生平

早年

段祺瑞祖父及叔父皆為淮軍將領，且與李鴻章同鄉。基於家學淵源與同鄉背景，段祺瑞在1885年考入由李鴻章創設的天津武備學堂，習炮兵科。1889年畢業時，天津武備學堂擇選5位畢業生派赴德意志帝國學習軍事，段祺瑞獲選為其中一員。段祺瑞在德國柏林陸軍學院留學期間繼續深造砲兵相關知識，隔年（1890年）回國。回國後，段祺瑞先短暫任職北洋軍械局委員，1891年改任威海隨營武備學堂教習兼炮兵統帶，曾參與威海衛之戰。

1894年甲午戰爭，北洋艦隊全滅後，1895年12月段祺瑞進入袁世凱幕府，於小站練兵，擔任砲兵隊統帶兼隨營學堂監督，成為袁的親信，其宦途也跟隨著袁世凱扶搖而上。

經歷

1899年，袁世凱編練的新軍開赴山東省鎮壓義和團；1901年，段祺瑞升任武衛右軍各學堂總辦，因袁世凱升官擔任直隸總督兼北洋大臣，武衛右軍更名常備軍移駐保定；1902年6月，段祺瑞升任北洋軍政司參謀處總辦，負責北洋新軍所有編裝與訓練任務。

1903年10月，清朝政府決定設立練兵處，統轄新軍訓練，同年12月袁世凱兼任練兵處會辦大臣，因袁世凱推薦，段祺瑞升任練兵處軍令司正使、加副都統銜；此時段祺瑞與馮國璋、王士珍並稱為「北洋三傑」（亦被稱為龍、虎、狗；王為龍，段為虎，馮為狗）。1904年，段祺瑞兼任常備軍第三鎮翼長署理；1905年2月正式升任新軍陸軍第四鎮統制，駐軍天津馬廠，同年進行的河間秋操演習段祺瑞擔任北軍總統。

1906年，段祺瑞改任陸軍第三鎮統制兼北洋武備學堂督理，1906年3月被任命為福建省汀洲鎮總兵，段祺瑞南下赴任。5月8日，陸軍行營軍官學堂在保定成立，段祺瑞任督辦。段祺瑞在北洋軍系影響力是基於他長期主掌軍隊訓練及養成，新軍逐漸編練成形的同時，段祺瑞也逐漸在軍隊中植入屬於他專屬的倫理性影響力。

1909年1月2日，袁世凱一度失勢，遭清政府下令「著即開缺，回籍養痾」，袁臨別前將北京私宅贈與段祺瑞。段祺瑞則在同年12月回任陸軍第六鎮統制。

1910年5月25日，清廷以段祺瑞督辦北洋陸軍學務有功，賞頭品頂戴。12月18日加侍郎銜，外放任江北提督，駐江蘇淮安清江浦，負責本地治安。

1911年武昌起義爆發後，清朝政府重新啟用袁世凱，袁世凱將段祺瑞召回北京，10月25日段升任清軍第二軍軍統；第二軍隨後開拔南下與第一軍（軍統馮國璋）一同清剿革命黨，清廷增封段祺瑞為湖廣總督。由於袁世凱與革命黨間持續進行談判，南下清軍並未盡全力掃除武漢當地之敵；待11月13日袁世凱擔任內閣總理大臣取得職權後，段祺瑞除湖廣總督之位外會辦撫剿事宜；由於馮國璋攻克武漢三鎮進度過順，11月28日袁世凱任命段祺瑞調任第一軍軍統，第二軍軍統換由馮國璋擔任。12月5日，段祺瑞下令第一軍退出漢陽，開始進行南北議和，革命軍黃興、孫文等同意，倘能促使宣統退位，可由袁世凱擔任中華民國臨時大總統。

1912年1月26日，在袁世凱授意下，段祺瑞等北洋軍五十位將領聯名發布徐樹錚起草的《北洋五十將乞共和電》，向隆裕太后逼宮，不久，段祺瑞又發表《乞共和第二電》，直接挑明「謹率全軍將士入京，與王公剖陳利害」，直接以武力恐嚇隆裕太后，隆裕于2月12日頒降懿旨，接受優待條件，溥儀退位，中華民國正式成立。

