歷史

起源

根據《史記秦本紀》記載，秦人的先祖，據說為大業之子伯益。在周朝時受封在隴西建立諸侯國。

秦國先祖中潏為商朝「保西垂」。其子蜚廉是商朝末年帝辛的寵臣。據清華簡《系年》的第三章，周初三監之亂平定後，蜚廉」東逃於商奄氏。成王伐商奄，殺蜚廉，西遷商奄之民於邾，以御奴之戎，是秦先人。」。李學勤先生鑑於秦人和東方的奄國同姓，同主少皞，又蜚廉東逃於此，認為秦人可能最初起源於東方，和奄國同源。在西周初年因獲罪及曾「保西垂」，被謫戍西方。

西周周穆王之後，秦人地位繼續提升，其家族首領大駱與周人也有姻親關係的申侯結為婚姻。因此據司馬遷的說法，大駱之子非子被別封于秦，為周王室的大夫。後來升格為附庸。天子之附庸與諸侯之附庸級別是不同的，其地位相當于一個畿內諸侯。司馬遷也補充，秦人成為附庸後，長期對西部戎人作戰，實力得到擴充。

根據史記，相傳秦的先祖為三皇五帝時期的伯益，最早為夏朝諸候，後歸順商湯，滅夏。在殷商大戊時，中衍成為重要的諸侯。其子蜚廉，其孫惡來、季勝。武王克殷時，惡來被殺。蜚廉一系在此時分為兩支，惡來之子孫為秦國之祖，其弟季勝為趙氏之祖。季勝後人造父在周穆王時為周王御者，受封趙城，遂為趙氏。惡來一系居於犬丘，在周孝王時受封秦邑。

秦國部落遷至西垂地區，有兩種說法，一據戰國末年的《孟子》說是在晚商時期，因為周武王討伐殷商時，蜚廉支持殷商，因此被殺，其氏族被強迫遷至西垂。另一個傳說是，在商朝時，戎胥軒時，與酈山之女通婚生下中潏，遷至西垂。

蜚廉生下惡來、季勝二子。惡來被周武王所殺，其後為大駱，居犬丘，以畜牧為生。大駱生成與非子，並與周朝申侯通婚。周孝王封非子，成為秦國先祖。季勝一系則成為趙國先祖。

在秦景公一號大墓中發現過一片石罄，銘文如下：天子郾喜，龔桓是嗣；高陽有靈，四方以鼐。大意為天子舉行宴饗，（作罄者是）（秦）共公、（秦）桓公的繼承者，先祖高陽在天有靈，國內得以四方生平。高陽氏，即顓頊，黃帝之孫，位列「五帝」。由此看來秦人源自華夏人群，早期秦文化源自中原商周文化，與西戎差異甚大，但由于長期闢居西隅，亦吸收了不少戎狄文化，在長期與戎狄的戰爭中，秦人養成了粗獷好戰的性格。

秦最初領地在當時屬于周朝的邊緣地區，西接西戎。公元前905年，周孝王封非子于秦邑（今甘肅省甘肅省天水市清水縣東北）為天子之附庸，使複嬴氏祀，號曰「秦嬴」，秦國伊始。

早期歷史

非子死後，其子秦侯即位，秦侯元年（前855年），秦國始有確切紀年。秦侯在位十年，死後其子秦公伯即位，公伯在位三年，死後其子秦仲即位。秦仲三年（前842年），周厲王暴虐無道，西戎反叛周王室，滅掉犬丘大駱之族，秦仲二十一年（前824年），周宣王以秦仲為大夫，命其率軍討伐西戎。秦仲二十三年（前822年），秦仲在與西戎的戰爭中戰死，秦仲有子五人，由長子嬴祺即位，史稱秦莊公；少子康(第五子)嬴慶為梁伯康(春秋時期梁國國君)。周宣王召見秦莊公兄弟五人，授予他七千士卒，命其討伐西戎，大獲全勝，重新奪取犬丘之地，隨后庄公遷都犬丘，秦莊公因為戰功被周宣王封為西陲大夫。莊公生子三人，長子名世父，世父對祖父秦仲被西戎殺死的事情耿耿于懷，于是帶兵攻打西戎，將太子之位讓與其弟襄公。 秦襄公元年（前777年），將妹妹繆嬴嫁予西戎豐王，以緩和秦戎關係。次年（前776年），西戎圍犬丘，世父率軍奮力禦敵，不幸被俘，由于秦戎聯姻，一年之後世父又被戎人放歸秦國。

