历史

北魏立国

在公元四世纪初，拓跋鲜卑在今山西北部和今内蒙古等地建立代国。376年被前秦所灭。淝水之战后，前秦统治瓦解。386年，拓跋圭即代王位，重建代国。同年四月，改国号为魏。398年（天兴元年）建都平城，次年称帝。即为魏道武帝。

兼并华北

396年道武帝改元皇兴，率40万大军征讨后燕，一举攻下中山、信度、邺城，平定中原。经过明元帝时代的承平岁月，到北魏太武帝时，于427年攻破夏国首都统万城，428年占领安定，逐走赫连夏后主赫连定。436年攻破和龙，灭亡北燕。太延五年（公元439年）吞并北凉。442年西凉残馀势力李宝投降北魏。443年仇池杨保炽投降北魏。至此北魏完成了兼并华北地区和北方，这时华南地区和南方早已是刘宋，南北各自为政，形成互不隶属的对峙之局。

占领青齐

在统一华北以前，北魏就有多次与南朝政权在黄淮下游交手的经验。显祖献文帝皇兴三年（469），北魏上党公、征南大将军慕容白曜攻下南朝宋所属的青州治所东阳城，至此以后，现今山东半岛，又属黄淮下游古称青齐的地区（《尚书‧禹贡》称「海岱之地」）就归北魏所管，并被割划为青州、齐州、济州、光州等区。

改革

早在冯太后掌政时代，冯太后已推行了一系列措施建立国家规模，如在太和九年（485年）推行均田制，把之前因为战乱而遗下的无主荒地按制度分给存活的农民，一部分可永久拥有，一部分则身死后交还公家。又施行租调制，农民按制度上数字，定期向朝廷纳税。

孝文帝亲政后更在文化上开始修整，在风雨飘摇之中的背景下为了维持和巩固政权，进行了许多大刀阔斧的改革，即后世之所谓孝文汉化，其举措大略如下：

• 一、迁洛阳：孝文帝以旧都平城（今山西省大同市）为用武之地，非可文治，而洛邑为历史名都，物富民丰，交通便利，便于经略海内，控制中原，魏太和十七年（493年），以南伐为名，进驻河洛，定为京师。迁都洛阳后，戎装以外，官民皆著汉服。

• 二、改汉姓：《魏书‧官氏志》记载了一百一十八个胡人改姓的例子，如皇族拓跋氏改元姓、步六孤改陆姓、贺赖氏改贺姓、独孤改姓刘。

• 三、断胡语：凡三十岁以下官员一律使用汉语，如果仍用鲜卑语，即降爵黜官。

• 四、通婚姻：鼓励与汉族世家通婚，并从己身开始迎娶汉族士族女子。

• 五、重教育：祀孔子，尊儒教，寻古书，设立太学、小学。

自此胡汉界线开始逐渐消弭，对当时和后世发展意义非凡。

北魏分裂

河阴之变

第八任皇帝魏宣武帝元恪立他的儿子元诩当太子时，没有按旧制子贵母死处死太子的母亲胡贵嫔，导致外戚及士族掌权。孝明帝元诩即位后，胡贵嫔为皇太后，后六镇之乱爆发。胡党毒死元诩，立元钊，大将尔朱荣趁势讨伐，杀死胡太后、元钊，立孝文帝侄长乐王元子攸为帝，在大杀宗室的河阴之变后掌控朝政。孝文帝侄元颢、孝文帝子元悦等宗室都因河阴之变而南下投靠梁朝。梁朝雍州刺史萧纲趁机上表请求北伐，收复襄阳、新野，「拓地千里」。

529年，梁武帝派陈庆之攻陷洛阳，立元颢为帝。陈庆之目睹洛阳的衣冠、礼仪、人才不输南朝，心生感慨。元颢御下无方失去人心，又急于脱离陈庆之掌控而请求梁武帝不再增援，不久为尔朱荣所败被杀。

