反對舉兵出戰，也因此失策不少。轉投孫權的甘寧提議進攻黃祖時張昭反對，兩人當場吵了起來，後來孫權支持甘寧，大破黃祖讓張昭顏面無光；208年曹操大軍壓境，張昭害怕曹操威勢力主求和，希望孫權投降以保得吳國存續，但在主戰派周瑜等人的努力下發動赤壁之戰擊退曹操大軍。數次懦弱的失算也導致張昭的政治地位大幅滑落，更失去了孫權的信任，外加自己口無遮攔又過份高傲的個性，影響後來仕途。

黃初二年八月丁巳（221年9月23日），曹魏派遣太常邢貞持節前往冊拜孫權為大將軍，封吳王，加九錫。冬季十一月，邢貞抵達東吳，孫權前往都亭等侯邢貞，邢貞進門不下車，臉上有傲慢的神色。張昭指責邢貞：「沒有不恭敬的禮節，也沒有不被實行的法令。而你膽敢妄自尊大，難道是認為江南人寡勢弱，連用來執法行刑的刀子也沒有？」邢貞急忙下車，向東吳群臣表示感謝。東吳中郎將徐盛憤怒不平，環視同僚並言語不屑而落淚，因此邢貞聽了就說：「江東有這樣的將相，不會甘心久居人下。」

不得君心

孫權被曹丕封為吳王後設立丞相職，很多人提名張昭來擔任，但孫權推託說：「眼下事情太多，且丞相職重責繁，不好勞煩他老人家。」孫權任命平庸的孫邵擔任丞相。孫邵去世後，又有人提出讓張昭擔任丞相，孫權這才道出真實原因：「你們以為孤很喜歡子布嗎？況且當丞相需要有能調和群臣意見的圓融個性，張昭這個人性情又太剛烈強硬，他的意見要是沒被採納就會埋怨鬧脾氣，過去也常與其他同僚有紛爭，當丞相對他來說並不是好事。」遂任命顧雍為丞相。張昭因此稱老退位，孫權稱帝後，更拜輔吳將軍，班亞三司，改封婁侯，食邑萬戶，退居為《論語》、《左傳》寫註解。

負氣不朝

232年公孫淵在遼東反魏，向孫吳稱臣以為外應。張昭認為公孫淵不但不會守信且必敗無疑，因此反對孫吳對公孫淵的支持，但沒有被孫權採納，結果公孫淵認為東吳遠水救不了近火而殺了孫權派到遼東去的使者張彌和許晏，張昭因此不上朝。孫權為張昭之舉感到盛怒，命令用土封住張昭的家門，來表示他永遠不必出門了，張昭也將內門堵住，強硬表示他也不打算出門了，眼見無效的孫權下令改用火燒張昭的家，以此逼張昭出門，這方法非但沒嚇倒張昭反而更窩在家裡寧死不出，孫權見狀急忙下令將火撲熄，最後孫權在張昭家門前久站不去示軟認錯，但張昭還是不願出門，張昭的兒子們看不下去，認為再不出門給皇帝面子將反變張昭理虧，便強拖張昭出門與孫權和解。

張昭享壽81歲，喪事從簡，入棺材都沒有更換衣服。孫權戴孝前去弔唁，賜謚號文侯。張昭長子張承已經封侯，次子張休世襲張昭爵位。

家族

• 子女：

　• 長子：張承

　• 次子：張休

• 姪子女：

　• 姪子：張奮為弟弟張宏的兒子

• 孫輩：

　• 孫子：張震

　• 孫女：張妃，嫁孫權三子孫和；張氏，嫁陸遜次子陸抗

• 曾孫：張闓，字敬緒，東晉名士，於唐《晉書》有傳。

藝術形象

三國演義

《三國演義》中，張昭與顧雍經常一唱一和的建議。周瑜向孫策成就霸業的時候，提及張昭和張紘二人，兩人合稱二張，並推舉孫策找二人加入麾下。於是孫策帶著聘禮，到二人家中聘請，二人允許。遂即拜張昭為長史併兼任撫軍中郎將，張紘為參謀正議校尉，並一起商議進攻劉繇的事宜。

孫策打敗劉繇手下張英，被問當地人漢武光廟的位置，當地人導出在嶺上。孫策說在夜晚夢到光武帝召我相見，但張昭認為不可，嶺南上是劉繇的營寨，有伏兵怎麼辦？但孫策認為有神人保佑何懼，便帶領韓當、黃蓋、蔣欽、周泰等人出發。及後孫策和太史慈不分勝負而收兵回營，張昭認為：「周瑜襲擊曲阿，敵軍無心戀戰，今晚上可以劫營。」孫策聽從。

周泰跟從孫權征討山賊身中十二槍重傷，董襲提議請虞翻到此醫治。孫策知道虞翻的名聲，並誓要讓這賢士收歸麾下，並派張昭和董襲請他到來治療。

孫策脫離袁術後，袁術被呂布攻打陷入危難，向孫策借兵。孫策以他為僭為帝位，叛漢的反賊為理由拒絕。袁術看到回信後大怒，要先討伐孫策。袁術的兵馬來到，忽然曹操來到，拜孫策為會稽太守，命孫策起兵攻打袁術，孫策商議後決定起兵。張昭認為：「袁術雖然剛敗，但兵馬同糧草還是那麼多，不能輕敵。提議修書一封給曹操，讓他南征，我軍為後應，兩軍互相應援，袁術必敗。萬一我們有什麼不測，也可望曹操救援。」孫策聽從。