春秋時期

獲封為伯

秦襄公七年（前771年），申侯聯合犬戎攻打周王室，殺死周幽王，秦襄公率軍救周，屢立戰功，隨後秦襄公審時度勢，支持周平王，並護送周室東遷洛邑。秦襄公因此被周平王封為秦伯，又被賜封岐山以西之地，秦正式成為諸侯國。

向東擴張

秦襄公得到周平王的許諾後，大力征伐犬戎，秦襄公十二年（前766年)，率軍伐犬戎抵達周朝故地岐山，戰死。其子德即位，是為秦文公，秦文公四年（前762年），在渭水與汧水交匯處營建新的都邑，文公十六年（前750年），秦文公驅逐戎人，收納周朝的遺民，將疆域擴展到岐山。文公之子靜公（史記作靖公）早死，文公死後由其孫憲公即位（史記誤作寧公），秦憲公二年（前714年），遷都平陽，三年（前713年），伐滅蕩社，其君亳王逃往戎地，十二年（前704年），滅亡蕩氏。

秦晉關係

到了秦穆公時代，降服西戎八國，亦同時參與中原爭霸，成為與晉國、楚國的霸主級別強國。晉獻公時，秦晉兩國維持著良好關係，而秦亦致力鞏固及開拓西陲。公元前651年，晉獻公死，眾晉公子爭位，晉國陷入動亂，而秦穆公亦開始把戰略目標東移。晉公子夷吾流亡國外，並許諾秦穆公若以秦助繼晉侯位，則以黃河以西的土地報答秦國。及秦軍送夷吾回晉，立為晉惠公，而秦卻沒有得河西土地。秦穆公亦沒有追究。過了數年晉國旱災，晉求糧于秦，穆公賣糧食及農具與晉。翌年，秦國大旱，穆公欲購糧于晉，而惠公不許。秦穆公大怒伐晉，戰于韓，俘虜了晉惠公。因晉惠公的姐姐是穆公的夫人，才得以被放回晉國。以後數年秦晉之間皆有徵戰。後來秦穆公聽說晉獻公有一公子重耳流亡于楚國，遂請重耳到秦，並舉兵助其回晉國。時晉惠公已死，其子晉懷公剛立不足一年，被公子重耳和秦軍攻殺。公元前636年，重耳繼位為晉文公，在位九年，秦晉修好。

公元前628年，晉文公去世，晉襄公立。這一年秦穆公秘密攻打鄭國，秦軍于行軍途中被販牛的鄭國商人弦高識破，失去了突襲的先機，遂收兵回秦。當時晉襄公探得秦軍回軍的路徑，兩軍大戰于殽，秦軍覆沒。消息傳回秦國，穆公懊悔悲慟，秦人大憤。前625年，秦穆公發兵伐晉複仇，又敗于彭衙。過了一年，秦穆公親自率兵再次討伐晉國，渡過黃河以後，將渡船全部焚毀，表示誓死克敵的決心。晉軍拒不出戰。穆公在當年的殽戰場埋葬尸骨及樹立標記，然後班師回國。

及後，因秦國東進的路被晉國堵塞，秦國的戰略轉回傳統的經營西陲。秦康公，桓公，景公時期，秦晉一再發生戰爭，幾經拉鋸。秦國國勢亦隨著戰爭被拖至逐漸衰弱。

弭兵之會

公元前546年，秦景公在位期間，宋國、晉國、楚國、齊國、秦國等14國舉行弭兵之會，簽訂的盟約是：「晉、楚之從，交相見也。」（奉晉、楚兩國為共同霸主，除齊、秦外，各國須向晉、楚同樣納貢，晉的僕從國要朝貢楚國，而楚的僕從國要朝貢晉國，齊國作為晉國的盟國，不朝拜楚國，秦國為楚國的盟國，亦不朝于晉國），秦哀公在位期間，申包胥曾前往秦庭痛哭求師助楚昭王複國，留下「申包胥哭秦庭」這一典故。