内战

孝庄帝元子攸不能容忍尔朱荣跋扈，在尔朱荣回朝后设计铲除之，梁武帝亦于530年趁机派兵拥立元悦为帝。但不久后尔朱氏就立尔朱荣内侄长广王元晔为帝，孝庄帝也被尔朱家族所杀害，元悦见状亦放弃称帝而南归。尔朱氏觉得元晔世系疏远，又废元晔改立孝文帝侄元恭。

尔朱家族大将高欢倒戈，立辖区内的宗室勃海太守元朗为帝以号令天下，讨伐尔朱家族，并取得胜利。532年，高欢以元恭为尔朱氏所立、元朗世系疏远为由，皆废黜，有意立元悦，元悦于是北返，但因德行有失，高欢没有立他，而是立孝文帝孙平阳王元修为帝，是为孝武帝。元恭、元悦、元晔、元朗皆被孝武帝所杀。孝武帝不能容忍高欢掌握朝政，在534年投奔长安的宇文泰。

高欢写信让孝武帝回銮未果，于是另立孝文帝曾孙元善见为帝，建都邺城（今河北临漳），史称「东魏」，称孝武帝为「出帝」。北魏就此分裂。一年后宇文泰弑孝武帝，另立孝文帝孙南阳王元宝炬为帝，建都长安，史称「西魏」。

政治制度

子贵母死制度

北魏的宫廷为了避免外戚干政，实施残酷的子贵母死制度，即后宫女性只要生下皇子就得被赐死，以避免母以子贵的情况发生。但幼子还是需要人照顾，因此就有所谓的保太后，即以太子的保姆在太子继位后成为皇太后。北魏有三种皇太后，一种是皇帝的生母，另一种是皇帝的保姆，还有一种是未曾替前任皇帝生皇子因而存活的皇后。如北魏献文帝乃由汉人女子李贵人所生，然李贵人在生下献文帝以后即被赐死，由身为太后的冯氏所养大。献文帝曾求当时当权的冯太后废除旧法，但被拒绝。后来直到笃信佛教的北魏宣武帝，才终于取消子贵母死，但他却导致北魏的外戚争权，最终导致北魏灭亡及分裂。

北魏文成帝拓跋浚是北魏太武帝的孙子，其父拓跋晃没有做过皇帝，文成帝也并非以储君身份登基，故其生母郁久闾氏未曾被赐死，在文成帝登基之初尚在人世，但不久后，身为在位皇帝之母的她也因「子贵母死」制度所累而死。

经济发展

赋役制度

魏孝文帝改革之前，北魏的税收由部落贡纳、牧民的畜牧税为以及一般农民的租调为主，其中农民的租调为最大收入。北魏规定租调税收为「户调帛二匹、絮二斤、丝一斤、粟二十石；又入帛一匹二丈，委之州库，以供调外之费。」。不过这是个一般办法，政府需要的时候可以增加徵收物品的种类和数量。租调是按户收取的，户的大小没有限制，孝文帝改革之前，三五十家组成一户的情形很普遍。除了这种一般性税收外，政府经常因为战争而加开新税，官吏因为没有官俸，也常常以各种藉口徵税，给百姓带来很大的负担。

徭役方面，兵役方面由鲜卑人担任，因而兵役较轻。而力役的情况因为缺少史料，无法得知。只知道，为政府工作的工、杂役非常多。他们被编为隶户、军户、营户、府户、绫罗户、乐户等等。

孝文帝改革后，为了给官僚机构提供俸禄，以减少官吏欺压百姓。提高了税率，魏孝文帝定每户增调帛三匹、谷二斛九斗，充百官俸禄。又在太和九年（485年）实行均田制，办法大致有四项：

• 十五岁以上的男丁和妇人均可授田，男丁授露田四十亩，妇人二十亩，授田视轮休需要加倍或再加倍。如果有牛一头则授田三十亩，最多四头牛，多出的不授田。老少病残或者缺乏男丁的家庭十一岁以上和有病者均授予半夫之田。奴婢一样按照男丁和妇人的标准授田。授田不准买卖，年老或身死还田，但七十以上授田者不必归还。