孫策欲斬于吉，張昭等人勸諫不可，並聯名上書乞求。孫策臨死的時候向弟孫權的遺言：「內事不決問張昭，外事不決問周瑜。」死後，張昭對孫權說：「現在不是將軍哭的時候，要一面治理喪事，另一面執理國家軍事。」孫權停下眼淚，張昭讓孫靜處理喪事，令孫權出堂，眾文武的人為他稱賀。張紘從曹操處回來，推薦了顧雍。

曹操破袁紹後，令吳太夫人帶兒子入朝，吳太夫人召張昭和周瑜商議。張昭說：「曹操想讓夫人和兒子入朝，必然是牽制其他諸侯的方法。如果不去，恐怕會被興兵伐江東，這樣大勢就會很危險。」周瑜認為六郡是將士用生命換回來，我們兵精糧足，不能和曹操聯合；不如靜觀其變，才是防禦的策略。國太聽後覺得合理，所以向使者回報不帶子入朝。後來吳太夫人病危，召周瑜和張昭，並對孫權說要當張昭和周瑜師傅對待，不能怠慢。吳太夫人死後，孫權欲伐黃祖，但張昭認為喪事未完，不宜出兵。但是，周瑜認為是報仇雪恨的時機到了，孫權猶豫不定。忽然呂蒙稟報甘寧來降，甘寧並說出黃祖的劣勢後，孫權決定出兵。

甘寧攻陷江夏孫權打算分兵江夏，但張昭認為孤城是沒可能守，提議暫時回江東。料定劉表必來報仇，我再以逸待勞，這樣劉表必敗。只要劉表兵敗就可以乘勢攻拿荊襄。孫權聽從張昭的說話。

曹操興兵打算伐孫權，張昭認為不可抵抗而勸孫權投降，眾謀士附議。孫權低頭沒有說話。張昭再次勸降，孫權再次沒有沉默。隨後諸葛亮來到江東結盟，與張昭等人辯論，用劉邦曾敗於項羽，但得韓信後，而幫劉邦取得初次勝利的往事，令張昭啞口無言。張昭知道孫權打算聯盟發兵，再次勸降。

合肥之戰，孫權兵敗，太史慈傷病；張昭請求孫權收兵，孫權答應，並派張昭向太史慈瞭解狀況，太史慈大叫後死亡。

張昭聞劉備逃跑回家，讓孫權不要放走，這樣會成為大患。周瑜打算興兵討伐劉備，張昭阻止，認為這樣會讓曹操高興，因為曹操最害怕就是孫劉聯合。

孫權聽聞曹操南下，張昭提案派魯肅修書一封，再和劉備聯合。孫尚香回江東，張昭提議孫權寫信說夫人病危，讓妹妹把劉備的兒子帶回來看看。

劉備在葭萌關，孫權想奪取荊州，張昭有一計：我們如果出兵，曹操就會來襲。不如寫信給劉璋，說劉備與我們已經結盟一起取西川，讓劉璋有疑心而進攻劉備；另一封寫給張魯，教他進攻荊州，這樣令劉備進退不能。到時候我們再起兵攻取，一切都可以解決。但後來，劉備吞併西川，召張昭和顧雍商討，顧雍認為借荊州不還，就要動兵。而張昭認為不能動兵，又提出一計：把諸葛瑾老小捉來監禁，讓諸葛瑾去問諸葛亮拿回荊州。

跟隨孫權出征逍遙津。後關羽被孫權所斬，張昭聽聞會見主公，知道劉關張三人結拜兄弟，今天殺了關羽，劉備必然來報仇，這樣江東會大禍臨頭。孫權大驚，張昭有一計，把關羽首級轉送給曹操，讓仇恨引到曹操處。劉備打算攻取江東，諸葛瑾讓自己去做使者再次聯盟，孫權答應。張昭見孫權，對他說：「諸葛瑾知道蜀國兵數龐大，所以假借聯盟而入蜀，不會再回來。」孫權相信諸葛瑾不會這樣做，有人回報諸葛瑾回來，張昭羞愧離開。

後曹操派邢貞來封孫權為王，其高傲的性格，令張昭不滿。劉備起兵伐吳，孫桓在夷陵受困求救。張昭奏孫權，指揮官讓韓當為正周泰為副，潘璋為先鋒，凌統為後，甘寧作為救援，起兵十萬拒敵。孫權聽從。但軍勢依然大敗，孫權打算起用陸遜，張昭見陸遜為書生，不是劉備對手，勸其不要用。

張昭和顧雍向孫權啟奏，改年號為元，孫權答應。後孫權讓張昭輔助自己的兒子，並命其為三公之上。群臣商討伐魏對策，但張昭認為先安民心，不可動兵，應該與劉備同盟，孫權聽從。