戰國時期

戰國初期魏國連年進攻秦國，奪取河西之地，設立西河郡(見河西之戰)，秦國被迫退守洛水以西，走入下坡。這形勢一直到商鞅變法才開始改變。

公元前356年，秦孝公任命商鞅為左庶長，商鞅開始第一次變法。主要內容為：第一，「令民為什伍」，實行連坐法；第二，重農抑商，獎勵耕織；第三獎勵軍功，按功受爵，貴族無軍功不再受爵；第四，「燔詩書而明法令」。前350年商鞅又進行第二次變法，主要內容有：統一秦國的度量衡；廢分封，行縣制；「為田開阡陌封疆」，廢除井田制，以法律形式確立土地私有制度。商鞅變法後，秦國逐步強盛起來，軍隊的戰鬥力也有所提高，使秦國成為當時最強盛的諸侯國，為後來秦統一六國奠定了基礎。但是商鞅實行的嚴刑峻法和文化高壓政策，對後來的秦朝有消極影響。商鞅變法遭到了舊貴族的強烈反對。秦孝公死後，商鞅被施以車裂之刑。但商鞅變法的措施在秦國繼續下去，他主張的法家思想，也成為秦國占統治地位的政治思想。

公元前三世紀以後，東方各國衰落下去，秦國無敵于天下。秦昭襄王時，其母宣太后與義渠通婚，使詐殺義渠戎王於甘泉，將義渠併入秦國。公元前279年的郢之戰和前278年的鄢之戰，白起統帥的秦軍攻占當時政治核心在南陽和丹陽一帶的楚國，攻陷楚國首都，所得領土改置南陽郡、南郡、臨江郡（江夏郡）、黔中郡，楚遷都壽郢；至此南方大國楚國因為喪失大片疆土和人口而走向衰落，公元前260年白起在長平之戰重創趙國，秦國消滅及坑殺趙國降卒共四十餘萬，這是戰國時期兼併戰爭中規模最大、殺傷最多的一次戰役，秦國威震天下。公元前256年秦國滅西周國，周王朝統治的最後象徵被消滅。

前247年秦王政登基，開始征服六國。從前230年秦滅韓國起，到前221年秦滅齊國，統一中國。中國歷史結束諸侯封建時代，進入中央集權君主專制時代。

社會經濟

秦國社會經濟仍以農業為主。

• 春秋時代晚期，出現了鑄鐵農具。

• 戰國時代，修建了鄭國渠、都江堰等水利工程，進一步促使農業生產發展。

• 手工業以冶銅和制陶最為發達。發明了鉻鹽氧化處理兵器的新工藝；建築材料頗具特色，瓦當更是精美的藝術品。

• 重視小兒的健康與教育，有專門的小兒醫生。

葬儀

秦國國君陵園在雍城陵區發現13座，芷陽陵區發現4座，士大夫與國人墓葬已發掘至近千座，國君稱王之前使用「中」字形諸侯級墓制，稱王之後使用「亞」字形王級墓制，廣泛使用人殉（秦獻公廢除），殉葬物品豐富，規模宏大。其中秦公一號大墓（及秦景公墓地）殉葬186人，為中國有史以來發掘墳墓中殉葬人數最多的一座。

人口

西元前360年，約130萬~160萬

軍事

秦國軍隊自商鞅變法實行獎勵軍功政策後愈戰愈勇。武器裝備不斷改進。軍隊數量多時達到「帶甲之士百萬」，出現了尉繚、白起、王翦、蒙恬等著名軍事家和將領。

人物簡表

春秋時期 （前770年～前5世紀）

戰國時期 （前5世紀～前221年）

秦朝|秦朝時期（前221年～前207年）

楚漢|楚漢時期（前207年～前202年）

世系簡表

衍生作品

影視

• 《大秦帝國之裂變》

• 《大秦帝國之縱橫》

• 《大秦帝國之崛起》

• 《大秦賦》

• 《秦始皇》

• 《東周列國戰國篇》

動畫

• 《王者天下》

注釋

History

Founding

According to the 2nd century BC historical text Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, the Qin state traced its origin to Zhuanxu, one of the legendary Five Emperors in ancient times. One of his descendants, Boyi, was granted the family name of Yíng by Emperor Shun. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Yíng clan split in two: a Western branch in Quanqiu (present-day Lixian in Gansu) and another branch that lived east of the Yellow River. The latter became the ancestors of the rulers of the later Zhao state.