• 男丁授桑田20亩。桑田不必还给国家，可传给子孙，也可以可卖出多于20亩的部分，也可买桑田补足20亩。产麻地男子授麻田10亩，妇人50亩，年老及身死后还田。

• 多馀土地可以借给农民耕种，政府严格控制农民迁徙，只允许迁往空荒地区。

• 规定驻地长官在所在地给予公田，刺史十五顷，太守十顷，治中别驾八顷，县令郡丞六顷，不许买卖。

政府在均田制的基础上重新规定了税收制度，一夫一妻应缴纳的租调为：「其民调，一夫一妇帛一匹，粟二石。民年十五以上未娶者，四人出一夫一妇之调；奴任耕、婢任织者八口当未娶者四；耕牛二十头当奴婢八。其麻布之乡，一夫一妇布一匹，下至牛，以此为降。」

军事

北魏兵民分开，兵用于打仗，民从事耕桑。而兵主要由鲜卑及其他少数民族组成，农业主要由汉人从事。兵民之分也就是胡汉之分，也是胡汉分治的体现。

而士兵里面也分两种，一种是鲜卑兵，另外一种是非鲜卑兵。

鲜卑兵由代北部落的鲜卑人组成，主要担任北魏的禁旅和边防六镇的士兵。这种兵带贵族性质，地位颇高，但在魏文帝汉化之后有所改变。

非鲜卑兵中，以高车兵最为重要，禁军和六镇边兵都有高车人。此外还有部分少数民族和汉人军队。

文化、艺术和宗教

北魏经历了游牧部落联盟而迅速转移到国家的历史，拓跋鲜卑人有自己的语言而没有文字。北魏时期的主要宗教是佛教、道教和琐罗亚斯德教，其中最重要的是佛教，僧尼的人数曾发展到二百多万。北魏道教，主要是经过寇谦之改良的天师道。当时佛道两家的斗争十分激烈，太武帝拓跋焘曾经大举灭佛。琐罗亚斯德教在中国称为祆教或拜火教，主神被称为「胡天」，主要在入华的粟特人当中传播。孝文帝在平城（大同）开凿了云冈石窟。

北魏大部分时期，由于国家及私人赞助，佛教艺术十分兴盛。云岗佛教石窟约兴建于西元四六〇年，由上千位工匠历时约三十五年后完工，洞窟内有雕塑及与绘画。之后，北魏孝文帝亦于龙门兴建石窟。云岗石窟的佛像属较静态的罽宾风格，龙门的造像形式则较流线飘逸，开始展现中国风格的影响。北魏的陪葬陶器亦受到佛教影响，强调「正面性」(frontality) 及对称。

君主

藩王

Rise of the Tuoba Xianbei

The Jin Dynasty had developed an alliance with the Tuoba against the Xiongnu state Han Zhao. In 315 the Tuoba chief was granted the title of the Prince of Dai. After the death of its founding prince, Tuoba Yilu, however, the Dai state stagnated and largely remained a partial ally and a partial tributary state to Later Zhao and Former Yan, finally falling to Former Qin in 376.

After Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān was defeated by Jin forces at the Battle of Fei River in his failed bid to unify China, the Former Qin state began to break apart. By 386, Tuoba Gui, the son (or grandson) of Tuoba Shiyijian (the last Prince of Dai), reasserted Tuoba independence initially as the Prince of Dai. Later he changed his title to the Prince of Wei, and his state was therefore known as Northern Wei. In 391, Tuoba Gui defeated the Rouran tribes and killed their chief, Heduohan, forcing the Rouran to flee west.

Initially Northern Wei was a vassal of Later Yan, but by 395 had rebelled and defeated the Yan at the Battle of Canhebei. By 398 the Wei had conquered most of Later Yan territory north of the Yellow River. In 399, Tuoba Gui declared himself Emperor Daowu, and that title was used by Northern Wei's rulers for the rest of the empire's history. That same year he defeated the Tiele tribes near the Gobi desert.

Unification of Northern China

In 426, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei made the Xiongnu-ruled Kingdom of Xia his target. He sent his generals to attack Puban (modern Yuncheng) and Shancheng (modern Sanmenxia), while he himself laid siege to the Xia's heavily fortified capital of Tongwancheng. Tongwancheng fell in 427, forcing the Xia emperor Helian Chang to flee westward. Nevertheless, he was captured in 428 and his brother, Helian Ding, took over as the emperor of Xia.