中華民國成立後，1912年3月10日袁世凱出任中華民國臨時大總統，段祺瑞同時出任陸軍總長。

1913年7月，段祺瑞代理國務總理，組成段祺瑞臨時內閣，調兵鎮壓二次革命；12月陸軍總長一職由周自齊接任。此後又署理湖北都督兼領河南都督，鎮壓白朗起義。

1914年2月，袁世凱段祺瑞召回北京述職，其湖北都督由段芝貴、河南都督在4月由田文烈接任；1914年5月，袁世凱增設海陸軍大元帥統率辦事處，試圖收回由陸軍部主控的軍權，段祺瑞擔任陸軍總長；段祺瑞因不滿這個調任，在陸軍總長一職任內主要業務都由親信徐樹錚定奪；1914年，日本軍隊占領青島，段主張對日本決一死戰。

1914年後，袁世凱與段祺瑞的不和日趨浮上檯面；1915年5月「二十一條」簽訂後，段祺瑞告病辭職，赴西山養病；其陸軍總長一職由王士珍接任。袁世凱在1915年底推行洪憲帝制時，段表示不擁護帝制。

1916年3月袁世凱被迫取消帝制，恢復共和制，邀請段出山任國務總理，最終段祺瑞回任參謀總長兼陸軍總長。6月袁世凱病逝，黎元洪接任大總統，段祺瑞擔任國務總理。之後段祺瑞成為北洋政府派系內的皖系領袖。

1917年，與大總統黎元洪之間因參與第一次世界大戰問題引發府院之爭，引發由張勳領導的溥儀復闢。復闢歷時十二日後即被段于天津馬廠誓師鎮壓。在繼任的馮國璋總統任期內，就解決南北分裂，統一中國的方式問題，與馮發生第二次府院之爭，1917年8月14日，對德國及奧匈帝國宣戰，正式加入一戰，並派華工到歐洲，及換取列強對中國如大國的待遇。于1917年11月22日辭職。

1918年3月22日複職。同年10月10日，馮國璋大總統的任期屆滿，安福國會選舉徐世昌為大總統。段與馮約定共同下野。段祺瑞通過安福系繼續在幕後操縱政權。1920年7月在直皖戰爭中失敗，退隱天津。

1924年10月23日，馮玉祥發動甲子兵變，推翻大總統曹錕，先邀請孫中山北上，後與奉系妥協，請段祺瑞出山，任中華民國臨時政府的臨時執政（國家元首）。

1925年4月24日，段正式下取消法統令，廢除斷續運行12年的中華民國第一屆國會，由中華民國臨時參政院替代之。

晚年

1926年3月18日，發生北洋政府鎮壓北京學生運動的三·一八慘案，同年4月9日被鹿鍾麟驅逐，避入東交民巷法使館。後聯奉軍不成，20日下台，退居天津日租界當寓公，潛心佛學，自號「正道居士」。1928年7月3日蔣抵北平後，聽聞段祺瑞之安福系在天津活動之說，乃以學生身分致書段氏，勸其愛惜令名：「弟子蔣介石謹致敬於芝泉夫子座前，而問起居……中正與先生別垂二十三年，知先生或憶當年弟子中有蔣志清其人者。此二十三年中，先生幾度秉國大政，備極喧赫；而中正始終追隨先總理，奔走革命，致力撲滅奉先生為領袖之北洋軍閥，歷盡艱苦，而未嘗偶一修音問者公也。今燕雲收復，北伐即告完成，中正身臨舊都，未遑寧處，上書敬候居者私也。公私之間，截然有鴻溝在。……中正對於先生已往翊贊共和之勳績，深知尊重，無敢或忘；並深願先生愛惜令名，善用勳望，以固革命之基，而奠共和之實，使天下後世皆知先生救國愛民之真誠，而不終為奸邪宵小之所誤，是則公私之幸也。語曰：君子愛人以德。輒敢以弟子之私，布其誠悃，惟希鑒察。」