The western Yíng clan at Quanqiu were lords over the Xichui ("Western March") region west of Mount Long and served as a barrier for the Shang dynasty against invasions by the Western Rong barbarians. One of them, Elai, was killed defending King Zhou of Shang during the rebellion led by Ji Fa that established the Zhou dynasty. The Yíng clan was however allied with the politically influential marquesses of Shen, whom the Zhou monarch relied upon heavily to manage the Rong people, and was thus allowed to retain their lands and continued serving as an attached vassal under the Zhou dynasty. A younger son of line, Feizi, impressed King Xiao of Zhou so much with his horse breeding skills, that he was awarded a separate fief in the valley of Qin (present-day Qingshui and Zhangjiachuan County in Gansu) northeast of Quanqiu, and his seat was named Qinyi (in present-day Qingtingzhen, Qingshui County). Both branches of the western Yíng clan lived in the midst of the Rong tribes, sometimes fighting their armies and sometimes intermarrying with their kings.

It has been suggested by scholars such as Annette Juliano and Arthur Cotterel that having a horse-breeder as their ancestor may imply that the Yíng family had partial relation to nomadic tribes. As late as 266 BC, it was remarked by a noble of Wei that they shared customs with the Rong and Di tribes; the Central Plains states seemed to hold Qin culture and other peripheral states like Yan and Chu in low regard, due to the marginal location of their states. Qin was the second state after Zhao to adopt cavalry tactics from the nomads. Following the collapse of Zhou Dynasty, the Qin state absorbed cultures from two of the Four Barbarians from the west and north, which made the other warring states see their culture in low esteem.

In 842 BC, the nobles revolted against the corrupt King Li of Zhou, overthrowing him the following year, and the country fell into turmoil. The Xirong tribes used the opportunity to rebel against the Zhou dynasty, attacking and exterminating the senior branch of Yíng clan at Quanqiu, leaving the cadet branch at Qinyi the only surviving Yíng clan in the west. After King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne in 827 BC, he made Qin Zhong, Feizi's great grandson, the commander of his forces in the campaign against Xirong. Two years later in 822 BC, Qin Zhong was killed in battle, was succeeded by his eldest son Duke Zhuang. To commemorating Qin Zhong's loyalty, King Xuan summoned Duke Zhuang and his four younger brothers and gave them 7,000 soldiers. The Qin brothers successfully defeated the Rong and recovered their lost patrimony formerly held by the deceased branch of Yíng clan, and King Xuan further awarded them the territory of Quanqiu. Duke Zhuang moved his seat from Qinyi to Quanqiu, and had three sons. When he died in 778 BC, his eldest son Shifu wanted to stay fighting the Xirong and avenge their grandfather, turning down the succession, so his second son Duke Xiang ascended as the clan leader. Soon afterwards in 777 BC, Duke Xiang married his younger sister Mu Ying to a Rong leader called King Feng (豐王), in an apparent attempt to make peace. The following year he moved the Qin capital eastward from Quanqiu to Qian (汧, in present-day Long County, Shaanxi), but Quanqiu soon fell to the Rong again after he left. His older brother Shifu, who led the defence of Quanqiu, was captured by the Rong but was released a year later.

In 771 BC, the Marquess of Shen collaborated with the Zeng state and the Quanrong nomads, attacked and sacked the Zhou capital Haojing, killing King You of Zhou and ending the Western Zhou dynasty. Duke Xiang led his troops to escort King You's son King Ping to Luoyi, where the new capital city of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was established. In gratitude of Duke Xiang's service, King Ping formally enfeoffed Duke Xiang as a feudal lord and elevated Qin from an "attached state" (附庸 fùyōng, a minor state with limited autonomy under the rule of other liege lord) to a major vassal state, and further promised to permanently give Qin the land west of Qishan, the former heartland of Zhou, if Qin could expel the Rong tribes that were occupying it. The future generations of the Qin rulers were encouraged by this promise, and they launched several military campaigns on the Rong, eventually expanding their territories to beyond the original lands lost by the Western Zhou dynasty. The Qin state therefore viewed the Zhou rulers King Wen and Wu as their predecessors, and themselves as inheritors of their legacy.

Spring and Autumn period

Because their main concern was the Rongs to the west, Qin's interaction with other states in central China remained minimal throughout the Spring and Autumn period (722481BC), except with its immediate eastern neighbour Jin, a large vassal of the Zhou. Qin maintained good diplomatic relations with Jin and there were also marriages between members of the royal clans of both states, but relations between both sides had also deteriorated to the point of armed conflict before.