In fall 430, while Helian Ding was engaging the Western Qin, the Northern Wei made a surprise attack on the new Xia capital Pingliang and conquered the kingdom.

In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Xia destroyed, began to attack Northern Yan and its capital Helong (和龙, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) under siege. He chose to withdraw at the start of winter and would launch yearly attacks against Northern Yan to weaken it gradually over the next few years. In 436 the Yan emperor Feng Hong had to evacuate his state and fled to Goguryeo, ending Northern Yan.

In 439, the Northern Wei launched a major attack on Northern Liang, capturing its capital Guzang (modern Wuwei, Gansu) . By 441, the entirety of Northern Liang was under the Wei. Thus, Northern China was unified under Emperor Taiwu, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and beginning the Southern and Northern Dynasties era.

Wars with the Southern Dynasties

War with Liu Song

War between Northern Wei and Han-ruled Liu Song dynasty broke out while the former had not yet unified northern China. Emperor Wu of Liu Song while still a Jin dynasty general, had conquered both Southern Yan in 410 and Later Qin in 417, pushing Jin frontiers further north into Wei territories. He then usurped the Jin throne and created the Song dynasty. After hearing the death of the Song emperor Wu in 422, Wei's emperor Mingyuan broke off relations with Song and sent troops to invade its southern neighbor. His plan is to seize three major cities south of the Yellow River: Luoyang, Hulao, and Huatai. Sizhou (司州, central Henan) and Yanzhou (兖州, modern western Shandong) and most cities in Song's Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) fell to the Wei army. The Liu Song general Tan Daoji commanded an army to try to save those cities and were able to hold Dongyang (东阳, in modern Qingzhou, Shandong),the capital of Qingzhou province. Northern Wei troops were eventually forced to withdraw after food supplies ran out. Wei forces also stalled in their siege of Hulao, defended by the capable Liu Song general Mao Dezu (毛德祖), but were meanwhile able to capture Luoyang and Xuchang (许昌, in modern Xuchang, Henan) in spring 423, cutting off the path of any Liu Song relief force for Hulao. In summer 423, Hulao fell. The campaign then ceased, with Northern Wei now in control of much of modern Henan and western Shandong.

Emperor Wen of Liu Song continued the northern campaigns of his father. In 430, under the able general Dao Yanzhi, Liu Song recovered the four cities of Luoyang, Hulao, Huatai and Qiao'ao south of the Yellow River. However, the emperor's unwillingness to advance past this line caused the destruction of the empire's ally, Xia, by the Wei. The emperor was to repeat this mistake as several northern states such as Northern Yan who had offered to ally with Liu Song against Wei were declined, eventually leading to Wei's unification of the North in 439.

In 450, Emperor Wen attempted to destroy the Northern Wei by himself and launched a massive invasion. Although initially successful, the campaign turned into a disaster. The Wei lured the Liu Song to cross the Yellow River, and then flanked them, destroying the Eastern army.

As the Liu Song armies retreated, Emperor Taiwu of Wei ordered his troop to move south. The provinces south of the Yellow River were devastated by the Wei army. Only Huatai, a fortified city, held out against the Wei. Wei troops retreated in January 451, however, the economic damage to the Song was immense. Emperor Wen made another attempt to conquer Northern Wei in 452, but failed again. On returning to the capital, he was assassinated by the heir apparent, Liu Shao.

In 466, Liu Zixun waged an unsuccessful civil war against the Emperor Ming of Liu Song. The governors of Xu Province (徐州) and Yan Province (兖州, modern western Shandong), who earlier pleaded allegiance to Liu Zixun, in fear of reprisal from the Liu Song Emperor, surrendered these territories to rival Northern Wei. Northern Wei forces quickly took up defense position against the attacking forces sent by Emperor Ming. With Liu Song forces unable to siege Pengcheng effectively, they were forced to withdraw in spring 467, making these populous provinces lost to the Northern Wei.