影視形象

• 1985年--亞洲電視（ATV）《諸葛亮》，由錢文華飾演。

• 1994年--中國中央電視台電視劇集《三國演義》，由周繼緯飾演。

• 1996年--中華電視公司電視劇《三國英雄傳之關公》，由王瑞林飾演。

• 1996年--電影《諸葛孔明》，由李康飾演。

• 2004年--中國中央電視台電視劇《武聖關公》，由李容新飾演。

• 2008年--電影《赤壁》，由張毅飾演。

• 2010年--中國電視劇《三國》，由申傑飾演。

• 2010年--中國電視劇《廉石傳奇》，由趙文瑄飾演。

• 2012年--香港無線電視台電視劇《回到三國》，由余子明飾演。

• 2016年--中國電視劇《武神趙子龍》，由蔡剛飾演。

• 2017年--中國電視劇《大軍師司馬懿之軍師聯盟》，由王虎城飾演。

動漫

• 《火鳳燎原》（陳某）:設定為水鏡學府之老師，擅長內政及經營之道，為周瑜遊說下出山襄助。

評價

• 陳壽：「張昭受遺輔佐，功勳克舉，忠謇方直，動不為己；而以嚴見憚，以高見外，既不處宰相，又不登師保，從容閭巷，養老而已，以此明權之不及策也。」

• 孫策：「昔管子相齊，一則仲父，二則仲父，而桓公為霸者宗。今子布賢，我能用之，其功名獨不在我乎！」

• 孫權曾經說：「孤與張公言，不敢妄也。」又曾在爭執時對張昭說：「吳國士人入宮則拜孤，出宮則拜君，孤之敬君，亦為至矣。而數于眾中折孤，孤嘗恐失計。」「孤豈為子布有愛乎？領丞相事煩，而此公性剛，所言不從，怨咎將興，非所以益之也。」「使張公在坐，彼不折則廢，安複自誇乎？」

• 曹丕：「彼二人皆權股肱心腹也。」

• 王朗：「張子布，民之望也，北面而相之。」

• 陳琳：「自僕在河北，與天下隔，此間率少于文章，易為雄伯，故使僕受此過差之譚，非其實也。今景興（王朗）在此，足下與子布在彼，所謂小巫見大巫，神氣盡矣。」

• 邢貞：「江東將相如此，非久下人者也。」

• 魚豢《典略》：「其人信一時之良幹，恨其不于嵩岳等資，而乃播殖于會稽。」

• 陸機《辨亡論》：「誅叛柔服而江外厎定，飭法修師而威德翕赫，賓禮名賢而張昭為之雄，交御豪俊而周瑜為之傑。彼二君子，皆弘敏而多奇，雅達而聰哲，故同方者以類附，等契者以氣集，而江東蓋多士矣。」「故豪彥尋聲而響臻，志士希光而影騖，異人輻輳，猛士如林。于是張昭為師傅；周瑜、陸公（陸遜）、魯肅、呂蒙之疇入為腹心，出作股肱。」

• 陸雲《張二侯頌》：「輔吳將軍文侯，遭季末雲擾，遂避難于東。有吳之興，實為謀主。桓王即世，援建太祖。知命審于將萌，先識鏡于未兆。遂作上將，輔成王業。立朝無不易之方，正色有犯顏之亮，固所謂『謇謇王臣，古之遺直者』也。」「洪族既昌，再惠音徽。於穆二侯，仍世雙飛。堂堂輔吳，抑抑奮威。如龍之躍，如鳳之輝。薄言戾止，在彼紫微。卯金紛若，四海畔換。文侯乃顧，妙世達觀。逝彼塗方，度茲江漢。鴻飛遵海，聿來有亂。遭家不造，殲我明聖。桓後肇揚，侯承末命。皇大烝哉，天保永定。匪侯恤度，宗緒孰正。帝整我旅，外薄四荒。命作惟師，時惟鷹揚。遂登上將，亮彼大皇。底邑胙土，命圭有璋。蹇蹇我侯，明發宿夜。襲彼遺直，興言有謨。聿懷來忠，王室之故。猗歟定侯，祗服清曜。奕奕瓊范，玉潤淑貌。淵謂往藏，朗思來照。曾是徽章，再世被荷。庸勛開國，明道隆家。苾苾其芬，淑問揚和。有蔚其文，如林之華。皇矣帝祚，受言既崇。女子有行，作合儲宮。條延紫極，穎衍皇寧。釁釁定侯，在盈思衝。祗寵戒溢，永懷慎終。重光並曜，播我芳風。」

• 華譚：「賴先主承運，雄謀天挺，尚內倚慈母仁明之教，外杖子布廷爭之忠，又有諸葛、顧、步、張、朱、陸、全之族，故能鞭笞百越，稱制南州。」

• 慕容皝：「及權（孫權）據楊越，外杖周（周瑜）張，內憑顧（顧雍）陸（陸遜），拒魏赤壁，克取襄陽。」

• 庾闡：「桓桓勇武，堂堂碩佐。運籌則淵回，抱麾則虎步。臨機如公瑾，遺愛如子布。是以朝宗江漢，廓落王祚。」

• 習鑿齒：「張昭于是乎不臣矣！夫臣人者，三諫不從則奉身而退，身苟不絕，何忿懟之有？且秦穆違諫，卒霸西戎，晉文暫怒，終成大業。遺誓以悔過見錄，狐偃無怨絕之辭，君臣道泰，上下俱榮。今權悔往之非而求昭，後益回慮降心，不遠而複，是其善也。昭為人臣，不度權得道，匡其後失，夙夜匪懈，以延來譽，乃追忿不用，歸罪於君，閉戶拒命，坐待焚滅，豈不悖哉！」

• 袁宏：「子布佐策，致延譽之美，輟哭止哀，有翼戴之功，神情所涉，豈徒謇諤而已吉哉！然杜門不用，登壇受譏。夫一人之身所照未異，而用舍之間俄有不同，況沉跡溝壑，遇與不遇者乎！」「子布擅名，遭世方擾。撫翼桑梓，息肩江表。王略威夷，吳魏同寶。遂贊宏謨，匡此霸道。桓王之薨，大業未純。把臂託孤，惟賢與親。轟哭止哀，臨難忘身。成此南面，實由老臣。才為世生，世亦須才。得而能任，貴在無猜。」