During the early reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the Jin state was a formidable power under the leadership of Duke Xian of Jin. However, after the death of Duke Xian, Jin plunged into a state of internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought over the succession. One of them won the contention and became Duke Hui of Jin, but Jin was struck by a famine not long later and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu sent relief food supplies and agricultural equipment to Jin. However, Qin was struck by famine later and by then, Jin had recovered and it turned to attack Qin. Qin and Jin engaged in several battles over the next few years.

During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu heard that one of Duke Xian's exiled sons, Chong'er, was taking refuge in the Chu state. After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissary to Chu to invite Chong'er over, and helped Chong'er defeat his brother Duke Hui and become the new ruler of Jin, with his title as "Duke Wen". Duke Wen was grateful to Duke Mu and relations between Qin and Jin improved. With his eastern front stable, Duke Mu used the opportunity to launch military campaigns against the minority tribes in the west.

In 627 BC, Duke Mu planned a secret attack on the State of Zheng, but the Qin army retreated after being tricked into believing that Zheng was already prepared for Qin's invasion. Duke Wen had died and his successor, Duke Xiang of Jin, ordered his troops to lay an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated at the Battle of Xiao (near present-day Luoning County, Henan) and suffered heavy casualties, and all three of its generals were captured but later released. Three years later, Qin attacked Jin for revenge and scored a major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance further east after holding a posthumous funeral service for those killed in action at the Battle of Xiao, and went back to focus on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's borders in the west. Duke Mu's achievements in the western campaigns and his handling of foreign relations with Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period.

In 506 BC, King Helü of Wu defeated Chu in the Battle of Boju and captured the Chu capital Ying (present day Jingzhou). Helü's advisor Wu Zixu, who was previously forced into exile by the already deceased King Ping of Chu and craved vengeance for the brutal execution of his father and brother, exhumed the King Ping's corpse and lashed it posthumously. This was a great humiliation for the Chu state, so Shen Baoxu, a Chu official and a former friend of Wu Zixu, travelled to the Qin court and pleaded for assistance from Duke Ai of Qin to recover the capital. After Duke Ai initially refused to help, Shen spent seven days crying in the palace courtyard, and Duke Ai was eventually moved by his devotion and agreed to send troops to assist Chu. The famous poem named "No Clothes" (無衣 Wú Yī), recorded in the Classic of Poetry, was a battle hymn personally composed by Duke Ai to boost the morale of the Qin troops. In 505 BC, the Qin and Chu armies jointly defeated Wu in several battles, allowing King Zhao of Chu to be restored and return to the recaptured capital.

Warring States Period

Early decline

During the early Warring States period, as its neighbours in the Central Plains began rapidly developing, Qin was still in a state of underdevelopment and decline. The Wei state, formed from the Partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin most relied on natural defenses, such as the Hangu Pass (函谷關; northeast of present-day Lingbao, Henan) and Wu Pass (武關, in present day Danfeng County) in the east, to protect its Guanzhong heartland. Between 413 and 409 BC during the reign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army led by Wu Qi, with support from Zhao and Han, attacked Qin and conquered some Qin territories west of the Yellow River.

Legalist reforms

After suffering losses in the battles with rival states such as Wei, the Qin rulers actively pursued legal, economic social reforms. When Duke Xiao came to the throne of Qin, he issued an announcement calling forth men of talent (including scholars, administrators, theorists and militarists) from other states to enter Qin and help him with his reforms, promising rewards of high offices and lands in return.

Among these foreign talents, Shang Yang successfully conducted a series of Legalist reforms in Qin with the support of Duke Xiao, despite facing strong opposition from conservative Qin politicians. Dire primogeniture were abolished, with all commoners granted citizenship rights. Many were resettled in new clusters focusing on increasing agricultural output. Meritocracy was practised throughout, especially in the military, with soldiers and officers receiving due rewards according to their contributions, regardless of their backgrounds. However, tough and strict laws were imposed as well, with draconian punishments being meted out for the slightest of offences, and even the nobility and royalty were not spared. After decades, the reforms strengthened Qin economically and militarily, and transformed it into a highly centralized state with an efficient administrative system.