War with Southern Qi

In 479, Xiao Daocheng usurped the throne of Liu Song and became emperor of the new Southern Qi dynasty. Upon hearing the news, the Northern Wei emperor prepared to invade under the pretext of installing Liu Chang, son of Emperor Wen of Liu Song who had been in exile in Wei since 465 AD.

Wei troops began to attack Shouyang but could not take the city. The Southern Qi began to fortified their capital, Jiankang in order to prevent further Wei raids.

Multiple sieges and skirmishes were fought until 481 but the war was without any major campaign. A peace treaty was signed in 490 with the Emperor Wu.

War with Liang

In 502, the Southern Qi general Xiao Yan toppled the Emperor Xiao Baojuan after waging a three years civil war against him. Xiao Yan enthroned in Jiankang to become the Emperor Wu of Liang dynasty.

As soon as 503 AD, the Northern Wei was hoping to restore the Southern Qi throne. Their plan was install Xiao Baoyin, a Southern Qi prince to become Emperor of the puppet state. A southern expedition was led by Prince Yuan Cheng of Wei and Chen Bozhi, a former Qi general. Until spring 505, Xinyang and Hanzhong were fallen to the Northern Wei.

In 505, Emperor Wu began the Liang offensive. A strong army was quickly amassed under the general Wei Rui and caught the Wei by surprise, calling it the strongest army they have seen from the Southern Dynasties in a hundred years. In spring 506, Wei Rui was able to capture Hefei. In fall 506, Wei Rui attacked the Northern Wei army stationed at Luokou for nearly a year without advancing. However, when Wei army gathered, Xiao Hong Prince of Linchuan, the Liang commander and younger brother of Emperor Wu, escaped in fear, causing his army to collapse without a battle. Northern Wei forces next attacked the fortress of Zhongli (锺离, in modern Bengbu), However, they were defeated by a Liang army commanded by Wei Rui and Cao Jingzong, effectively ending the war. After the Battle of Zhongli, there would continue to be border battles from time to time, but no large scale war for years.

In 524, while Northern Wei is plagued by agrarian rebellions to the north and west, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Wei's southern territory. Liang forces largely met little resistance. In spring 525, the Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (元法僧) surrendered the key city of Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Liang. However, in summer 525, Emperor Wu's son Prince Xiao Zong (萧综), grew suspicions that he was actually the son of Southern Qi's emperor Xiao Baojuan (because his mother Consort Wu was formerly Xiao Baojuan's concubine and had given birth to him only seven months after she became Emperor Wu's concubine), surrendered Pengcheng to Northern Wei, ending Liang's advances in the northeast, although in summer 526, Shouyang fell to Liang troops after Emperor Wu successfully reemployed the damming strategy. For the next several years, Liang continued to make minor gains on the borders with Northern Wei.

In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord Erzhu Rong overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu, a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue, Yuan Yu, and Yuan Hao fled and surrendered territories they controlled to Liang. In winter 528, Emperor Wu created Yuan Hao the Prince of Wei—intending to have him lay claim to the Northern Wei throne and, if successful, become a Liang vassal. He commissioned his general Chen Qingzhi (陈庆之) with an army to escort Yuan Hao back to Northern Wei. Despite the small size of Chen's army, he won battle after battle, and in spring 529, after Chen captured Suiyang (modern Shangqiu). Yuan Hao, with Emperor Wu's approve, proclaimed himself the emperor of Northern Wei. In summer 529, troops under Erzhu unable to stand up to Chen Qingzhi, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei to flee the capital Luoyang. After capturing Luoyang, Yuan Hao secretly wanted to rebel against Liang: when Chen Qingzhi requested Emperor Wu to send reinforcements, Yuan Hao sent Emperor Wu a submission advising against it, and Emperor Wu, believing Yuan Hao, did not send additional troops. Soon, Erzhu and Emperor Xiaozhuang counterattacked, and Luoyang fell. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight, and Chen's own army was destroyed, although Chen himself was able to flee back to Liang.

In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530.

In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed.

With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on the borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years.

Policies

Early in Northern Wei history, the state inherited a number of traditions from its initial history as a Xianbei tribe, and some of the more unusual ones, from a traditional Chinese standpoint:

• The officials did not receive salaries, but were expected to requisition the necessities of their lives directly from the people they governed. As Northern Wei Empire's history progressed, this appeared to be a major contributing factor leading to corruption among officials. Not until the 2nd century of the empire's existence did the state begin to distribute salaries to its officials.

• Empresses were not named according to imperial favors or nobility of birth, but required that the candidates submit themselves to a ceremony where they had to personally forge golden statues, as a way of discerning divine favor. Only an imperial consort who was successful in forging a golden statue could become the empress.

• All men, regardless of ethnicity, were ordered to tie their hair into a single braid that would then be rolled and placed on top of the head, and then have a cap worn over the head.

• When a crown prince is named, his mother, if still alive, must be forced to commit suicide. (Some historians do not believe this to be a Tuoba traditional custom, but believed it to be a tradition instituted by the founding emperor Emperor Daowu based on Emperor Wu of Han's execution of his favorite concubine Consort Zhao, the mother of his youngest son Liu Fuling (the eventual Emperor Zhao), before naming Prince Fuling crown prince.)

• As a result, because emperors would not have mothers, they often honored their wet nurses with the honorific title, "Nurse Empress Dowager" (保太后, bǎo tài hòu).

As Sinicization of the Northern Wei state progressed, these customs and traditions were gradually abandoned.

Administrative organization

• Five families formed a neighborhood (lin)

• Five lin formed a village (li)

• Five li formed a commune (tang)

At each of these levels, leaders that were associated with the central government were appointed. In order for the state to reclaim dry, barren areas of land, the state further developed this system by dividing up the land according to the number of men of an age to cultivate it. The Sui and Tang Dynasties later resurrected this system in the 7th century.

Deportations

During the reign of Emperor Daowu (386–409), the total number of deported people from the regions east of Taihangshan (the former Later Yan territory) to Datong was estimated to be around 460,000. Deportations typically took place once a new piece of territory had been conquered.

Sinicization

As the Northern Wei state grew, the emperors' desire for Han Chinese institutions and advisors grew. Cui Hao (381–450), an advisor at the courts in Datong played a great part in this process. He introduced Han Chinese administrative methods and penal codes in the Northern Wei state, as well as creating a Taoist theocracy that lasted until 450. The attraction of Han Chinese products, the royal court's taste for luxury, the prestige of Chinese culture at the time, and Taoism were all factors in the growing Chinese influence in the Northern Wei state. Chinese influence accelerated during the capital's move to Luoyang in 494 and Emperor Xiaowen continued this by establishing a policy of systematic sinicization that was continued by his successors. Xianbei traditions were largely abandoned. The royal family took the sinicization a step further by changing their family name to Yuan. Marriages to Chinese families were encouraged. With this, Buddhist temples started appearing everywhere, displacing Taoism as the state religion. The temples were often created to appear extremely lavish and extravagant on the outside of the temples. Also from 460 onwards the emperors started erecting huge statues of the Buddha carved near their capital Pingcheng which declared the emperors as the representatives of the Buddha and the legitimate rulers of China.

The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉), married Princess Lanling (兰陵公主) of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang (华阳公主) to Sima Fei (司马朏), a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 萧综.

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi (司马楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong (司马金龙). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.

The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames (八大贵族) were the Buliugu (步六孤), Helai (贺赖), Dugu (独孤), Helou (贺楼), Huniu (忽忸), Qiumu (丘穆), Gexi (纥奚), and Yuchi (尉迟). They adopted Chinese last names.

Kongzi was honoured in sacrifices as was Earth and Heaven by the northern dynasties of non-Han origin. Kongzi was honored by the Murong Wei Former Yan Xianbei leader. Kongzi was honored by the Di ruler Fu Jian (337–385). Kongzi was honored in sacrifices by the Northern Wei Xianbei dynasty. Kongzi was honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan emperor. Han dynasty Emperors, Shang dynasty ruler Bigan, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun were honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan Emperor. Kongzi was honored extensively by Tuoba Hong, the Xiaowen Emperor.

A fief of 100 households and the rank of (崇圣侯) Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of (崇圣大夫) Grandee who venerates the sage was bestowed on Kong Sheng (孔乘) who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.

An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti-stability and anti-family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nonfullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign.

Cui Zhen's wife Han Farong was buried in a Datong located grave.

Building the Great Wall

To resist the threats poised by the Rourans, Northern Wei emperors started to embark on building its own Great Wall, the first since the Han dynasty. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li long was built ; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls of Northern Wei formed the basis of the double-layered Xuanfu–Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.

Disunity and breakup

The heavy Chinese influence that had come into the Northern Wei state which went on throughout the 5th century had mainly affected the courts and the upper ranks of the Tuoba aristocracy. Armies that guarded the Northern frontiers of the empire and the Xianbei people who were less sinicized began showing feelings of hostility towards the aristocratic court and the upper ranks of civil society. Early in Northern Wei history, defense on the northern border against Rouran was heavily emphasized, and military duty on the northern border was considered honored service that was given high recognition. After all, throughout the founding and the early stages of the Northern Wei, it was the strength of the sword and bow that carved out the empire and kept it. But once Emperor Xiaowen's sinicization campaign began in earnest, military service, particularly on the northern border, was no longer considered an honorable status, and traditional Xianbei warrior families on the northern border were disrespected and disallowed many of their previous privileges; these warrior families who had originally been held as the upper-class now found themselves considered a lower-class on the social hierarchy.

Six Frontier Towns rebellions

Rebellions broke out on six major garrison-towns on the northern border and spread like wildfire throughout the north. These rebellions lasted for a decade.

In 523, nomadic Rouran tribes suffered a major famine due to successive years of drought. In April, the Rouran Khan sent troops to plunder Huaihuang to solve the famine. People of the town rose up and killed the town's commander. Rebellion soon broke out against the Luoyang court across the region. In Woye, Poliuhan Baling (破六韩拔陵) became a rebel leader. His army quickly took Woye and laid siege to Wuchuan and Huaishuo.

Elsewhere in Qinzhou (Gansu), Qiang ethnic leaders such as Mozhe Dati (莫折大提) also rose up against the government. In Gaoping (present-day Guyuan), Hu Chen (胡琛) and the Xiongnu rebelled and titled himself the King of Gaoping. In Hebei, Ge Rong rebelled, proclaiming himself the Emperor of Qi.

The Poliuhan Baling rebellion was defeated in 525. However, other anti-Sinicization rebellions had spread to other regions such as Hebei and Guanzhong and only be pacified as late as 530.

Rise of Erzhu Rong and Heyin Massacre

Exacerbating the situation, Empress Dowager Hu poisoned her own son Emperor Xiaoming in 528 after Emperor Xiaoming showed disapproval of her handling of the affairs as he started coming of age and got ready to reclaim the power that had been held by the empress in his name when he inherited the throne as an infant, giving the Empress Dowager rule of the country for more than a decade. Upon hearing the news of the 18-year-old emperor's death, the general Erzhu Rong, who had already mobilised on secret orders of the emperor to support him in his struggle with the Empress Dowager Hu, turned toward Luoyang. Announcing that he was installing a new emperor chosen by an ancient Xianbei method of casting bronze figures, Erzhu Rong summoned the officials of the city to meet their new emperor. However, on their arrival, he told them they were to be punished for their misgovernment and butchered them, throwing the Empress Hu and her candidate (another puppet child emperor Yuan Zhao) into the Yellow River. Reports estimate 2,000 courtiers were killed in this Heyin massacre on the 13th day of the second month of 528. Erzhu Rong claimed Yuan Ziyou grandson of Emperor Xianwen the new emperor as Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei.

In 529, Liang general Chen Qingzhi sacked Luoyang, forced Emperor Xiaozhuang to flee and claimed Yuan Hao another grandson of Emperor Xianwen emperor, before his final defeat by Erzhu Rong.

Civil war and the two generals

The Erzhu clan dominated the imperial court thereafter, the emperor held power in name only and most decisions actually went through the Erzhus. The emperor did stop most of the rebellions, largely reunifying the Northern Wei state. However, Emperor Xiaozhuang, not wishing to remain a puppet emperor and highly wary of the Erzhu clan's widespread power and questionable loyalty and intentions towards the throne (after all, this man had ordered a massacre of the court and put to death a previous emperor and empress before), killed Erzhu Rong in 530 in an ambush at the palace, which led to a resumption of civil war, initially between Erzhu's clan and Emperor Xiaozhuang, and then, after their victory over Emperor Xiaozhuang in 531, between the Erzhu clan and those who resisted their rule. In the aftermath of these wars, two generals set in motion the actions that would result in the splitting of the Northern Wei into the Eastern and Western Wei.

General Gao Huan was originally from the northern frontier, one of many soldiers who had surrendered to Erzhu, who eventually became one of the Erzhu clan's top lieutenants. But later, Gao Huan gathered his own men from both Han and non-Han troops, to turn against the Erzhu clan, entering and taking the capital Luoyang in 532. Confident in his success, he deposed Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei the emperor claimed by Erzhu's clan and Yuan Lang the emperor claimed by Gao himself for too distant, set up a nominee emperor Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei on the Luoyang throne and continued his campaigns abroad. The emperor, however, together with the military head of Luoyang, Husi Chun, began to plot against Gao Huan. Gao Huan succeeded, however, in keeping control of Luoyang, and the unfaithful ruler and a handful of followers fled west, to the region ruled by the powerful warlord Yuwen Tai. Gao Huan then announced his decision to move the Luoyang court to his capital city of Ye. "Within three days of the decree, 400,000 families—perhaps 2,000,000 people—had to leave their homes in and around the capital to move to Yeh as autumn turned to winter." There now existed two rival claimants to the Northern Wei throne, leading to the state's division in 534–535 into the Eastern Wei and Western Wei.

Fall

Neither Eastern Wei nor Western Wei was long-lived. In 550, Gao Huan's son Gao Yang forced Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei to yield the throne to him, ending Eastern Wei and establishing the Northern Qi. Similarly, in 557, Yuwen Tai's nephew Yuwen Hu forced Emperor Gong of Western Wei to yield the throne to Yuwen Tai's son Yuwen Jue, ending the Western Wei and establishing the Northern Zhou. In 581, the Northern Zhou official Yang Jian had the emperor to yield the throne to him, establishing the Sui Dynasty, finally extinguishing the imperial rule of the Xianbei.

Culture and legacy

The Northern Wei dynasty was the most long-lived and most powerful of the northern dynasties prior to the reunification of China by the Sui dynasty. Northern Wei art came under influence of Indian and Central Asian traditions through the mean of trade routes. Most importantly for Chinese art history, the Wei rulers converted to Buddhism and became great patrons of Buddhist arts. https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/nwei/essay.html

Many of the most important heritages of China, such as the Yungang Grottoes, the Longmen Caves, the Shaolin Monastery, the Songyue Pagoda, were built by the Northern Wei. Important books such as Qimin Yaoshu and Commentary on the Water Classic, a monumental work on China's geography, was written during the era.

The Legend of Hua Mulan is originated from the Northern Wei era, in which Mulan disguised as a man, takes her aged father's place in the Wei army to defend China from Rouran invaders.

Sovereigns of the Northern Wei dynasty

Image:Buddhist Stela Northern Wei period.jpg| A Buddhist stela from the Northern Wei period, build in the early 6th century.

File:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 128.jpg| Mounted warrior of the Northern Wei Dynasty from the collections of the Musée Cernuschi.

File:Officials, China, Northern Wei dynasty, c. 500-534, earthenware - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04084.JPG| Figurines of court ladies, Royal Ontario Museum.

File:Male figure from a lacquer painting over wood, Northern Wei.jpg|Male figure wearing Hanfu robes, from a lacquerware painting over wood, Northern Wei period, 5th century AD

Image:Buddhist paintings Yungang.jpg|Northern Wei wall murals and painted figurines, Yungang Grottoes, 5th to 6th centuries.