• 裴松之：「張昭勸迎曹公，所存豈不遠乎？夫其揚休正色，委質孫氏，誠以厄運初遘，塗炭方始，自策及權，才略足輔，是以盡誠匡弼，以成其業，上籓漢室，下保民物；鼎峙之計，本非其志也。曹公仗順而起，功以義立，冀以清一諸華，拓平荊郢，大定之機，在于此會。若使昭議獲從，則六合為一，豈有兵連禍結，遂為戰國之弊哉！雖無功于孫氏，有大當于天下矣。昔竇融歸漢，與國升降；張魯降魏，賞延于世。況權舉全吳，望風順服，寵靈之厚，其可測量哉！然則昭為人謀，豈不忠且正乎！」

• 環濟《吳紀》：「忠正有才義。」

• 許嵩《建康實錄》：「好學，善談論，能隸書。」

• 朱敬則：「蕭何之鎮靜關中，寇恂之安輯河內，諸葛亮相蜀，張昭輔吳，茂宏之經理琅琊，景略之弼諧永固，劉穆之眾務必舉，揚遵彥百度惟貞，蘇綽共濟艱難，高熲同經草昧，雖功有大小，運或長短，咸推股肱之林。悉為忠烈之士。」

• 李溪：「破虜當時拔俊中，張公杖策過江來。平生容貌矜莊甚，此老威嚴列上台。」

• 嚴從：「子布剛簡，懷不撓之節，屬桓王創業，首贊經綸，仲謀嗣立，躬自扶翊。古人所謂托六尺之孤者歟？既而忠言屢發，直道不回，折弋獵之娛，沮釣台之樂：斯又王臣蹇蹇，國之元老者哉。夫江東之於天下，猶四體之有一掌耳，權不能恢闡雄量，以求忠讜，而乃輕肆忿毒，厭聞至言，始抽刃於虞翻，終按刀於子布。翻既謫終遐裔，昭亦廢處家僮，故使時望挫傷，元功圯衄。」

• 司馬光《資治通鑑》：「昭容貌矜嚴，有威風，吳主以下，舉邦憚之。」

• 蘇軾：「如漢汲黯、蕭望之、李固，吳張昭，唐魏鄭公、狄仁傑，皆以身徇義，招之不來，麾之不去。正色而立于朝，則豺狼狐狸，自相吞噬，故能消禍于未形，救危于將亡。」「僕之有張昭，正如備之孔明，左提右挈，以就大事，國中文武之事，盡以委之，而見教殺昭與備，僕豈病狂也哉。」

• 蕭常：「昭以純剛見憚于孫權，雖不及相，而所立有可稱者。惜夫！委質非其所，君子所不與。不然，其汲黯、蕭望之之流亞歟。」「紘與昭號二張。紘柔克，昭純剛。紘先死，德不亡，昭後死，譽益彰。」

• 陳亮：「桓王屬大皇于張昭，更以周瑜遺之，後瑜馳驅于顛危之際，昭遂廢不用。何哉？江東雖定而國輕矣。餘論次其行事，使善觀國者有考焉。」

• 胡三省：「張昭事吳，有古大臣之節。」「張昭輔吳為元臣。」

• 郝經：「國之將興，必有佐命之臣，以建不拔之基焉。孫氏之有張昭，近之矣。昭以碩儒元老，顧受遺托，忠鯁彊諫，有不可犯之色與不可奪之節，汲黯、蕭望之之流也。雖以嚴見憚，終于疏外，而耆德峻望，殷勤敵國，增重江表，足以揭桓王之美，明大帝之盛業也。使諫行言聽，有吳功烈豈止是哉？其勸權迎操，志存漢室，以王道為度，初不事夫偏霸也，此昭之所以為，昭豈淺淺功利之徒所能識哉？」「中州名流，弛擔江表。逢時啟霸，分辰割曜。把臂挈孤，付託元老。彊直不撓，忠誠矯矯。」「危哉！昭烈防不出數子之彀，操之遣拒袁術也，昱嘉昭皆以為不可遣，毒手莫施幸而颺去，料敵制勝卒使昭烈不得中原尺土。嗚呼！數子何讎漢之深也。當是之時，魏有荀彧、荀攸、賈詡、程昱、郭嘉、董昭、劉曄、蔣濟、司馬懿為之謀，吳有張昭、周瑜、魯肅、呂蒙、陸遜運其籌。」

• 高啟：「何謂社稷之臣，忠藎孚扵上下，威望加扵內外，敵國聞之而不敢謀，奸宄畏之而不敢發，正色立朝，招之不來而麾之不去，若漢汲黯、吳張昭、唐郭子儀是也。」

• 乾隆帝：「弟權因之，用賢納諫，周瑜、魯肅、張昭、顧雍、陸遜皆被擢用，于是成鼎足之勢，開有吳之基，兵強將勇，敵國畏之。」

• 王懋竑：「昭以剛直見憚，權稱為張公而不敢字之。……昭之議迎曹乃過為權計，不欲孤注一擲，亦用策『緩步西歸』之言耳。雖為失策，然未至誤大計。權即尊位，不當追仇前語。昭以師傅自居于權，未嘗有所屈降，何至以一語之故遂伏地流汗乎？」

• 柏楊：「反過來看孫張之間，亦師亦友，火攻土掩的戲劇景觀，充滿真摯和溫馨。」

註釋

Early life

Zhang Zhao was born in the late Eastern Han dynasty in the Pengcheng State, a principality in Xu Province centred around present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu. As a youth, he was known for being diligent in his studies and for specialising in the clerical script style of calligraphy. He studied the Zuo zhuan and Chunqiu under the tutelage of Bohou Zi'an (白侯子安), and was known for being well read in history. He was also a close friend of two other well-known scholars, Zhao Yu and Wang Lang.