1931年九一八事變後，因日本軍隊佔領中國東北，拒絕與日本人往來，頗有民族操守。

至1933年1月，日軍攻占山海關，華北情勢危急，蔣恐段祺瑞為日人利用，乃請交通銀行董事長錢新之作為特使，持其親筆函赴天津，往見段氏，邀請南下；段氏亦恐遭日人劫持，經思考後決定接受，於1月21日凌晨離開天津南下，1月22日抵達南京，蔣親自於下關碼頭迎接，執弟子禮。1月23日，蔣復陪同段氏往謁中山陵，向孫致意，並「與之暢談辛亥年要求共和通電以前之歷史」，謂：「此老骨格與精神，求之當世不可多得也」，午夜蔣送段氏登車赴上海定居。2月段祺瑞移居上海。

1935年被任命為國民政府委員，但沒有就職。

逝世

1936年11月2日，段氏病逝於上海。11月3日，蔣致電中央，以其「贊成共和與再造之功，殊不可沒」，地位「實為元勳」，建議予以「國葬」，並指示軍事委員會及軍政部派員協助治喪；且親撰輓聯，於審視國民政府褒揚令後，悼念曰：「段氏對於國家確有不沒之功，於己之師生關係尤無任哀悼也。」

段氏葬於萬安公墓，享年71歲。

段臨終遺言有「八勿」，即：「勿因我見而輕起政爭，勿尚空談而不顧實踐，勿興不急之務而浪用民財，勿信過激言行之說而自搖邦本。講外交者，勿忘鞏固國防；司教育者，勿忘保存國粹；治家者，勿棄國有之禮教；求學者，勿鶩時尚之紛華。」

歷代內閣

1916年段祺瑞第一次內閣

1916年4月23日成立。國務總理段祺瑞，外交總長陸徵祥（後由曹汝霖兼署），內務總長王揖唐，財政總長孫寶琦，陸軍總長段祺瑞兼，海軍總長劉冠雄，司法總長章宗祥，教育總長張國淦，農商總長金邦平，交通總長曹汝霖（大半由梁士詒決定），參謀總長王士珍，審計院長莊蘊寬。1916年6月30日改組，1917年5月23日因府院之爭結束。

國務總理段祺瑞，外交總長唐紹儀（唐未到前由陳錦濤兼署，9月唐抵達，因督軍團通電反對，旋即辭職，伍廷芳接任），內務總長許世英，財政總長陳錦濤，陸軍總長段祺瑞（兼任），海軍總長程璧光，司法總長張耀曾（張耀曾未到前由張國淦兼署），教育總長孫洪伊（次長吳闓生代理，范源濂繼任總長，孫洪伊改任內務總長，原內務總長許世英改任交通總長），農商總長張國淦，交通總長汪大燮。

1917年段祺瑞第二次內閣

1917年7月17日成立，11月22日因第二次府院之爭結束。國務總理段祺瑞、外交總長汪大燮、內務總長湯化龍、財政總長梁啟超、陸軍總長段祺瑞兼、海軍總長劉冠雄、司法總長林長民、教育總長范源濂，農商總長張國淦、交通總長曹汝霖。

1918年段祺瑞第三次內閣

1918年3月29日成立，12月13日因新國會（安福國會）成立結束。國務總理段祺瑞、外交總長陸徵祥、內務總長錢能訓、財政總長曹汝霖兼，陸軍總長段芝貴、海軍總長劉冠雄、司法總長朱深、教育總長傅增湘、農商總長田文烈、交通總長曹汝霖、機密院院長曹涇沅。

西原借款

西原借款為1917年至1918年間段祺瑞政府和日本簽訂的一系列公開和秘密借款的總稱。

1917年7月，段祺瑞重任中華民國國務總理後，為推行「武力統一」政策，鎮壓孫中山倡導的護法運動，以中國權利為抵押品，向日本大量借款。1917-1918年，段祺瑞共向日本借款5億日元。其中由西原龜三與段祺瑞政府的曹汝霖、陸宗輿、章宗祥商辦議定的有吉會鐵路、滿蒙四鐵路、吉林、黑龍江兩省的森林和金礦、有線電信、參戰、交通銀行等八項借款，共計1.45億日元。