After Duke Xiao's death, King Huiwen became the new ruler of Qin and he put Shang Yang to death by chariot-tearing on charges of treason, but some believed that the king harboured a personal grudge against Shang because he was harshly punished for a minor infraction in his adolescence under Shang's reformed system. However, King Huiwen and his successors retained the reformed systems and they helped to lay the foundation for Qin's eventual unification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC. Shang Yang's theories were further elaborated later by Han Fei, another Legalist scholar who combined Shang's ideas with those of Shen Buhai and Shen Dao, that would form the core of the philosophies of Legalism. Qin rose to prominence in the late 3rd century BC after the reforms and emerged as one of the dominant superpowers of the Seven Warring States.

Ascendancy

Qin's power continued growing in the following century after Shang Yang's reform, owing the success to the industriousness of its people. The Qin kings authorized many state development projects, including large public works such as irrigation canals and defensive structures.

One of the most obvious results of the reforms was the change in Qin's military. Previously, the army was under the control of Qin's nobles and comprised feudal levies. After Shang Yang's reforms, the aristocracy system was abolished and replaced by one based on meritocracy, in which ordinary citizens had equal opportunities as the nobles to be promoted to high ranks. In addition, military discipline was strongly enforced and the troops were trained to adapt better to different battle situations. Qin's military strength increased largely with the full support of the state. In 318 BC, the states of Wei, Zhao, Han, Yan and Chu formed an alliance and attacked Qin, but did not manage to advance beyond Hangu Pass, and were defeated by counter-attacking Qin forces. The alliance crumbled due to mistrust and suspicion and lack of coordination among the five states.

Apart from the effects on Qin's military, Shang Yang's reforms also increased labour for numerous public works projects aimed at boosting agriculture, and made it possible for Qin to maintain and supply an active military force of more than a million troops. This feat could not be accomplished by any other state, except Chu, during that time. Qin's conquests of the southern states of Ba and Shu in present-day Sichuan province also provided Qin with major strategic advantages. The lands in the new territories were very fertile, and helped serve as a "backyard" for supplies and additional manpower. It was hard for Qin's rivals to attack Ba and Shu, since the territories were located deep in the mountains upstream of the Yangtze River. At the same time, Qin's strategic position in Ba and Shu provided it with a platform for launching attacks on the Chu state, which lies downstream of the Yangtze.

Wars against Chu, Han, and Wei

During the reign of King Huiwen of Qin, the Chu state to the southeast became a target for Qin's aggression. Although Chu had the largest operation-ready army of all the Seven Warring States at over a million troops, its administrative and military strength was plagued by corruption and divided among the nobles. Zhang Yi, a Qin strategist, suggested to King Huiwen to exercise Qin's interest at the expense of Chu. Over the following years, Zhang engineered and executed a number of diplomatic plots against Chu, supported by the constant military raids on Chu's northwestern border. Chu suffered many defeats in battles against Qin and was forced to cede territories to Qin. King Huai I of Chu was furious and ordered a military campaign against Qin, but he was tricked by Zhang Yi into breaking diplomatic ties with his allies, and his angered allies joined Qin in inflicting a crushing defeat on Chu. In 299 BC, King Huai I was tricked into attending a diplomatic conference in Qin, where he was captured and held hostage until his death. In the meantime, Qin launched several attacks on Chu and eventually sacked the Chu capital city of Chen (陳; present-day Jiangling County, Hubei province). The crown prince of Chu fled east and was crowned King Qingxiang of Chu in the new capital city of Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Anhui province).

In the next five decades after King Huiwen's death, King Zhaoxiang of Qin shifted his attention to the Central Plains after the victories in the south against Chu. In the early years of King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Marquis of Rang (穰侯) served as Qin's chancellor and he actively pushed for military campaigns against the Qi state in the far eastern part of China. However, the marquis had his personal motives, as he intended to use Qin's powerful military to help him conquer a fief in Qi territories, since the lands were not directly linked to Qin and would not be under the Qin government's direct administration.

Subsequently, King Zhaoxiang's foreign advisor, Fan Sui, advised the king to abandon those fruitless campaigns against distant states. King Zhaoxiang heeded Fan's advice and changed Qin's foreign policy to adopting good diplomatic relations with distant states (Yan and Qi), while concentrating on attacking nearby states (Zhao, Han and Wei). As a consequence, Qin began to launch constant attacks on Han and Wei over the next decades, conquering several territories in its campaigns. By then, Qin's territories had expanded to beyond the eastern shore of the Yellow River and Han and Wei were reduced to the status of "buffers" from Qin for the other states in the east.