When Zhang Zhao reached the age of adulthood around 19, he was nominated as a xiaolian (civil service candidate) to serve in the government. However, he declined the offer and chose to join Wang Lang in compiling an essay on the ancient use of taboo names. They received praise from other Xu Province scholars, such as Chen Lin, for their work. The essay contradicted the arguments of Ying Shao, another celebrated scholar from Runan Commandery (汝南郡; around present-day central Henan).

Sometime later, when Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province, nominated Zhang Zhao as a maocai (茂才; outstanding candidate) to serve in the government, Zhang Zhao declined the offer again. Tao Qian perceived Zhang Zhao's rejection as an insult, so he ordered the latter's arrest. However, Zhao Yu, who was serving in Tao Qian's administration at the time, managed to convince the governor to pardon Zhang Zhao.

Service under Sun Ce

When chaos broke out throughout China in the 190s, many people living in Xu Province fled their homes and crossed the Yangtze River to take shelter in Yang Province (or the Jiangdong region) in the south. Zhang Zhao followed suit and moved from Pengcheng State to Jiangdong.

Between 194 and 199, the warlord Sun Ce conquered the territories in Jiangdong and established his own regime in the region. During this time, he heard of Zhang Zhao and wanted to recruit him as an adviser. After Zhang Zhao agreed and joined him, he was so delighted that he told Zhang Zhao: "Now that I have expanded my domain in all the four corners, I should treat learned and virtuous men with the utmost respect. I won't treat you in any degrading manner." He then appointed Zhang Zhao as a Colonel (校尉) and honoured him like a teacher.

Later on, Sun Ce made Zhang Zhao his Chief Clerk (長史) and promoted him from Colonel to General of the Household Who Pacifies the Army. Apart from paying his respects to Zhang Zhao's mother and treating Zhang Zhao like an old friend, Sun Ce also consulted Zhang Zhao on various matters related to civil and military policy.

Receiving flattering letters

While serving under Sun Ce, Zhang Zhao received several flattering letters from his fellow literati in the north. He faced a dilemma on how to deal with those letters. On one hand, he was afraid that if he kept quiet about those letters, Sun Ce would start questioning his loyalty. On the other hand, he was also worried that others would scorn him for being boastful if he revealed the letters.

When Sun Ce found out, he laughed and told Zhang Zhao: "In the past, when Guan Zhong was the chancellor of Qi, he was called zhongfu. With his help, Duke Huan of Qi became a hegemon among the feudal lords. Today, as I have a virtuous talent like Zibu to assist me, isn't his glory also mine?"

Sun Ce entrusting Sun Quan to Zhang Zhaos care

In the year 200, before Sun Ce died, he entrusted his younger brother and successor, Sun Quan, to Zhang Zhao's care. He told Zhang Zhao: "If Zhongmou turns out to be incompetent, you may replace him. If there is no way to overcome the difficulties, you can gradually retreat back to the west where you will have no worries."

After Sun Ce's death, Zhang Zhao led all of Sun Ce's former subjects to support Sun Quan and pledge their allegiance to him. Zhang Zhao also wrote a memorial to the Han central government to inform them about Sun Ce's death and that Sun Quan had succeeded his brother. He also wrote to all the key appointment holders throughout Sun Quan's domain to order them to continue performing their duties as before.

Service under Sun Quan

Assisting Sun Quan in consolidating power

When an 18-year-old Sun Quan first came to power, he was so overwhelmed with grief over his brother's death that he spent his time mourning instead of taking charge of the regime established by his brother in Jiangdong. Zhang Zhao told him:

Sun Quan's biography in the Sanguozhi recorded that Zhang Zhao told the young Sun Quan:

Sun Quan heeded Zhang Zhao's advice. He changed out of his mourning attire, got onto horseback with Zhang Zhao's help, and inspected his troops as they assembled in formation. Sun Ce's former subjects accepted Sun Quan's leadership and pledged their allegiance to him. Sun Quan also appointed Zhang Zhao as his Chief Clerk (長史) and ordered him to perform the same duties as he did under Sun Ce.

With Zhang Zhao's assistance, Sun Quan managed to consolidate his control over the unstable Jiangdong regime left behind by Sun Ce. Apart from pacifying and winning over the people, he also recruited many talented and capable persons to serve in his administration. Whenever Sun Quan went into battle, he left Zhang Zhao behind to guard his base and oversee day-to-day affairs in the Jiangdong territories. During this time, Zhang Zhao suppressed an uprising by remnants of the Yellow Turban rebels.

Battle of Jiangxia

In the spring of 208, Gan Ning, who had recently joined Sun Quan, pointed out to Sun Quan that Cao Cao, the warlord who controlled the Han central government and most of northern China, was planning to attack Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) to the west of the Jiangdong (or Wu) territories. He also noted that Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province, was incapable of defending his domain, so it would be better for Sun Quan to seize Jing Province before Cao Cao could do so. The first step in Gan Ning's plan was to attack Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Wuhan, Hubei), which was guarded by Liu Biao's subordinate Huang Zu.

Sun Quan approved Gan Ning's plan, but Zhang Zhao strongly objected and said: "The territories in Wu have not been completely pacified yet. If we proceed with this campaign, I am afraid there will be chaos." Gan Ning rebuked Zhang Zhao: "Our lord has entrusted responsibilities to you as if you were Xiao He. If you can't even be confident that there won't be chaos under your watch, how can you expect to be like Xiao He?"

Sun Quan ignored Zhang Zhao and put Gan Ning in charge of planning and leading the campaign. They emerged victorious in the campaign as they killed Huang Zu in battle and conquered Jiangxia Commandery.

Battle of Red Cliffs

In the late autumn of 208, Cao Cao launched a military campaign aimed at eliminating all forces in southern China who opposed him. He swiftly conquered Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) after the provincial governor Liu Cong surrendered without a fight. When Sun Quan's subjects heard that Cao Cao had gained control of Jing Province along with its tens of thousands of land and naval troops, they became fearful as they knew that Cao Cao's next target was Sun Quan's territories in the Jiangdong region. Sun Quan summoned them for a meeting and showed them a threatening letter he received from Cao Cao, in which Cao Cao claimed that he had 800,000 troops.

Some of Sun Quan's subjects, including Zhang Zhao and Qin Song, suggested that Sun Quan surrender to Cao Cao because, in their opinion, they could not win a battle against Cao Cao. However, Sun Quan ultimately heeded the advice of Lu Su and Zhou Yu and hardened his decision to go to war with Cao Cao. He also told Lu Su and Zhou Yu privately that he was deeply disappointed with Zhang Zhao, Qin Song and those who advised him to surrender to Cao Cao. After making up his mind, he summoned all his subjects, drew his sword, slashed the table in front of him and said: "Any of you who dares to speak of surrendering to Cao Cao shall end up like this table!"

In the winter of 208–209, Sun Quan and his ally Liu Bei scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. After the Battle of Red Cliffs, while Zhou Yu led Sun Quan's forces to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Jiangling, Sun Quan personally led another army to attack Hefei, a heavily fortified city under Cao Cao's control. During the campaign, he ordered Zhang Zhao to lead a separate detachment of troops to assault Kuangqi (匡琦), another of Cao Cao's fortresses in Guangling Commandery (廣陵郡; around present-day Huai'an, Jiangsu). Sun Quan and Zhang Zhao did not manage to capture Hefei and Kuangqi, while Zhou Yu successfully conquered Jiangling.

Zhang Zhao later led Sun Quan's forces to attack and eliminate bandit forces led by Zhou Feng (周鳳) in Yuzhang Commandery (豫章郡; around present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi). After this battle, Zhang Zhao hardly assumed positions of military command again as Sun Quan decided to keep him by his side as a strategist and adviser. Sun Quan also treated him very respectfully because of his senior status in the administration.

In late 209 or early 210, after Sun Quan received the appointment of acting General of Chariots and Cavalry from the Han central government through Liu Bei's nomination, he appointed Zhang Zhao as his Army Adviser.

Lecturing Sun Quan on hunting excursions

Sun Quan enjoyed going on hunting excursions as a leisure activity. On one occasion, while he was hunting a tiger on horseback with a bow and arrows, the tiger suddenly attacked him and clawed at his saddle.

When Zhang Zhao heard about it, he lectured Sun Quan: Sun Quan then apologised to Zhang Zhao: "I am young and lacking in wisdom. Sir, I am sorry for letting you down."

Despite being lectured, Sun Quan was unwilling to give up on his favourite pastime so he designed a chariot for his hunting excursions. The chariot had squarish openings but no roof. Accompanied by only a driver to drive the chariot, Sun Quan fired arrows at wild beasts through the openings. When they encountered animals who left their packs/herds and came very close to the chariot, Sun Quan got out and took pleasure in hand-to-hand combat with the animal. When Zhang Zhao found out, he repeatedly urged Sun Quan to stop engaging in such dangerous activities but the latter laughed and ignored him.

Service under the King of Wu

In late 220, Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty and established the state of Cao Wei (or Wei) with himself as the emperor. This event marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China.

In September 221, Sun Quan pledged nominal allegiance to Cao Pi and agreed to become a vassal of Wei. In return, Cao Pi sent an emissary, Xing Zhen (邢貞), to confer the title "King of Wu" on Sun Quan. On 23 September that year, when Xing Zhen arrived at Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), the capital of Sun Quan's domain, for the conferment ceremony, he did not dismount from his carriage when he reached the city gates. Zhang Zhao told him: Upon hearing what Zhang Zhao said, Xing Zhen immediately got off the carriage and entered the city on foot.

After Sun Quan became the King of Wu, he awarded Zhang Zhao the appointment of General Who Pacifies Distant Lands and the peerage of Marquis of Youquan (由拳侯). Zhang Zhao, along with Sun Shao, Teng Yin, Zheng Li and others, drafted the rules of imperial protocol for the Kingdom of Wu based on those of the Zhou and Han dynasties.

Lecturing Sun Quan on making merry

When Sun Quan was in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), he once hosted a drinking party on a terrace and invited all his subjects to attend. He ordered his servants to splash water at everyone, after which he jokingly declared: "The party shall not end until everyone gets dead drunk."

Zhang Zhao did not say anything, put on a stern face, walked out of the party, and sat inside his carriage alone. Sun Quan sent someone to ask him to come back, and then asked him: "This is a time for all of us to make merry and be happy. Sir, why are you angry?" Zhang Zhao replied: Sun Quan fell silent and looked embarrassed after hearing Zhang Zhao's words. He then called off the party.

Not chosen to be Imperial Chancellor

In November 222, Sun Quan broke ties with Cao Pi and declared himself an independent ruler of his Kingdom of Wu by adopting an era name for his reign. After that, he wanted to create the position of Imperial Chancellor (丞相) in his government, so he consulted his subjects on suitable candidates to fill in this post. Although all of them came to the consensus that Zhang Zhao was the best candidate, Sun Quan said: "We are living in times of chaos. Such key appointments are to be filled by persons capable of shouldering great responsibilities; they shouldn't be treated like honorary positions." Sun Quan ultimately selected Sun Shao to be the first Imperial Chancellor of Wu.

After Sun Shao died in office in the summer of 225, Sun Quan's subjects nominated Zhang Zhao to succeed Sun Shao as Imperial Chancellor. However, Sun Quan refused again and said: "It's not that I am being unkind towards Zibu (by not choosing him). The person holding the position of Imperial Chancellor has to deal with so many issues on a daily basis. (Zhang Zhao) is too headstrong. If people don't listen to him, there will be a lot of conflicts. It won't be helpful at all." He then chose Gu Yong to be the second Imperial Chancellor of Wu.

Service under the Emperor of Wu

In the summer of 229, after Sun Quan declared himself emperor of Wu, Zhang Zhao retired from active service on the grounds of old age and poor health. He resigned from his position as General Who Pacifies Distant Lands and returned command of his troops to the Wu government.

Sun Quan snubbing Zhang Zhao

According to the Jiang Biao Zhuan, although Sun Quan highly respected Zhang Zhao for his loyal, bold and forthright character, he never forgot that Zhang Zhao had advised him to surrender to Cao Cao before the Battle of Red Cliffs. After he became emperor, he told all his subjects: "I wouldn't have become an emperor today if there wasn't Zhou Yu to assist me." Just as Zhang Zhao prepared to hold up his hu and congratulate Sun Quan, the emperor remarked: "If I had listened to Lord Zhang, I'd be begging for food today." Zhang Zhao felt deeply embarrassed and he broke out in a cold sweat as he sank to his knees.

Pei Songzhi, in his annotations to Zhang Zhao's biography in the Sanguozhi, argued that Zhang Zhao had never intended to help Sun Ce or Sun Quan become rulers in their own right; all he desired was to assist them in bringing peace to the common people living under their control. When he saw that Cao Cao had pacified northern China and conquered Jing Province just before the Battle of Red Cliffs, he advised Sun Quan to surrender to Cao Cao because he saw that as an opportunity for the fragmented Han Empire to be reunified under Cao Cao's control. If the Han Empire were reunified, there would be no more conflicts among the warlords, and the common people would finally be able to live in peace. Pei Songzhi thus concluded that although Zhang Zhao may not be considered loyal towards Sun Quan, he had the greater interests of the common people at heart.

The Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny believed that this account from the Jiang Biao Zhuan is probably false because Sun Quan stood to gain little for his own reputation and authority from making such an extraordinary public insult at Zhang Zhao.

Life in retirement

Although Zhang Zhao had effectively retired, Sun Quan still gave him an honorary position as General Who Assists Wu, whose status was just below the Three Ducal Ministers in the hierarchy of the Eastern Wu government. Sun Quan also changed Zhang Zhao's peerage from the Marquis of Youquan (由拳侯) to the Marquis of Lou (婁侯), and awarded him a marquisate comprising 10,000 taxable households.

Zhang Zhao stayed at home after retiring and he spent his time writing a guide to the Zuo zhuan and an annotated copy of the Analects.

Sun Quan once asked Yan Jun to recite something he memorised in his childhood. Yan Jun thus recited "The Scope and Meaning of the Treatise", the opening paragraph of the Classic of Filial Piety. Zhang Zhao, who was also present, remarked: "Yan Jun is a mediocre scholar. I humbly seek permission to recite for Your Majesty." After Sun Quan approved, Zhang Zhao recited "The Service of the Ruler", another paragraph in the Classic of Filial Piety. Sun Quan's other subjects agreed that Zhang Zhao had a good understanding of what he should recite in front of the emperor.

Quarrel with Sun Quan

Zhang Zhao was known for being very outspoken, forthright and blunt in his speech whenever he spoke up in Sun Quan's imperial court. On one occasion, after he openly defied an order from Sun Quan, he was not allowed to enter the imperial court for some time.

During this time, Wu's ally state Shu sent an ambassador to Wu for an official visit. The Shu ambassador sang praises about Shu in front of Sun Quan and his imperial court. Some Wu officials tried to challenge the Shu ambassador but failed. Sun Quan sighed: "If Lord Zhang were here, (the Shu ambassador) would feel intimidated before he could even debate with us, much less boast about his state!"

The following day, Sun Quan sent a messenger to visit Zhang Zhao at his residence and invite him back to the imperial court. When Zhang Zhao showed up, he apologised to Sun Quan but refused to take his seat, so Sun Quan knelt down and begged him to stop. Zhang Zhao then sat down, with his eyes looking up, and said: Sun Quan apologised to him and left.

Quarrel with Sun Quan over the Liaodong issue

In 233, the Liaodong-based warlord Gongsun Yuan pledged allegiance to Sun Quan and expressed willingness to become a vassal of Eastern Wu. Sun Quan was delighted as he saw Gongsun Yuan as a potential ally against Wu's rival state, Wei. He then wanted to send Zhang Mi and Xu Yan (許晏) as his representatives to Liaodong to meet Gongsun Yuan and grant him the title "King of Yan" (燕王). However, Zhang Zhao strongly objected and said:

Sun Quan and Zhang Zhao had a heated quarrel over this issue; Zhang Zhao, adamant that he was right, stubbornly refused to yield. Sun Quan eventually lost his temper, placed his hand on the hilt of his sword, and angrily told Zhang Zhao: "When the people of Wu enter the palace, they pay respects to me. Outside the palace, they pay respects to you. My respect for you has already reached the maximum possible extent, yet you humiliate me in front of everyone. I am really afraid that I will lose control of myself and end up hurting you." Zhang Zhao stared at Sun Quan for some time before replying: He then broke down in tears. Sun Quan dropped his sword and started crying too.

When Sun Quan ultimately sent Zhang Mi and Xu Yan to Liaodong, Zhang Zhao felt so frustrated with the emperor for not heeding his advice that he claimed that he was sick and refused to show up in the imperial court. An angry Sun Quan then ordered the entrance of Zhang Zhao's residence to be sealed by piling up earth in front of it to block people from entering or leaving. In response, Zhang Zhao also ordered his servants to pile up earth too and block the entrance from the inside.

In the autumn of 233, Gongsun Yuan betrayed Sun Quan and executed Zhang Mi and Xu Yan. When Sun Quan heard about it, he realised that he was in the wrong. After Zhang Zhao ignored his apologies several times, Sun Quan personally went to Zhang Zhao's residence and called him to come out but Zhang Zhao refused and claimed that he was ill. Sun Quan then set fire to the entrance of Zhang Zhao's residence to scare him and force him to come out. His plan backfired as Zhang Zhao not only refused to come out, but also shut all the doors and windows of his residence. Left with no choice, Sun Quan ordered his servants to put out the fire, and he stood at the entrance for a long time. Zhang Zhao's sons then helped their father out, while Sun Quan arranged for a carriage to fetch Zhang Zhao to his palace. At the palace, Sun Quan apologised profusely to Zhang Zhao, who finally forgave him and returned to work.

The Jin dynasty historian Xi Zuochi praised Sun Quan for acknowledging his mistake and doing his best to show his remorse and apologise to Zhang Zhao. However, he also criticised Zhang Zhao for his pompous and condescending attitude towards Sun Quan. He argued that Zhang Zhao, as a subject of a ruler, should know his place and refrain from pushing things to such an extreme even if he was right.

Death

Throughout his life, Zhang Zhao was known for maintaining a dignified and solemn appearance, and for having an awe-inspiring bearing. His colleagues in the Wu imperial court saw him as an intimidating figure. Sun Quan once said: "When I speak to Lord Zhang, I don't dare to say anything in jest."

Zhang Zhao died at the age of 81 (by East Asian age reckoning) in 236 during the Jiahe era (232–238) of Sun Quan's reign. Before he died, he gave instructions that he wanted to be buried in a coffin of simple design and to be dressed in plain clothes. Sun Quan donned mourning garments and attended his funeral in person. He also honoured Zhang Zhao with the posthumous title "Marquis Wen" (文侯).

Family

Zhang Zhao was survived by at least two sons, who both served as military generals in Eastern Wu. His first son, Zhang Cheng, had already received a peerage of his own, so his second son Zhang Xiu inherited his peerage and became the next Marquis of Lou (婁侯).

Zhang Zhao's nephew, Zhang Fen, designed a war chariot to serve as a siege engine when he was only 19. Bu Zhi recognised his talent and recommended him to serve in the Wu army. However, Zhang Zhao disapproved as he told Zhang Fen: "You are still young. Why do you want to put yourself through hardship by serving in the army?" Zhang Fen replied: "In the past, Wang the boy died a hero while Ziqi governed E. I may be untalented but I am no longer young." He then served in the army and rose through the ranks to become a general. The highest appointment he held was Chief Controller of Pingzhou (平州都督). He was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Lexiang Village.

Appraisal

Chen Shou, who wrote Zhang Zhao's biography in the Sanguozhi, appraised him as follows: "Zhang Zhao received a mission to assist (Sun Quan). His contributions were outstanding. He was loyal, outspoken and upright; his actions were not for his own interests. However, he was feared because he was too stern, and he was shunned by others because he liked to assume the moral high ground. He was given neither the role of a chancellor nor an imperial tutor. Instead, he had a rather unimpressive career and spent his old age in retirement. This shows that Sun Quan was not as wise as Sun Ce."

The Dianlue (典略) recorded that Liu Biao, the governor of Jing Province, once wrote a letter to Sun Ce. Before sending, he showed it to Mi Heng, who disdainfully remarked: "Is this letter for children in Sun Ce's domain to read out? Or is it for Zhang Zibu's perusal?" This remark showed that even the notoriously haughty Mi Heng acknowledged Zhang Zhao's literary talent.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Zhang Zhao's fictionalised persona in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms is generally similar to its historical counterpart. In the novel, he first appears in Chapter 15 when Zhou Yu recommends him and Zhang Hong (not related to Zhang Zhao), who are collectively referred to as the "Two Zhangs" of Jiangdong", as talents to assist Sun Ce. Sun Ce then visited them at their homes and succeeded in recruiting them to serve as his advisers. In Chapter 29, when Sun Ce is about to die, he says that if Sun Quan cannot make decisions on domestic and external issues, he can consult Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu respectively.

In chapters 43 to 49, when Sun Quan is discussing with his subjects about how to counter an impending invasion by Cao Cao just before the Battle of Red Cliffs, his subjects are divided into two camps: one advocating surrender to Cao Cao, and the other advocating going to war with Cao Cao. Zhang Zhao is one of the leading figures in the former camp. Chapter 43, in particular, describes a fictitious debate between Zhuge Liang and the various scholar-officials serving under Sun Quan. Zhang Zhao is the first among those scholar-officials to challenge Zhuge Liang, who manages to silence all of them through his eloquent responses to their queries and comments, as well as taunts and insults.