通過這一借款，段祺瑞把中國山東和東北地區的鐵路、礦產、森林等權益大量抵押給日本。

西原借款所得款項，日後用於財政性支出占65.22%，軍費占總支出占25.40%。

中日協定

1918年5月16日，日本陸軍少將與段祺瑞政府代表靳雲鵬，在北京秘密簽訂《中日陸軍共同防敵軍事協定》。19日又簽訂《中日海軍共同防敵軍事協定》。

「協定」的主要內容是：中國與日本採取「共同防敵」的行動；日本在戰爭期間可以進駐中國境內；日軍在中國境外作戰時，中國應派兵聲援；作戰期間，兩國互相供給軍器和軍需品。

通過「協定」，日本派出大批軍隊進入中國東北，日本迅速取代了沙俄在東三省北部的侵略地位，中國則面臨淪為日本附屬國的局面。

軼事

段祺瑞篤信佛教，平日多半喫齋、念佛、朝夕燒香、禮佛，能解《金剛經》、《法華經》。

段祺瑞一生酷愛圍棋，與其子段宏業、姪子段宏綱皆是圍棋高手。據說段祺瑞少年時曾與劉銘傳下過圍棋，段祺瑞執政時資助過大批圍棋好手（包括顧水如、吳清源等），被稱作「中國圍棋的大後台」，段祺瑞長子段宏業是國手級的大師，段祺瑞屢戰屢敗，故往往生氣不語，皆是由段宏綱勸解。

段祺瑞也喜歡打麻雀，賭注不大，卻是麻雀高手，往往一夜多勝。

段祺瑞之後統治中國的蔣介石，自稱在保定讀軍校時，軍校總辦是段祺瑞，故蔣介石自認為「段祺瑞學生」，親自致贈禮金，加上同樣反共，故段祺瑞晚年與蔣介石關係不差。北洋三傑即段祺瑞，馮國璋與王世珍，外界評三人才能高下，即神仙，老虎，狗，神仙王能力最好，次是段如虎，馮最後，三人皆袁世凱提拔起，1911年10月辛亥武昌革命，袁即派出段與馮領清新軍近五萬，當周即自直隸南下，大戰南方軍至1912年1月中，國父孫中山自美國搭輪船趕回國，調停即南北始停戰。

評價

後人評論段祺瑞者甚多，讚揚其品質高尚，愛國有心，組織才能非凡，善于利用政治手腕和軍事手腕維護政權。雖為軍閥，但人格正面，為人嚴肅刻板，不苟言笑，生活樸素，清廉如水，無積蓄、無房產，不抽、不喝、不嫖、不賭、不貪、不占，人稱「六不總理」，享譽於世。也罵其軍閥習氣，剛愎自用，迷信武力，傾心權術，在軍事上並無出色戰功和理論，喜用私人為將領。

1924年3月，北京大學紀念25周年活動中，大學生進行國內大人物票選，段祺瑞與胡適同居第四名，前三名為孫中山、陳獨秀和蔡元培。

段祺瑞因致電要求清帝退位、抵制洪憲帝制和討伐張勳復闢這三件事，有「三造共和」的美譽。梁啓超評價段祺瑞：「其人短處固所不免，然不顧一身利害，為國家勇于負責，舉國中恐無人能比。」吳佩孚：「天下無公，正未知幾人稱帝，幾人稱王，奠國著奇功，大好河山歸再造；時局至此，皆誤在今日不和，明日不戰，憂民成痼疾，中流砥柱失元勛。」

1924年，馮玉祥發動北京政變，段祺瑞被推為中華民國臨時執政。1926年，中國國民黨與中國共產黨聯合發動學生抗議，北京軍警鎮壓請願學生，造成「三·一八慘案」，旋被馮玉祥趕下台。「三一八」慘案發生後，有說法認為段祺瑞隨即趕到現場，向死者長跪不起，並決定終身食素，至死都沒有違背這一決定。根據當時新聞檔案，段祺瑞根本沒有去「三一八」慘案現場，也沒有出現在「悼念三一八慘案死難同胞大會」，並且段政府稱示威學生為「暴徒」。有回憶者稱段祺瑞在三一八之後在家中也吃葷，在其他場合吃素只是與信佛有關。

國民政府褒揚令︰前臨時執政段祺瑞，持躬廉介，謀國公忠。辛亥倡率各軍贊助共和，功在民國。及袁氏僭號，潔身引退，力維正義，節概凜然。嗣值復闢變作，誓師馬廠，迅遏逆氛，卒能重奠邦基，鞏固政體，殊功碩望，薄海同欽。茲聞在滬溘逝，老成凋謝，惋悼實深，應即予以國葬，並發給治喪費一萬元。生平事蹟，存備宣付史館。用示國家篤念耆勳之至意。此令！

著作

段祺瑞晚年喜好吟詠，有《正道居詩》、《正道居詩續集》、《正道居感世集》、《正道居感世續集》等，後合編為《正道居集》，計有文八篇，詩三十五題五十四篇，可惜流傳甚罕。香港學者陳煒舜積數年之力，在《正道居集》的基礎上補輯逸作，包括文（聯、頌）三十二篇、詩十題十篇，集合近三十位青年學人撰寫解題、註釋，附以〈剪影集錦〉與〈公文電報選輯〉，編成《段祺瑞正道居詩文註解》（臺北：萬卷樓，2020年3月），俾廣大讀者了解這位雄傑之士不為人知的「好文」一面，進而對民初史有更深入的認知。

影視作品

• 趙本山：2011年中國電影：《建黨偉業》

• 戴志偉：2009年香港無綫電視：《蔡鍔與小鳳仙》

• 馬崙：2003年中國電視劇：《走向共和》

• 鄭榕：1986年中國電影：《直奉大戰》

Early life

Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui (段啟瑞), his courtesy name was Zhiquan (芝泉). His grandfather was Duan Pei (段佩), an officer in Li Hongzhang's privately raised Huai Army (Huai Jun, 淮军). His father died early and he was raised by his maternal grandmother.

Early career

In 1885 Duan Qirui entered Tianjin Military Academy (天津武備學堂), specializing in artillery, and graduated at the top of his class. After graduation, he was sent to Lüshun to oversee the construction of artillery fortifications and came to the attention of Li Hongzhang, who sent him to study military science in Germany for two years. After returning to China he was first named as a commissioner to the Beiyang Armory (北洋军械局) and then an instructor at Weihai military academy. Soon he was able to gain the sponsorship of Yuan Shikai, who named him an artillery commander in the New Army.

Duan first saw action in the Boxer Rebellion, where he served Yuan in Shandong province and distinguished himself in combat against the Boxers. Yuan then gave him command over a Beiyang army division in 1904. In 1906 he was appointed director of the Baoding Staff College, which allowed him to begin recruiting his own clique of loyal junior officers. Yuan arranged for the marriage of his niece, whom he had adopted, to Duan in an effort to consolidate his power and solidify Duan's loyalty.

After the outbreak of the Wuchang Uprising of 1911 against the Qing dynasty, Duan commanded the loyalist Second Army Corps against the revolutionary army in the Battle of Yangxia and succeeded in taking back Hankou and Hanyang. After Yuan Shikai altered the course of the Xinhai Revolution by forcing the emperor to abdicate, Duan supported him. For his loyalty Yuan appointed him military governor of both Hunan and Hubei provinces. He was further named to Yuan's cabinet as minister of war in 1912, then premier in 1913 while also keeping his position was war minister. Because he had publicly supported the Emperor's abdication while serving as an envoy of the central government in 1911, Duan's promotions were supported by the Kuomintang.

Politics

Duan rose to power as a close ally of Yuan Shikai, but the two came to increasingly disagree with each other over various issues as time went on. One of the main problems was that Duan began to amass influence over the Beiyang Army as minister of war, thereby undermining Yuan's own control over the soldiers. Realizing his growing power, Duan became more independent and gradually challenged the President over appointments and reforms in the military. As both had volatile tempers, their quarrels became ever more heated, and Yuan eventually started to counter Duan's rise. Using Duan and the Beiyang Army's failure to suppress the Bai Lang Rebellion as reason, he initiated reforms to purge the military of Duan's followers and raise a new army which was supposed to be more capable than the Beiyang Army while also being loyal to Yuan himself. As Duan fell sick in late 1914, he was unable to stop the President's plans, and he was thus dismissed as minister of war in May 1915.

Having expected to eventually succeed Yuan in the presidency, Duan thus came to oppose Yuan's attempt to declare himself Emperor in late 1915. After several provinces declared independence from Yuan's government, Duan tried to play the intermediary between the rebels and Yuan, just as Yuan had done during the Xinhai Revolution. Their friendship never recovered, even after Duan was given the premiership, partially because Yuan had shrewdly stripped that office of its powers. Duan served as premier intermittently from 1913–18, under several governments, as part of a series of shaky coalitions (which often collapsed). Yuan's attempt to establish his own dynasty had destroyed the unity of China, and many provinces had achieved de facto independence from Beijing as early as 1915.

State Premier

In 1916, when Yuan Shikai was on his deathbed, he called several of the most important political and military figures in his government, including Duan, to hear his last political testament. Yuan was only able to say two words: "the Constitution", which no one was able to interpret. Yuan's 1914 constitution stipulated that, in the event of the impending death of China's president, the president would place the names of three men to potentially succeed him after his death. After his death, the box would be opened and one of the men named would be elected.

Yuan died on June 6, 1916. When the box was opened, Duan Qirui, Li Yuanhong and Xu Shichang were named. None initially wanted to take the presidency. Duan consulted with other senior military leaders of northern China, calculated that Li was the weakest and least popular of the three and then successfully pressured him to take the presidency, possibly under the rationale that a weak, unpopular president would be easier to manipulate. Duan served under Li as premier, but dominated him—and the rest of the government—and ruled for a time as the effective dictator of northern China, challenged mostly by semi-independent warlords. Neither Duan nor Li ever attempted to submit Li's appointment as president to a parliamentary or general election, indicating Duan's general contempt for constitutional reform.

Duan Qirui, in his appointment as Premier, refused to recognize the old 1912 constitution. He was opposed by both President Li Yuanhong and Vice President Feng Guozhang, the second most important Beiyang military commander after Duan himself. On June 15, 1917, the admiral of the Chinese First Fleet, Li Tingxin, along with China's most senior naval commanders issued a statement supporting the 1912 constitution and threatened to ignore orders from Beijing if the constitution was not restored, declaring their solidarity with the "National Protection Army" in the southwest, which also claimed to support the constitution. Eventually Feng was able to persuade Duan to relent and the dissident government in the south agreed to dissolve itself when Parliament was reconvened. Nevertheless, the parliament and the country remained as divided as ever between north and south. Duan and the other Beiyang leaders refused to be dictated to by southern parliamentarians, composed mostly of Sun Yat-sen's Guangdong-based Kuomintang party, backed by southern armies outside Beiyang control. Duan decided to take action against southern military commanders by reassigning them to other posts and thereby breaking their control. In order to do this he decided to oust the pro-Kuomintang military commander of Hunan; however, his cabinet refused to do so. In spite of this, Duan's right-hand man and Cabinet Secretary, Xu Shuzheng, issued orders on his own initiative to launch an attack on Hunan.

World War I

In Europe World War I had reached a crucial point by 1916–17. Duan saw an opportunity to ingratiate China with the European powers and the US by declaring on the side of the Allies against Central powers. However, Duan was opposed again by both the president and vice-president, along with most of the parliament. He was impatient to gain parliament's approval through negotiation and resorted to bullying tactics with organized mobs. In response, president Li Yuanhong in May 1917 dismissed Duan as premier after parliament had voted to ask for his resignation.

At this juncture a monarchist general, Zhang Xun, marched his army into Beijing and announced the restoration of the Qing dynasty on July 1, 1917. Outraged, the other Beiyang generals, led by vice-president Feng Guozhang, mobilized their forces and ended the short-lived restoration attempt. Duan was returned to power while Li Yuanhong, having had enough of Beiyang politics, resigned the presidency. A few days later, on August 14, 1917, China entered the First World War on the side of the Allies. Duan declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary Empire and took back Germany's settlement and Austria Hungary's settlement in Tianjin. By entering the war, Duan hoped for some quid pro quo from China's new allies, such as the cancellation of many of the indemnities and concessions that China had been forced to sign in the past. He also hoped that China could gain international prestige by involving itself in "The Great War".

Duan's strategy now was to negotiate financial loans with Japan, in exchange for concessions, to fund a military buildup for the conquest of the south. The political cover for this army was the entry of China into the First World War. With the poor state of the government's credit and European wartime expenses making both Western and domestic financing impossible, he secretly negotiated the first of the Nishihara Loans with Japan on September 29, 1917. In exchange he offered Japan the right to station troops in Shandong province as well as the right to build and run two new Shandong railroads. There would be a high political price to pay when these negotiations came to light later on, but in the meantime Duan got the money for his army. This later became part of the reason for the Shandong Problem.

Anhui clique

After Feng Guozhang had restored him as premier, Duan Qirui quickly began preparations to mobilize troops for conquest of the south. The south responded by forming another rival government against the north and organizing the Constitutional Protection Movement. Duan dispatched two former subordinates of Feng Guozhang to the south to conquer Hunan, the linchpin of central China; one of these commanders was Wu Peifu. Wu supported Feng's preference for peaceful reconciliation with the south and refused to fight. Embarrassed by this fiasco, Duan was forced to resign a second time as premier in November 1917.

Nevertheless, Duan still exercised enormous influence in Beijing due to the various military commanders who were still loyal to him. Feng Guozhang was forced to reappoint him to the cabinet as Minister of War, and once again Duan dispatched troops to the south. He also ordered Zhang Zuolin, military ruler of Manchuria, to send troops to Beijing as a ploy to further pressure Feng to restore him to the premiership. However, Wu Peifu once again refused to follow his orders to invade the southern provinces. Faced with the threat from Feng Guozhang, Cao Kun and Wu Peifu's coalescing "Zhili clique," Duan attempted to strengthen his position by forming his own political party called the "Anhui clique." He also used the funds from the Nishihara Loans to build up his military forces, employing Japanese officers to train his troops.

President Feng Guozhang's term expired on October 10, 1918; in an attempt to placate the south, he agreed not to seek re-election provided Duan also vacate the office of premier on the same day. Duan's position was also weakening as rumours of his secret dealings with the Japanese began to surface. When the Nishihara Loans were exposed, along with the secret treaty between the Allies and Japan to transfer Shandong to the Japanese, at the Versailles peace conference, Beijing and the rest of the nation exploded in protest in what came to be known as the "May Fourth Movement" on May 4, 1919. Duan's rivals Cao Kun and Wu Peifu of the Zhili clique moved to corner him by organizing an alliance of military leaders, including Zhang Zuolin, who opposed Duan. They also engineered the dismissal of Duan's key subordinate Xu Shuzheng on July 4, 1919. In retribution, Duan forced the new president to dismiss both Cao and Wu even though there was no possible way to actually remove them from their posts. He also renamed his army the "National Pacification Army" and mobilized them for war with the Zhili clique and its supporters.

The bombing of the Forbidden City

Aisin Gioro Puyi was restored to the Emperor's throne at the Forbidden City by the warlord and Qing loyalist Zhang Xun in July of 1917, and ordering his army to keep their queues in loyal service to the Qing emperor. However, there was extensive opposition across China to return to imperial monarchy, and as a show of force, Duan Qirui ordered a Caudron Type D aircraft, piloted by Pan Shizhong (潘世忠) and bombardier Du Yuyuan (杜裕源) from Nanyuan airbase to drop three bombs over the Forbidden City, causing the death of an eunuch, but otherwise minor damage. This is the first recorded instance of aerial bombardment by the early-Republican era Chinese Air Force

Fall from power

The conflict came to be known as the Zhili–Anhui War and lasted from July 14 to July 18, 1920. Although Duan's army had been equipped and trained by Japan, it succumbed easily to Wu Peifu-led Zhili forces and their allies. His military power shattered, Duan fled to a Japanese settlement in Tianjin and became an apartment landlord. The Anhui clique began to lose its coherency, as some of its members became affiliated with either the Zhili clique or Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian faction. Only Zhejiang remained in the hands of the Anhui clique, although it eventually fell in 1924. Shandong was allowed by the Zhili clique to later be taken over by an Anhui warlord under strict conditions of neutrality. Nevertheless, some Anhui clique politicians remained active in government as the Zhili clique and Fengtian faction began to maneuver against each other. Jin Yunpeng, who had been a protege of Duan, was appointed premier in August 1920. Other Anhui members secretly mediated between Zhang Zuolin and Feng Yuxiang, an important leader in the Zhili clique, when the latter decided to revolt against his former allies in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War.

Return as chief executive

Feng Yuxiang's defection resulted in the defeat of Wu Peifu and the Zhili clique and forced them to withdraw to the south. The victorious Zhang Zuolin unpredictably named Duan Qirui as the new Chief Executive of the nation on November 24, 1924. Duan's new government was grudgingly accepted by the Zhili clique because, without an army of his own, Duan was now considered a neutral choice. In addition, instead of "President" Duan was now called the "Chief Executive," implying that the position was temporary and therefore politically weak. Duan Qirui called on Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang in the south to restart negotiations towards national reunification. Sun demanded that the "unequal treaties" with foreign powers be repudiated and that a new national assembly be assembled. Bowing to public pressure, Duan promised a new national assembly in three months; however he could not unilaterally discard the "unequal treaties," since the foreign powers had made official recognition of Duan's regime contingent upon respecting these very treaties. Sun died on March 12, 1925 and the negotiations fell apart.

With his clique's military power in a shambles, Duan's government was hopelessly dependent on Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zuolin. Knowing that those two did not get along, he secretly tried to play one side against the other. On March 18, 1926, a protest march was held against continued foreign infringement on Chinese sovereignty and a recent incident in Tianjin involving a Japanese warship. Duan dispatched military police to disperse the protesters, and in the resulting melee 47 protesters were killed and over 200 injured, including Li Dazhao, co-founder of the Communist Party. The event came to be known as the March 18 Massacre. The next month Feng Yuxiang again revolted, this time against the Fengtian clique, and deposed Duan, who was forced to flee to Zhang Zuolin for protection. Zhang, tired of his double-dealings, refused to restore him after re-capturing Beijing. Most of the Anhui clique had already sided with Zhang. Duan Qirui exiled himself to Tianjin and later moved to Shanghai where he died on November 2, 1936.

Personal life

Duan gained a reputation as tough and authoritarian, but without a great love for public office. He was observed to have a "Buddhist inclination", and enjoyed solitude. He delegated great authority to his subordinates, and generally supported their decisions. His chief professional interest was the training of soldiers. In government, he favored a cabinet system, in which decisions were made among a small group of powerful men, rather than either the one-man dictatorship favored by Yuan Shikai or the open, consultative form of government proposed by Sun Yat-sen.

Duan was also well known as a player and patron of weiqi (Go). He usually won because his opponents feared defeating him, with the exception of his son-in-law, who was also a patron of weiqi and was not afraid of defeating his father-in-law. Duan had four daughters. After Duan's retirement from politics he became a devoted Buddhist, built a worship hall within his own home and prayed every morning. Many of his former subordinates frequently came to pray with him. On the first and the 15th days of each month (lunar calendar), Duan would go to temples to participate in various Buddhist events. He supposedly became a vegetarian after the March 18 Massacre to repent for his involvements in the massacre. Douchi was his favorite food and was served at every meal. Duan also kept a hen farm at home to provide him with eggs, but kept no roosters, as he claimed that without fertilization, the eggs remained vegetarian.