Wars against Zhao

Starting from 265 BC, Qin launched a massive invasion on Han and forced Han to cede its territory of Shangdang (上黨; in present-day Shanxi province). However, Han offered Shangdang to Zhao instead, which led to a conflict between Qin and Zhao for control of Shangdang. Qin and Zhao engaged in the three-year-long Battle of Changping, followed by another three-year siege by Qin on Zhao's capital city of Handan. The conflict at Changping was deemed as a power struggle, as both sides pitted their forces against each other not only on the battlefield, but also in the domestic context. Although Qin had an abundance of resources and vast manpower, it had to enlist every man above the age of 15 for war-related duties, ranging from front-line service to logistics and agriculture. King Zhaoxiang of Qin even personally directed his army's supply lines. The extent of mobilization and the exhaustion in the aftermath was not seen in world history for another 2,000 years, until this concept of total war re-entered the stage during World War I. Qin's eventual victory in 260 BC was attributed to its use of schemes to stir up internal conflict in Zhao, which led to the replacement of Zhao's military leaders.

Following the Qin victory at the Battle of Changping, the Qin commander Bai Qi ordered the 400,000 prisoners-of-war from Zhao to be executed by burying them alive. Subsequently, the Qin forces marched on the Zhao capital city of Handan in an attempt to conquer Zhao completely. However, the Qin troops were unable to capture Handan as they were already exhausted and also because the Zhao forces put up fierce resistance. King Xiaocheng of Zhao offered six cities to Qin as a peace offer and King Zhaoxiang of Qin accepted the offer after being persuaded by Fan Sui. Within Zhao, many officials strongly opposed King Xiaocheng's decision to give up the cities and subsequent delays caused the siege on Handan to be prolonged until 258 BC. Meanwhile, Bai Qi was consecutively replaced by Wang Xi, Wang Ling and Zheng Anping as the Qin commander at the siege.

In 257 BC, Qin was still unable to penetrate Handan after besieging it for three years, and Zhao requested aid from the neighbouring states of Wei and Chu. Wei was hesitant to help Zhao initially, but launched an attack on Qin after seeing that Qin was already exhausted after years of war. The Qin forces crumbled and retreated and Zheng Anping surrendered. The combined forces of Wei and Chu continued to pursue the retreating Qin army and Wei managed to retake part of its original lands that were lost to Qin earlier.

Infrastructural works

In the middle of the 3rd century BC, Zheng Guo, a hydraulic engineer from the Han state, was sent to Qin to advise King Zhaoxiang of Qin on constructing irrigation canals. Qin had a penchant for building large-scale canals, as evident from its Min River irrigation system. King Zhaoxiang approved Zheng Guo's idea on constructing an even bigger canal. The project was completed in 264 BC and the canal was named after Zheng. Qin benefitted from the project as it became one of the most fertile states in China due to the good irrigation system, and also because it could now raise more troops as a consequence of increased agricultural yield.

Unification

In 247 BC, the 13-year-old Ying Zheng became king of Qin after the sudden death of King Zhuangxiang. However, Ying Zheng did not wield state power fully in his hands until 238 BC, after eliminating his political rivals Lü Buwei and Lao Ai. Ying formulated a plan for conquering the other six states and unifying China with help from Li Si and Wei Liao.

In 230 BC, Qin attacked Han, the weakest of the Seven Warring States, and succeeded in conquering Han within a year. Since 236 BC, Qin had been launching several assaults on Zhao, which had been devastated by its calamitous defeat at the Battle of Changping three decades ago. Although Qin faced strong resistance from the Zhao forces, led by general Li Mu, it still managed to defeat the Zhao army by using a ploy to sow discord between King Qian of Zhao and Li Mu, causing King Qian to order Li Mu's execution and replace Li with the less competent Zhao Cong. Zhao eventually fell to Qin in 228 BC after the capital city of Handan was taken. However, a Zhao noble managed to escape with remnant forces and proclaim himself king in Dai. Dai fell to Qin six years later.

After the fall of Zhao, Qin turned its attention towards Yan. Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent Jing Ke to assassinate Ying Zheng but the assassination attempt failed and Qin used that as an excuse to attack Yan. Yan lost to Qin at a battle on the eastern bank of the Yi River in 226 BC and King Xi of Yan fled with remnant forces to Liaodong. Qin attacked Yan again in 222 BC and annexed Yan completely. In 225 BC, the Qin army led by Wang Ben invaded Wei and besieged Wei's capital city of Daliang for three months. Wang directed the waters from the Yellow River and the Hong Canal to flood Daliang and King Jia of Wei surrendered and Wei was conquered.

In 224 BC, Qin prepared for an attack on Chu, its most powerful rival among the six states. During a discussion between Ying Zheng and his subjects, the veteran general Wang Jian claimed that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, but the younger general Li Xin thought that 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng put Li Xin in command of the Qin army to attack Chu. The Chu defenders, led by Xiang Yan, took Li Xin's army by surprise and defeated the Qin invaders. The defeat was deemed as the greatest setback for Qin in its wars to unify China. Ying Zheng put Wang Jian in command of the 600,000 strong army as he had requested and ordered Wang to lead another attack on Chu. Wang scored a major victory against the Chu forces in 224 BC and Xiang Yan was killed in action. The following year, Qin pushed on and captured Chu's capital city of Shouchun, bringing an end to Chu's existence. In 222 BC, the Qin army advanced southward and annexed the Wuyue region (covering present-day Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces).

By 221 BC, Qi was the only rival state left. Qin advanced into the heartland of Qi via a southern detour, avoiding direct confrontation with the Qi forces on Qi's western border and arrived at Qi's capital city of Linzi swiftly. The Qi forces were taken by surprise and surrendered without putting up resistance. Following the fall of Qi in 221 BC, China was unified under the rule of Qin. Ying Zheng declared himself "Qin Shi Huang" (meaning "First Emperor of Qin") and founded the Qin Dynasty, becoming the first sovereign ruler of a united China.

Culture and society

Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu, composed in the 4th or 5th century BC and included in the Book of Documents, there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail in this book. The work focuses on the travels of the titular sage, Yu the Great, throughout each of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations.

One of these texts was The Book of Master Wu, written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the military threat posed by competing states. Wu Qi, the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of the terrain they live in. Of Qin, he said:

According to Wu, the nature of the people is a result of the government, which is in turn a result of the roughness of the terrain. Each of the states is expounded upon by Wu in this manner.

Following a visit to Qin in 264 BC, the Confucian philosopher Xun Kuang noted that Qin society was "simple and unsophisticated" and their people stood in awe of their officials, but was completely devoid of Confucian literati. Though disliked by many Confucians of its time for "dangerously lacking in Confucian scholars," Confucian Xun Kuang wrote of the later Qin that "its topographical features are inherently advantageous," and that its "manifold natural resources gave it remarkable inherent strength. Its people were unspoiled and exceedingly deferential; its officers unfailingly respectful, earnest, reverential, loyal, and trustworthy; and its high officials public-spirited, intelligent, and assiduous in the execution of the duties of their position. Its courts and bureaus functioned without delays and with such smoothness that it was as if there were no government at all."

In his Petition against driving away foreigners (諫逐客書), Li Si mentioned that guzheng and percussion instruments made of pottery and tiles were characteristic of Qin music.

Rulers

List of Qin rulers based on the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, with corrections by Han Zhaoqi:

In popular culture

The events during the reigns of Duke Xiao, King Huiwen, King Wu and King Zhaoxiang are romanticised in a series of historical novels by Sun Haohui. The novels are adapted into the television series The Qin Empire (2009), The Qin Empire II: Alliance (2012) and The Qin Empire III (2017).

The Japanese manga, "Kingdom" by Hara Yasuhisa, tells a fictionalised story of the life of Qin Shi Huang and the unification of China with some references to the era of Duke Mu.

Qin is a playable faction in the PC game Oriental Empires by Iceberg Interactive.

A Step into the Past tells about a 21st-century Hong Kong VIPPU officer who travels back in time to the Warring States period of ancient China. He is involved in a number of important historical events that leads to the first unification of China under the Qin dynasty. The series' first original broadcast ran from 15 October to 7 December 2001 on the TVB Jade network in Hong Kong.

Qin in astronomy

Qin is represented by two stars, Theta Capricorni ( Qín yī, literally First Star of Qin) and 30 Capricorni ( Qín èr, literally Second Star of Qin), in Twelve States asterism. Qin is also represented by the star Delta Serpentis in asterism Right Wall, Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation).