生平

道光十五年十月十日（1835年11月29日）出生，归化城副都统惠显之女镶黄旗满洲富察氏所出。根据《宫中档差务杂录》的记载，孝钦显皇后给其本家祖先祭祀时所写的文辞「孝次女」来看，孝钦显皇后应是惠徵的次女。

咸丰时期

咸丰二年二月十一日（1852年3月31日），时年十七岁的叶赫那拉氏在外八旗选秀中被指定「兰贵人」（「兰」字为那拉氏的「拉」字谐音），同年五月初九日由锡拉胡同19号四合院的本家送入圆明园，居储秀宫丽景轩。叶赫那拉氏未知何时改号为「懿贵人」。

咸丰三年六月初三日（1853年7月8日），兰贵人之父惠徵在镇江府病逝。同年七月初六日报单内开，咸丰帝命沈振麟画皇上穿盔甲乘马式御容大挂轴一张，以及主位喜容稿九张，即兰贵人那拉氏等全体内庭主位俱有一幅画像。咸丰四年二月二十六日（1854年），时年十九岁的兰贵人诏封「懿嫔」。根据《鸿称通用》的记载，懿字的满文意思为「端庄」和「文雅」，充分体现了文宗视角内孝钦显皇后的性格。册文如下：

咸丰五年十月十三日，候补员外郎春年和懋勤殿太监张得喜交御笔字条一张：「慎重和平」。咸丰帝命人用一寸蓝绫边贴储秀宫殿内，不进工匠，而张贴地方要问懿嫔娘娘。咸丰六年三月（1856年），生下咸丰帝独子载淳（即同治帝），晋封为「懿妃」。册文如下：

咸丰七年正月（1857年），时年二十二岁的懿妃晋封为「懿贵妃」。册文如下：

咸丰六年十二月二十七日，咸丰帝命人交「御笔福、禄、寿、喜」各一张。翌日，进内贴储秀宫大爷殿内，张贴的地方要问贵妃娘娘。咸丰帝体弱多病，兼之当时的大清北有英法联军入侵北京、南有太平天国反清农民运动，正值内忧外患之际，让他心力憔悴。懿贵妃工于书法，于是咸丰帝时常口授并让其代笔批阅奏章，并且允许懿贵妃发表自己的意见，因而大臣们多对叶赫那拉氏不满。

咸丰十年八月（1860年），英法联军在第二次鸦片战争中攻破大沽口，占领天津。随后在八里桥击溃了清军的精锐，京师危在旦夕。9月22日，咸丰帝率包含慈禧在内的一干宫眷逃往热河避暑山庄避难，留恭亲王奕欣在京师与联军议和。英法联军在北京大肆抢劫后，10月18日将包括圆明园在内的皇家「三山五园」焚烧，大火烧了三天三夜。

咸丰皇帝临终前将「御赏」、「同道堂」两方小玺分别赐予钮祜禄氏皇后和太子载淳，并规定凡以后下发谕旨必须钤用此二玺为凭。据《热河密札》记载：「两玺均大行所赐，母后用『御赏』玺，上用『同道堂』玺，凡应朱笔处用此代之，述旨亦均用之，以杜弊端。」由于载淳年幼，「同道堂」玺便被其生母控制。也就是所有的旨意先由顾命八大臣拟定后，再交由两宫太后审查后盖上咸丰皇帝所赐的御印后，即可正式生效。咸丰帝令其年仅五岁的独子载淳继承皇位，并任命怡亲王载垣、郑亲王端华、户部尚书肃顺、额驸景寿、兵部尚书穆荫、吏部左侍郎匡源、礼部右侍郎杜翰、太仆寺少卿焦佑瀛八人为「赞襄政务王、大臣」，辅佐嗣君，人称「顾命八大臣」。

咸丰十一年七月十七日（1861年8月22日），咸丰帝在承德避暑山庄烟波致爽殿内驾崩，享年30岁。皇后在当天自动升级成为皇太后，懿贵妃在第二天才被儿子封为太后。

同治帝在避暑山庄居丧期间，奉嫡母皇后钮祜禄氏为「母后皇太后」，住烟波致爽殿的东暖阁；奉生母懿贵妃那拉氏封为「圣母皇太后」住烟波致爽殿的西暖阁，分别被称为「东宫太后」和「西宫太后」。

祺祥之变

咸丰帝死后，皇子载淳即位，9月3日发命，明年改元「祺祥」。

顾命八大臣与慈禧产生了严重的矛盾。而当时恭亲王奕欣已与西方列国达成议和，于9月5日赴热河奔丧。奕欣与慈禧秘密取得联系，决定策划一次政变。在慈禧的鼓动下，这次政变得到了慈安太后的同意。同年9月14日，山东道监察御史董元醇奏请两宫皇太后两宫听政，慈禧与慈安便召八大臣入议，八大臣以「本朝未有皇太后垂帘」为由拒绝。在奕欣的帮助下，慈禧取得了侍郎胜保、大学士贾桢等多人的支持。10月26日，咸丰帝的灵柩运回京师时，慈禧命八大臣护送灵柩殿后，自己与慈安、嗣君载淳则先达京师。随后，慈禧便先发制人，利用帝后和咸丰帝的梓宫回京的机会发动辛酉政变，设计逮捕了八大臣，判处怡亲王载垣、郑亲王端华自裁、肃顺斩立决，其他人革职。奕欣被封为议政王。

自此，八大臣势力被铲除。由八大臣拟定的年号「祺祥」也被废除，11月7日下诏，废除「祺祥」年号，翌年改元为「同治」，出自《书经·蔡仲之命》：「为善不同，同归于治；为恶不同，同归于乱」。同治甲子，载淳在北京紫禁城太和殿登基，颁诏天下，以第二年为同治元年，故称同治帝。十一月乙酉朔，嫡母慈安太后、生母慈禧太后在养心殿正式垂帘听政。登基时，同治帝年仅五岁，故其后一直由慈安太后、慈禧太后临朝称制，史称两宫听政。

同治时期

垂帘听政

执政初期，在议政王奕欣的辅佐下，整饬吏治，重用汉臣，依靠曾国藩、左宗棠、李鸿章等汉族地主武装；又在列强支持下，先后镇压了太平天国、捻军、苗民、回民起义，缓解清王朝的统治危机，使清王朝得到暂时稳定。出于维护封建专制统治，她又重用洋务派，以「自强」和「求富」的方针，发展一些军用，民用工业，训练海军和陆军以加强政权实力。客观上对清国的近代化起到了一定积极作用。这一时期，国内起义被平定，两次鸦片战争暂时满足列强的贪欲，外交上没有吃大亏，洋务运动后清王朝的军事实力有所提高，工商业有了初步发展，史称为同光中兴「同治中兴」。

同治十一年（1872年），同治帝载淳已满18岁，慈禧不得已为他选后，次年两宫太后撤帘归政。但同治帝亲政后为了尽孝心，下旨修缮圆明园以供慈安、慈禧两宫太后居住，然而当时财政紧缺，圆明园又残毁严重，修复耗资甚钜，同治帝坚持开工，引起奕欣等王公大臣多人反对，同治帝竟要将他们全部革职，慈禧出面制止了同治帝这一决定。

同治十三年（1875年），同治帝病逝，年仅19岁。同治无后，慈禧太后就立咸丰帝之弟奕譞之子载湉入嗣大宗，继承大清皇位，改年号为「光绪」，两宫太后再次听政。

光绪时期

光绪初年政局与清法战争

光绪六年（1880年），慈禧太后重病。

光绪七年（1881年），慈禧太后痊愈。同年，东太后慈安太后逝世，慈禧太后独自临朝听政。

光绪九年（1883年），清法战争爆发，双方在军事上互有胜负，但朝廷却主张「乘胜即收」。

光绪十年（1884年），清军在北圻作战不利，慈禧太后遂罢免恭亲王奕欣为首的全班军机大臣。以礼亲王世铎入值领班军机，庆郡王奕劻领总理各国事务衙门，惟慈禧独断乾纲，此为甲申易枢朝局之变。

光绪十一年（1885年），与法国签定《中法新约》，中国默认法国对越南的保护权。此条约亦加速中国西南边陲沦为法国的势力范围。

光绪十四年（1888年），光绪皇帝大婚，慈禧太后主张册立其侄女，就是后来的隆裕太后为皇后。婚后光绪皇帝开始亲政，但朝廷一切用人行政，仍惟慈禧之命是从，一体裁决：「上（光绪帝）事太后谨，朝廷大政，必请命乃行。」

光绪二十年（1894年），光绪帝以慈禧六十寿辰拟「在颐和园受贺，仿康熙、乾隆年间成例，自大内至园，路所经，设彩棚经坛，举行庆典」。纳海防捐以缮修颐和园、布置点景，广收贡献。但因清日甲午战争吃紧，慈禧宣布停办。

清日甲午战争

光绪二十年（1894年），甲午海战爆发。由光绪皇帝主导战事，慈禧复议「不准有示弱语」。战争伊始，清军便在朝鲜战场上接连失利，而北洋水师在黄海之战中又遭受严重挫折。光绪皇帝近臣阻止将朝鲜战场上接连失利的消息呈报慈禧，直到李鸿章将自开战以来与京师来往的电报呈给慈禧，慈禧惊觉战况不妙，除了将宫内的三百万两银子交给李鸿章外，并延长住在西苑的时间，停办六旬寿典。李鸿章深知日本占优势，期冀列强干涉，以尽快结束战争。一方面为了讨好慈禧，在慈禧宣布停办六旬寿典之后，李鸿章送上九件礼品给慈禧，原本因战事失利而停止送寿礼的事情，又在臣僚之间传开，纷纷呈上寿礼，但随著战事吃紧，这项举措使慈禧声望下跌。鉴于列强干涉失败，形势日益紧张以及朝野上下的重重压力，再加上金州、大连相继陷落，旅顺万分危急的情况下，紫禁城宁寿宫内慈禧的寿典落幕。

由于战事一直由光绪帝主导，慈禧无法过问，但随著战事吃紧，慈禧设法想主导战事，除了关闭光绪帝与近臣们讨论国政的书房外，将帝师翁同和升为军机大臣以得知战事，一方面威胁珍妃，当作对光绪帝的惩罚，强迫光绪帝将主导战事权交给慈禧，但战事已无可挽回。

光绪二十一年二月（1895年），威海卫日舰及炮台夹攻刘公岛，北洋水师全军覆没，日军挺进山海关，京师告急。不得已，慈禧下定决心不惜代价向日本求和。三月，光绪帝派李鸿章为全权大臣，赴日议和。四月签订《马关条约》，中国放弃对大朝鲜国的宗主国地位，赔款二亿两白银，割让辽东半岛（在俄罗斯帝国，德国，法国等西方列强干涉下，后以白银3000万两赎回）、台湾、澎湖列岛，开放4个通商口岸，允许大日本帝国在通商口岸开矿设厂。

戊戌变法与慈禧训政

光绪二十四年六月（1898年），光绪帝命翁同和起草《明定国是诏》，觐见慈禧，得到应允。乃于翌日颁布，戊戌变法正式展开。但变法过于操切，触动了满洲贵族和众多官僚的利益，反对者十之八九。慈禧支持维新强国，默许皇帝对变法反对者的制裁。但慈禧与康有为的摩擦愈趋激烈。当时传言光绪帝听信康有为之言授意维新派命袁世凯派兵杀荣禄，围颐和园迫使慈禧归政。慈禧太后闻之大怒，宣布软禁光绪帝，对外宣称光绪帝得病，不能视朝，「不得已临朝称制」，因此慈禧重新训政，此为戊戌政变。自此，为期一百馀日的维新变法终止，维新期间的大部分条纲被废止，维新派重要人物谭嗣同、杨锐、林旭、刘光第、杨深秀、康有溥等维新六君子被斩首，康有为、梁啓超流亡海外。

上海师范大学教授雷家圣指出：日本前首相伊藤博文在戊戌变法期间到中国访问。当时英国传教士李提摩太向变法派领袖康有为建议，要求清朝方面聘请伊藤为顾问，甚至付以事权，变法派官员在伊藤抵华后，纷纷上书请求重用伊藤，引起保守派官员的警惕。保守派官员杨崇伊甚至就事件密奏慈禧太后：「风闻东洋故相伊藤博文，将专政柄。伊藤果用，则祖宗所传之天下，不啻拱手让人。」杨崇伊的激烈言论，促使慈禧太后在9月19日由颐和园回到紫禁城，意欲了解光绪皇帝对伊藤有何看法。

伊藤与李提摩太又向康有为提议「中美英日合邦」，于是在康有为的授意下，变法派官员杨深秀于9月20日上书光绪：「臣尤伏愿我皇上早定大计，固结英、美、日本三国，勿嫌『合邦』之名之不美。」另一变法派官员宋伯鲁也于9月21日上书言道：雷家圣认为，这是欲将中国军事、财税、外交等国家大权，交于外人之手，所以慈禧太后惊觉事态严重，当机立断发动政变，重新训政，结束了戊戌变法。雷家圣亦认为「合邦」为外国的阴谋，康有为在戊戌变法前即曾与日本人联系，要与日本人联合召开「两国合邦大会议」。戊戌变法开始后，李提摩太又向康有为建议中、美、英、日四国「合邦」，藉以对抗俄罗斯帝国，他指出，这在当时是完全不切实际的。但身为高级知识分子的李提摩太却向康有为提出这种建议，动机令人怀疑。康有为更向光绪建议要向李提摩太与伊藤博文「商酌办法」，则控制权将完全掌握在外人手中。因此李提摩太「合邦」的计划，可以说是一个外交骗局，利用康有为等人对国际常识不足的弱点，诱骗康有为等人与光绪将交出军事、财政、外交等权力给外国人，任由外国操控宰割。

戊戌政变之后，许多官吏纷纷上书弹劾康有为、梁启超等人，如兵部掌印给事中高燮曾于八月十一日上奏言：「从前朝鲜被倭人戕妃逼王，其明证也。」福建道监察御史黄桂鋆上奏：「大约康有为等，内则巧夺政权，外则私通敌国，其主持变法之说，皆欺人语也。」民间学者王先谦也批评康有为「借兵外臣，倚重邻敌，以危宗社，又兼崔胤、张邦昌而有之，诚乱臣贼子之尤也。」当时的官僚与士大夫，已经将康有为等人的阴谋与大朝鲜国乙未事变作比较，并发现了其中的相似之处。

义和拳事件与八国联军

受到戊戌政变的影响，慈禧太后在此后一段时间内开始排斥维新派，并因此利用端王载漪、刚毅等守旧亲贵。而对于如何处置光绪帝，是否废黜他，成为朝野关注的焦点。

光绪二十五年十二月二十四日（1899年1月24日），以光绪帝名义下诏，溥儁被正式过继于同治帝，获得皇子身份，受诏入宫，封为大阿哥，有「立储」之意，并以崇绮为师傅，命在弘德殿读书，钦定年号「保庆」。是为己亥立储。列国公使认为此举有废除光绪之意，拒绝入贺，废立之事遂偃旗息鼓。

载漪为求其子早日登基，乃利用皇太后对「洋人」的嫉忌之心，极力离间帝后。顺此，朝中形势乃逐渐演变为非理性仇视「洋人」的守旧亲贵，结合保守的清流派，对抗主张务实外交的朝臣之局。在端王等当权亲贵的纵容，甚至暗助之下，以扶乩迷信加上民族主义起家的义和团事件「庚子国变」乃得以大举进入直隶、进迫北京，形成一股「逼宫」的形势。

慈禧太后虽未必相信拳民「神功护体」、「刀枪不入」之说，但看到「民气可用」；且号称上百万的义和团民已经在北京附近大量聚集，慈禧太后担心镇压义和团会促使其矛头转而指向清王朝，亦未尝严令镇压拳民，终于酿成拳民大规模进入京畿，并且残杀「教民」、攻击外人、甚至杀死德国公使、日本外交官等人员的事故，引起八国联军干涉之祸。慈禧太后又误信各国欲迫其退位的假情报，负气处死主张透过外交途径解决危机的五大臣，并随即对多国宣战，至此大势乃全无转圜馀地。

光绪二十六年七月二十日（1900年8月14日凌晨），八国联军攻入北京；15日凌晨，攻紫禁城东华门，慈禧带著光绪帝等宫眷自德胜门逃出京师，经过宣化、大同、太原，于九月到达西安。令奕劻、李鸿章为全权大臣，与列强进行谈判，把战争的责任推到义和团身上，下令对义和团「痛加剿除」。

光绪二十七年十二月二十六日（1902年2月14日），批准《议和大纲》，并发布上谕，表示要「量中华之物力，结与国之欢心。」然而根据近年来的研究，此句话断章取义，联系《清史稿》上下文，本来的意思是「尽量少用中华之物力」。同年9月7日清廷与11个列强国家签订了《辛丑条约》，规定按照当时中国人口的数量赔款4.5亿两白银，39年内赔款9.8亿两白银，惩办主战官员，拆除大沽到北京沿线所有炮台等。是中国历史上赔款最多的条约之一。

光绪二十八年十一月二十九日（1903年1月8日），历时三月回到北京。慈禧和光绪帝都下诏罪己。端郡王载漪失势，溥儁也被废除大阿哥头衔，以公爵头衔迁出宫。

庚子新政

光绪二十七年（1901年），签订了《辛丑条约》之后，慈禧太后为了挽回人心而下诏实行新政，是为庚子新政。这次改革比戊戌变法更广更深，实行千年之久的科举制度也被废除。在张之洞、刘坤一的建议下，慈禧决定效仿日本，实行君主立宪制，下令预备立宪，又派五大臣前往西方列国考察。

1904年（光绪三十年）爆发日俄战争，战场正是在中国东北，慈禧太后对于这场在自己本土上的战争表示中立，而战争中大量东北地区平民遇难，使得中国的有识之士彻底看清清朝政府的腐败无能，决心进行变法或革命；与此同时，国内革命运动也愈发高涨。为了维持政权，慈禧作出要立宪的姿态。

1905年（光绪三十一年）派五大臣出洋考察，1906年（光绪三十二年）又下诏预备立宪，1908（光绪三十四年）年颁布《钦定宪法大纲》，内容仿照德国和日本的宪法，维护皇帝「君上大权」。

1908年美国总统老罗斯福签署法案，退还庚子赔款（庚款）一千多万美元，希望让中国人认识西洋文化，支持留美教育，与照顾中国官派留美学生；之后，英国、法国、比利时、意大利、荷兰等国相继；七国退还中国庚子之赔款「溢款」总数，约在海关银三亿两左右。

晚年

光绪三十四年十月二十一日（1908年11月14日），光绪皇帝在北京中南海瀛台涵元殿内驾崩（今考证被砒霜毒死），享年三十七岁，大行皇帝无嗣，经慈禧皇太后下诏，命醇亲王载沣为监国摄政王，其长子溥仪继承大清王朝皇位，年号「宣统」，慈禧被尊为太皇太后。

光绪三十四年十月二十二日（1908年11月15日），慈禧皇太后崩逝于北京中南海仪鸾殿的后殿福昌殿内，享寿七十三岁，结束了长达四十七年的统治。

宣统元年十月四日（1909年11月16日），慈禧太后灵柩从北京紫禁城被迁至河北省遵化市清东陵内的菩陀峪定东陵安葬，其牌位被请入北京太庙供奉。定徽号慈禧端佑康颐昭豫庄诚寿恭钦献崇熙太皇太后，諡号孝钦慈禧端佑康颐昭豫庄诚寿恭钦献崇熙配天兴圣显皇后，简称孝钦显皇后，諡号共29字，諡号长度超过中国历代皇帝以及皇后，成为中国之最。

身后之事

慈禧的陵寝菩陀峪定东陵，营建工程历时十三年，直到她死前才告结束。耗银227万两，金碧辉煌、极尽奢华。

建筑材料的贵重、工艺的精湛、装饰的奢华等方面均居于清朝皇后陵寝的首位。即使是与清朝诸帝陵相比，某些帝陵也要比她逊色很多。她的随葬品之奢华也令人瞠目结舌，叹为观止。慈禧的随葬品分为两部分：生前置放于墓中金井里的珍宝与下葬时的随葬珍品，许多都是极其罕见的旷世奇宝，价格和价值也根本无法估量。

1928年6月，军阀孙殿英藉演习之名，率其部下对慈禧的菩陀峪定东陵和乾隆帝的裕陵进行大规模盗掘。盗墓者将定东陵内的珍宝洗劫一空，甚至连慈禧口中所含的一粒大如鸡蛋的夜明珠都被挖走，此案即是轰动全国的东陵事件「清东陵盗宝案」。在清皇室的呼吁下，民国政府派员调查此事。孙殿英对外宣称是报祖上孙承宗之仇，并将其中部分盗取的宝物贿赂蒋宋美龄、孔祥熙等人，案件查办最终不了了之。寓居天津的溥仪只得派人将挖出的遗骨重新敛葬。

后来溥仪在其回忆录里提及：祖母慈禧太后夜明珠被盗事，并改馈赠给某位民初权贵夫人（指宋美龄），让他耿耿于怀。

传说轶事

• 传闻清末重臣荣禄少年时代，与选秀入宫前之慈禧为情侣，故当慈禧成为皇太后并掌权之后，对于荣禄大力提拔，宠信有加。此说，见于前清宫中女官裕德龄原以英文出版、亦发行有中文版之小说体作品《爱恋紫禁城：慈禧私秘感情生活》，亦为台湾中视八点档连续剧《戏说慈禧》所采用。

• 《清史稿》记载，慈禧去世时仍然在批阅奏摺，可见她的勤政。《戏说慈禧》如实拍摄此事。

• 大英帝国外交官埃德蒙·巴恪思爵士，第二代从男爵曾出使清朝，据其著作《太后与我》所载，慈禧在满五十岁之前，嗜好房事，数度秘密地招幸外交官，一夜能行房五次。然而该书被指内容极为离奇荒诞。对于该书的指责主要集中于两点，一是「虚假」、一是「色情」，其文学价值大于史料价值。

• 有关光绪帝之死因传闻与慈禧有关联，其遗骨及衣物经现代法医技术鉴定后，确认死于急性砷中毒（急性砒霜中毒），凶手极有可能为慈禧。主因是慈禧病重时曾犹豫对光绪帝要如何处置，遂以自己不久人世的消息透露给光绪帝知道，惟其近侍回报光绪帝曾微露喜色；故慈禧决意自己病终前，光绪帝须先于自己命终，以免光绪帝有再度亲政、否定慈禧生前之布局的可能。

• 民间传说称，叶赫那拉氏先祖布扬古被努尔哈赤杀害前，诅咒「吾子孙，虽存一女子，亦必覆满洲」。巧合的是，慈禧太后和隆裕太后均为叶赫那拉氏，而且一个被认为治国无能导致国力日衰，另一个在位时清朝灭亡。慈禧为苏完叶赫那拉氏，与叶赫国主支系的叶赫那拉氏并非同宗，慈禧与叶赫国主同姓只是巧合。而此说法最早在光绪年间才出现，且从未出现在之前的史料当中，因此为后人穿凿附会之说。

• 慈禧太后母亲富察氏六十大寿的时候，虽然紫禁城距离锡拉胡同母亲宅邸咫尺之遥，慈禧却无法去参加母亲的大寿，就让侍臣给母亲送了很多的东西；同时亲笔写了一幅书法，裱好后送去了。这幅书法一直保存了几代人，最后毁于文革。那是慈禧写给母亲的一首诗：「世间爹妈情最真，泪血溶入儿女身。殚竭心力终为子，可怜天下父母心！」

• 据大清秘录纪载，慈禧太后生前醉心于义和团的灵魂出窍之神通修练，于死前秘令义和团巫师雕塑其金身供义和团众参拜，金身神讳天上圣母皇太后。其也为中国历代各朝鲜少在世时自称神仙的领导人，并成为未过世之前就接受万民朝拜的老佛爷。在现时道教中，因义和团的拱佐，天上圣母老佛爷已经与妈祖娘娘信仰混为一谈。

家族

兄弟姊妹

• 姊 夭折

• 妹 醇亲王嫡福晋（醇亲王奕譞嫡妃）

　• 第一子 载瀚

　• 第二子 载湉（光绪帝）

　• 第三子

　• 第四子 载洸

• 妹 （庆亲王奕劻二弟奕勋嫡妻）

• 大弟 照祥

　• 第一子 德善

• 二弟 桂祥

　• 第一女 静荣（载泽福晋）

　• 第二女 静芬（孝定景皇后）

　• 第三女 静芳

　• 第一子 德恒，字「健亭」

　　• 第一女 淑敏

　　• 第二女 淑琴

　　• 第一子 恩贤

　• 第二子 德祺，字「寿芝」

　　• 第一女 希贤

　　• 第二女 希嬿

　　• 第一子 恩印

　　• 第二子 恩显

　　• 第三子 恩民

　　• 第四子 恩植

• 三弟 福祥

　• 第一子 德奎，字「文伯」

　　• 第一子 恩华

　　• 第二女 恩秀

　　• 第一子 恩铨

　　• 第二子 恩辉

　　• 第三子 恩耀

　　• 第四子 恩光

字画

File:Painting by Dowager Empress Cixi 02.jpg|粉色牡丹

File:Painting by Empress Dowager Cixi.PNG|牡丹

File:Painting by the Empress Dowager Cixi 06.JPG|鸟与水果

File:Painting by the Empress Dowager Cixi 04.JPG|黄牡丹

File:Calligraphy of Empress Dowager Cixi at Summer Palace.JPG|慈禧手书

影视形象

评价

Life

Birth

The future Empress Dowager Cixi was born on the tenth day of the tenth lunar month in the 15th year of the reign of the Daoguang Emperor (29 November 1835). Her father was Huizheng (惠征), a member of the Bordered Blue Banner who held the title of a third class duke (三等公). Palace archives show that Huizheng was working in Beijing during the year of Lady Yehe Nara's birth, an indication that she was born in Beijing. The file records the location of her childhood home: Pichai Hutong, Xisipailou, Beijing (西四牌楼劈柴胡同). She had a sister named Wanzhen and a brother named Guixiang.

Xianfeng era

In 1851, Cixi participated in the selection for wives to the Xianfeng Emperor alongside 60 other candidates. Cixi was one of the few candidates chosen to stay. Among the other chosen candidates were Noble Lady Li of the Tatara clan (later Consort Li) and Concubine Zhen of the Niohuru clan (later the Xianfeng Emperor's empress consort). On 26 June 1852, she entered the Forbidden City and was placed in the sixth rank of consorts, styled "Noble Lady Lan".

On 28 February 1854, Cixi was elevated to the fifth rank of consorts and granted the title "Concubine Yi". In 1855, Cixi became pregnant, and on 27 April 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun, the Xianfeng Emperor's first and only surviving son. On the same day, she was elevated to the fourth rank of consorts as "Consort Yi". In 1857, when her son reached his first birthday, Cixi was elevated to the third rank of consorts as "Noble Consort Yi". This rank placed her second only to the Empress Niohuru among the women within the Xianfeng Emperor's harem.

Unlike many of the other Manchu women in the imperial household, Cixi was known for her ability to read and write Chinese. This skill granted her numerous opportunities to help the ailing emperor in the governing of the Chinese state on a daily basis. On various occasions, the Xianfeng Emperor had Cixi read palace memorials for him and leave instructions on the memorials according to his will. As a result, Cixi became well-informed about state affairs and the art of governing from the ailing emperor.

Tongzhi era

In September 1860, during the closing stages of the Second Opium War, the British diplomatic envoy Harry Parkes was arrested along with other hostages, who were tortured and executed. In retaliation, British and French troops under the command of Lord Elgin attacked Beijing, and by the following month they had burned the Old Summer Palace to the ground. The Xianfeng Emperor and his entourage, including Cixi, fled Beijing to Rehe Province (around present-day Chengde, Hebei). On hearing the news of the destruction of the Old Summer Palace, the Xianfeng Emperor, who was already showing signs of dementia, fell into a depression. He turned heavily to alcohol and drugs and became seriously ill. He summoned eight of his most prestigious ministers, headed by Sushun, Zaiyuan and Duanhua, and named them the "Eight Regent Ministers" to direct and support the future emperor. The Xianfeng Emperor died on 22 August 1861 at the Chengde Mountain Resort in Rehe Province.

The Xianfeng Emperor's heir, the son of Noble Consort Yi (Empress Dowager Cixi), was only five years old. It is commonly assumed that on his deathbed, the Xianfeng Emperor summoned his Empress and Noble Consort Yi and gave each of them a stamp. He hoped that when his son ascended the throne, the Empress and Noble Consort Yi would cooperate in harmony and help the young emperor to grow and mature together. This may also have been done as a check on the power of the eight regents. There is no evidence for this incident, however, and it is unlikely that the emperor ever would have intended Noble Consort Yi to wield political power. It is possible that the seal, allegedly given as a symbol for the child, was really just a present for Noble Consort Yi herself. Informal seals numbered in the thousands and were not considered political accouterments, rather objects of art commissioned for pleasure by emperors to stamp on items such as paintings, or given as presents to the concubines. Upon the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, his Empress was elevated to the status of empress dowager. Although her official title was "Empress Dowager Ci'an", she was popularly known as the "East Empress Dowager" because she lived in the eastern Zhongcui Palace. Noble Consort Yi was also elevated to "Empress Dowager Cixi". She was popularly known as the "West Empress Dowager" (西太后) because she lived inside the western Chuxiu Palace.

Xinyou Coup: Ousting Sushun

By the time of the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, Empress Dowager Cixi had become a shrewd political strategist. In Rehe Province, while waiting for an astrologically favourable time to transport the emperor's coffin back to Beijing, Cixi conspired with court officials and imperial relatives to seize power. Cixi's position as the lower-ranked empress dowager had no intrinsic political power attached to it. In addition, her son, the young emperor, was not a political force himself. As a result, it became necessary for her to ally herself with other powerful figures, including the late emperor's principal wife, Empress Dowager Ci'an. Cixi suggested that they become co-reigning empress dowagers, with powers exceeding the eight regents; the two had long been close friends since Cixi first came to the imperial household.

Tensions grew between the two Empresses Dowager and the eight regents, who were led by Sushun. The regents did not appreciate Cixi's interference in political affairs, and their frequent confrontations with the Empresses Dowager left Empress Dowager Ci'an frustrated. Ci'an often refused to come to court audiences, leaving Cixi to deal with the ministers alone. Secretly, Cixi had begun gathering the support of talented ministers, soldiers, and others who were ostracized by the eight regents for personal or political reasons. Among them was Prince Gong, who had been excluded from power, yet harboured great ambitions, and Prince Chun, the sixth and seventh brothers of the Xianfeng Emperor, respectively. While Cixi aligned herself with the two princes, a memorial came from Shandong asking for her to "listen to politics behind the curtains," i.e., to assume power as de facto ruler. The same memorial also asked Prince Gong to enter the political arena as a principal "aide to the Emperor".

When the Xianfeng Emperor's funeral procession left for Beijing, Cixi took advantage of her alliances with Princes Gong and Chun. She and the boy emperor returned to the capital before the rest of the party, along with Zaiyuan and Duanhua, two of the eight regents, while Sushun was left to accompany the deceased emperor's procession. Cixi's early return to Beijing meant that she had more time to plan with Prince Gong and ensure that the power base of the eight regents was divided between Sushun and his allies, Zaiyuan and Duanhua. In order to remove them from power, history was rewritten: the regents were dismissed for having carried out incompetent negotiations with the "barbarians" that had caused the Xianfeng Emperor to flee to Rehe Province "greatly against his will", among other charges.

To display her high moral standards, Cixi executed only three of the eight regents. Prince Gong had suggested that Sushun and others be executed by the most painful method, known as slow slicing ("death by a thousand cuts"), but Cixi declined the suggestion and ordered that Sushun be beheaded, while the other two also marked for execution, Zaiyuan and Duanhua, were given pieces of white silk for them to hang themselves with. In addition, Cixi refused outright the idea of executing the family members of the regents, as would be done in accordance with imperial tradition of an alleged usurper. Ironically, Qing imperial tradition also dictated that women and princes were never to engage in politics. In breaking with tradition, Cixi became the only empress dowager in the Qing dynasty to assume the role of regent, following a practice known as "ruling from behind the curtains" (垂帘听政) in Chinese.

This coup is historically known as the Xinyou Coup because it took place in the xinyou year, the name of the year 1861 in the Chinese sexagenary cycle.

Ruling behind the curtain

New era

In November 1861, a few days following the Xinyou Coup, Cixi was quick to reward Prince Gong for his help. He was appointed Prince-Regent and his eldest daughter was made a first rank princess, a title usually bestowed only on the Empress's first-born daughter. However, Cixi avoided giving Prince Gong the absolute political power that princes such as Dorgon exercised during the Shunzhi Emperor's reign. As one of the first acts of "ruling behind the curtain" from within the Hall of Mental Cultivation, the political and governmental hub during this era, Cixi, nominally along with Ci'an, issued two imperial edicts on behalf of the boy emperor. The first stated that the two Empresses Dowager were to be the sole decision-makers "without interference," and the second changed the emperor's regnal title from Qixiang (祺祥; "auspicious") to Tongzhi (同治; "collective stability").

Despite being designated as the sole decision-makers, both Ci'an and Cixi were forced to rely on the Grand Council and a complex series of procedures in order to deal with affairs of state. When state documents came in, they were to be first forwarded to the Empresses Dowager, then referred back to Prince Gong and the Grand Council. Having discussed the matters, Prince Gong and his colleagues would seek the instruction of the Empresses Dowager at audiences and imperial orders would be drawn up accordingly, with drafts having to be approved by the Empresses Dowager before edicts were issued. The most important role of the Empresses Dowager during the regency was to apply their seals to edicts, a merely mechanical role in a complex bureaucracy.

Cleaning up the bureaucracy

Cixi's ascendancy came at a time of internal chaos and foreign challenges. The effects of the Second Opium War were still hovering over the country, and the Taiping Rebellion continued its seemingly unstoppable advance through China's south, eating up the Qing Empire bit by bit. Internally, both the national bureaucracy and regional authorities were infested with corruption. 1861 happened to be the year of official examinations, whereby officials of all levels presented their political reports from the previous three years. Cixi decided that the time was ripe for a bureaucratic overhaul, and she personally sought audience with all officials above the level of provincial governor, who had to report to her personally. Cixi thus took on part of the role usually given to the Bureaucratic Affairs Department (吏部). Cixi had two prominent officials executed to serve as examples for others: Qingying, a military shilang who had tried to bribe his way out of demotion, and He Guiqing, then Viceroy of Liangjiang, who fled Changzhou in the wake of an incoming Taiping army instead of trying to defend the city. A number of reforms were implemented, such as the development of the Zongli Yamen, an official foreign ministry to deal with international affairs, the restoration of regional armies and regional strongmen, modernization of railroads, factories, and arsenals, an increase of industrial and commercial productivity, and the institution of a period of peace that allowed China time to modernize and develop.

Another significant challenge Cixi faced was the increasingly decrepit state of the Manchu elites. Since the beginning of Qing rule over China in 1644, most major positions at court had been held by Manchus. Cixi, again in a reversal of imperial tradition, entrusted the country's most powerful military unit against the Taiping rebels into the hands of a Han Chinese, Zeng Guofan. Additionally, in the next three years, Cixi appointed Han Chinese officials as governors in all southern Chinese provinces, raising alarm bells in the court, traditionally protective of Manchu dominance.

Regarding the reforms of the Tongzhi Restoration, Mary C. Wright suggested that "Not only a dynasty but also a civilization which appeared to have collapsed was revived to last for another sixty years by the extraordinary efforts of extraordinary men in the 1860s." John K. Fairbank wrote, "That the Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks is due largely to the policy and leadership changes known as the Qing Restoration."

Taiping victory and Prince Gong

Under the command of Zeng Guofan, the victorious Xiang Army defeated the Taiping rebel army in a hard-fought battle at Tianjing (present-day Nanjing) in July 1864. Zeng was rewarded with the title of "Marquess Yiyong, First Class", while his brother Zeng Guoquan, along with Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang and other Han Chinese officers who fought against the Taiping rebels, were rewarded with auspicious decorations and titles. With the Taiping rebel threat receding, Cixi focused her attention on new internal threats to her power. Of special concern was the position of Prince Gong, who was Prince-Regent in the imperial court. Prince Gong gathered under his command the support of all outstanding Han Chinese armies. In addition, Prince Gong controlled daily court affairs as the head of the Grand Council and the Zongli Yamen (the de facto foreign affairs ministry). With his increasing stature, Prince Gong was considered a threat to Cixi and her power.

Although Prince Gong was rewarded for his conduct and recommendation of Zeng Guofan before the Taiping rebels' defeat, Cixi was quick to move after Cai Shouqi, a minor scribe-official, filed a memorial accusing Prince Gong of corruption and showing disrespect to the emperor. Having built up a powerful base and a network of allies at court, Prince Gong considered the accusations insignificant. Cixi, however, took the memorial as a stepping stone to Prince Gong's removal. In April 1865, under the pretext that Prince Gong had "improper court conduct before the two empresses," among a series of other charges, the prince was dismissed from all his offices and appointments, but was allowed to retain his status as a noble. The dismissal surprised the nobility and court officials and brought about numerous petitions for his return. Prince Gong's brothers, Prince Dun and Prince Chun, both sought their brother's reinstatement. Prince Gong himself, in an audience with the two empresses, burst into tears. Bowing to popular pressure, Cixi allowed Prince Gong to return to his position as the head of the Zongli Yamen, but rid him of his title of Prince-Regent. Prince Gong would never return to political prominence again, and neither would the liberal and pro-reform policies of his time. Prince Gong's demotion revealed Cixi's iron grip on politics, and her lack of willingness to give up absolute power to anyone – not even Prince Gong, her most important ally in the Xinyou Coup.

Foreign influence

China's defeat in the Second Opium War of 1856–60 was a wake-up call. Military strategies were outdated, both on land and sea and in terms of weaponry. Sensing an immediate threat from foreigners and realising that China's agricultural-based economy could not hope to compete with the industrial prowess of the West, Cixi decided that for the first time in Chinese history, China would learn from the Western powers and import their knowledge and technology. At the time, three prominent Han Chinese officials, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, had all begun industrial programs in the country's southern regions. In supporting these programmes, Cixi also decreed the opening of the Tongwen Guan in 1862, a school for foreign languages in Beijing. The Tongwen Guan specialised in new-age topics such as astronomy and mathematics, as well as the English, French and Russian languages. Groups of young boys were also sent abroad to the United States for studies.

China's "learn from foreigners" programme quickly met with impediments. The Chinese military institutions were in desperate need of reform. Cixi's solution, under the advice of officials at court, was to purchase seven British warships. When the warships arrived in China, however, they were staffed with British sailors, all under British command. The Chinese were enraged at this "international joke", negotiations broke down between the two parties, and China returned the warships to Britain, where they were to be auctioned off. Scholars sometimes attribute the failure of China's foreign programmes to Cixi's conservative attitude and old methods of thinking, and contend that Cixi would learn only so much from the foreigners, provided it did not infringe upon her own power. Under the pretext that a railway was too loud and would "disturb the emperors' tombs", Cixi forbade its construction. When construction went ahead anyway in 1877 on Li Hongzhang's recommendation, Cixi asked that they be pulled by horse-drawn carts. Cixi was especially alarmed at the liberal thinking of people who had studied abroad, and saw that it posed a new threat to her power. In 1881, Cixi put a halt to the policy of sending children abroad to study and withdrew her formerly open attitude towards foreigners.

The Tongzhi Emperors marriage

In 1872, the Tongzhi Emperor turned 17. Under the guidance of the Empress Dowager Ci'an, he was married to the Jiashun Empress. The empress's grandfather, Prince Zheng, was one of the eight regents ousted from power in the Xinyou Coup of 1861. He had been Cixi's rival during the coup and was ordered to commit suicide after Cixi's victory. As a consequence, there were tensions between Cixi and the empress, and this was often a source of irritation for Cixi. Moreover, the empress's zodiac symbol of tiger was perceived as life-threatening by the superstitious Cixi, whose own zodiac symbol was a goat. According to Cixi's belief, it was a warning from the gods that she would eventually fall prey to the empress.

As the principal consort of the Tongzhi Emperor, the Jiashun Empress was well received by both the emperor and Empress Dowager Ci'an. Her personal consultants once warned her to be more agreeable and docile to Cixi, as Cixi was truly the one in power. The empress replied, "I am a principal consort, having been carried through the front gate with pomp and circumstance, as mandated by our ancestors. Empress Dowager Cixi was a concubine, and entered our household through a side gate."

Since the very beginning of his marriage, the Tongzhi Emperor proceeded to spend most of his time with his empress at the expense of his four concubines, including the Imperial Noble Consort Shushen, who was Cixi's preferred candidate for the Tongzhi Emperor's empress consort. As hostility grew between Cixi and the Jiashun Empress, Cixi suggested the couple spend more time on studies and spied on the Tongzhi Emperor using palace eunuchs. After her warning was ignored, Cixi ordered the couple to separate, and the Tongzhi Emperor purportedly spent several months following Cixi's order in isolation at Qianqing Palace.

The young emperor, who could no longer cope with his grief and loneliness, grew more and more ill-tempered. He began to treat his servants with cruelty and punished them physically for minor offences. Under the joined influence of court eunuchs and Zaicheng, Prince Gong's eldest son and the Tongzhi Emperor's best friend, the emperor managed to escape the palace in search of pleasure in the unrestricted parts of Beijing. For several evenings the emperor disguised himself as a commoner and secretly spent the nights in the brothels of Beijing. The emperor's sexual habits became common talk among court officials and commoners, and there are many records of the emperor's escapades.

The Tongzhi Emperors deficiencies in ruling

The Tongzhi Emperor received a rigorous education from four famous teachers of Cixi's own choosing: Li Hongzao, Qi Junzao, Weng Xincun, and Woren. This group was later joined by Weng Xincun's son, Weng Tonghe; the emperor's governor, also selected by Cixi, was Mianyu. The imperial teachers instructed the emperor in the classics and various old texts for which the emperor displayed little or no interest.

Despite, or perhaps because of, the pressure and stress put upon the young emperor, he despised learning for the majority of his life. According to Weng Tonghe's diary, the emperor could not read a memorandum in full sentences by the age of 16. Worried about her son's inability to learn, Cixi only pressured him more. When he was given personal rule in November 1873 at the age of 18 (four years behind the usual custom), the Tongzhi Emperor proved to be an incompetent ruler.

The Tongzhi Emperor made two important policy decisions during his short stint of rule, which lasted from 1873 to 1875. First, he decreed that the Summer Palace, destroyed by the English and French in the Second Opium War, would be completely rebuilt under the pretext that it was a gift to Cixi and Ci'an. Historians also suggest that it was an attempt to drive Cixi from the Forbidden City so that he could rule without interference in policy or his private affairs.

The imperial treasury was almost depleted at the time from internal strife and foreign wars, and as a result, the Tongzhi Emperor asked the Board of Finance to forage for the necessary funds. In addition, he encouraged members of the nobility and high officials to donate funds from their personal resources. Once construction began, the emperor checked its progress on a monthly basis, and would often spend days away from court, indulging himself in pleasures outside of the Forbidden City.

Uneasy about the Tongzhi Emperor's neglect of national affairs, the emperor's uncles Prince Gong and Prince Chun, along with other senior court officials, submitted a joint memorandum asking the emperor to cease the construction of the Summer Palace, among other recommendations. The Tongzhi Emperor, unwilling to submit to criticism, issued an imperial edict in August 1874 to strip Prince Gong of his princely title and demote him to the status of a commoner. Two days later, Prince Dun, Prince Chun, Prince Fu, Jingshou, Prince Qing, Wenxiang, Baojun, and Grand Councillors Shen Guifen and Li Hongzao were all to be stripped of their respective titles and jobs.

Seeing the mayhem unfold from behind the scenes, Cixi and Ci'an made an unprecedented appearance at court directly criticising the emperor for his wrongful actions and asked him to withdraw the edict; Cixi said that "without Prince Gong, the situation today would not exist for you and me."

Feeling a grand sense of loss at court and unable to assert his authority, the Tongzhi Emperor returned to his former habits. It was rumoured that he caught syphilis and became visibly ill. The physicians spread a rumour that the emperor had smallpox, and proceeded to give medical treatment accordingly. Within a few weeks, on 13 January 1875, the emperor died. The Jiashun Empress followed suit in March. Judging from a modern medical perspective, the onset of syphilis comes in stages, thus the emperor's quick death does not seem to reflect its symptoms. Therefore, most historians maintain that the Tongzhi Emperor did, in fact, die from smallpox. Regardless, by 1875, Cixi was back onto the helm of imperial power.

Guangxu era

New challenges and illness

The Tongzhi Emperor died without a male heir, a circumstance that created an unprecedented succession crisis in the dynastic line. Members of the generation above were considered unfit, as they could not, by definition, be the successor of their nephew. Therefore, the new emperor had to be from a generation below or the same generation as the Tongzhi Emperor. After considerable disagreement between the two Empresses Dowager, Zaitian, the four-year-old firstborn son of Prince Chun and Cixi's sister, was to become the new emperor. 1875 was declared the first year of the Guangxu era; Guangxu was the new emperor's regnal name and it means "glorious succession". Zaitian was taken from home and for the remainder of his life would be cut completely off from his family. While addressing Ci'an conventionally as huang e'niang ("Empress Mother"), Zaitian was forced to address Cixi as qin baba ("Dear Father"), in order to enforce an image that she was the fatherly figure in the household. The Guangxu Emperor began his education when he was aged five, taught by the imperial tutor Weng Tonghe, with whom he would develop a lasting bond.

Shortly after the accession of the Guangxu Emperor, Cixi fell severely ill. This rendered her largely inaccessible to her young nephew and had the result of leaving Ci'an to attend to most of the affairs of state.

The sudden death of Ci'an in April 1881 brought Cixi a new challenge. Ci'an had taken little interest in running state affairs, but was the decision-maker in most family affairs. As the consort of the Xianfeng Emperor, she took seniority over Cixi, despite being two years her junior. Some believe that rumours began circulating at court to the effect that Cixi had poisoned Ci'an, perhaps as a result of a possible conflict between Cixi and Ci'an over the execution of the eunuch An Dehai in 1869 or a possible will from the late Xianfeng Emperor that was issued exclusively to Ci'an. Because of a lack of evidence, however, historians are reluctant to believe that Ci'an was poisoned by Cixi, but instead choose to believe that the cause of death was a sudden stroke, as validated by traditional Chinese medicine.

In the years between 1881 and 1883, Cixi resorted to written communication only with her ministers. The young Guangxu Emperor reportedly was forced to conduct some audiences alone, without Cixi to assist him.

The once fierce and determined Prince Gong, frustrated by Cixi's iron grip on power, did little to question Cixi on state affairs, and supported Manchu involvement in the Sino-French War of 1884–1885. Cixi used China's loss in the war as a pretext for getting rid of Prince Gong and other important decision-makers in the Grand Council in 1885. She downgraded Prince Gong to "advisor" and elevated the more easily influenced Prince Chun.

When it was first developed by Empress Dowager Cixi, the Beiyang Fleet was said to be the strongest navy in East Asia. Before her adopted son, Emperor Guangxu, took over the throne in 1889, Cixi wrote out explicit orders that the navy should continue to develop and expand gradually. However, after Cixi went into retirement, all naval and military development came to a drastic halt. Japan's victories over China has often been falsely rumored to be the fault of Cixi. Many believed that Cixi was the cause of the navy's defeat by embezzling funds from the navy in order to build the Summer Palace in Beijing. However, extensive research by Chinese historians revealed that Cixi was not the cause of the Chinese navy's decline. In actuality, China's defeat was caused by Emperor Guangxu's lack of interest in developing and maintaining the military. His close adviser, Grand Tutor Weng Tonghe, advised Guangxu to cut all funding to the navy and army, because he did not see Japan as a true threat, and there were several natural disasters during the early 1890s which the emperor thought to be more pressing to expend funds on.

The Guangxu Emperors accession

The Guangxu Emperor technically gained the right to rule at the age of 16 in 1887 after Cixi issued an edict to arrange a ceremony to mark his accession. Because of her prestige and power, however, court officials voiced their opposition to the Guangxu Emperor's personal rule, citing the emperor's youth as the main reason. Prince Chun and Weng Tonghe, each with a different motive, requested that the Guangxu Emperor's accession be postponed until a later date. Cixi, with her reputed reluctance, accepted the "advice" and legitimised her continued rule through a new legal document that allowed her to "aid" the Guangxu Emperor in his rule indefinitely.

The Guangxu Emperor slowly began to take on more responsibilities in spite of Cixi's prolonged regency. In 1886, he attended his first field plowing ceremony and began commenting on imperial state documents. By 1887, he began to rule under Cixi's supervision.

The Guangxu Emperor married and took up the reins of power in 1889. By that year, the emperor was already 18, older than the conventional marriage age for emperors. Prior to his wedding, a large fire engulfed the Gate of Supreme Harmony at the Forbidden City. This event followed a trend of recent natural disasters that were considered alarming by many observers. According to traditional Chinese political theory, such incidents were taken as a warning of the imminent loss of the "Mandate of Heaven" by current rulers.

For his empress, Empress Dowager Cixi chose the Guangxu Emperor's cousin Jingfen, who would become Empress Longyu. Besides her close relation to the emperor himself, she was also Cixi's niece. Cixi in addition selected two concubines for the Guangxu Emperor who were sisters, Consorts Jin and Zhen. The Guangxu Emperor eventually would prefer to spend more time with Consort Zhen, neglecting his Empress, much to Cixi's dismay. In 1894, Cixi degraded Consort Zhen, citing intervention in political affairs as the main reason. According to some reports, she even had her flogged. Consort Jin had also been implicated in Consort Zhen's reported influence peddling and also apparently suffered a similar punishment. A cousin of theirs, Zhirui, was banished from the capital to a military outpost.

"Retirement"

On 5 March 1889, Cixi retired from her second regency, but nonetheless served as the effective head of the imperial family. Many officials felt and showed more loyalty to the empress dowager than they did to the emperor, owing in part to her seniority and in part to her personalised approach to cultivating court favourites, many of whom would be given gifts of her artwork and invitations to join her at the theater for opera and acrobatics.

In spite of her residence for a period of time at the Summer Palace, which had been constructed with the official intention of providing her a suitable place to live after retiring from political affairs, Cixi continued to influence the decisions and actions of the Guangxu Emperor even after he began his formal rule at age 19. Along with an entourage of court officials, the Guangxu Emperor would pay visits to her every second or third day at which major political decisions would be made. Weng Tonghe observed that while the emperor dealt with day-to-day administration, the Grand Councillors gave their advice in more complex cases, and in the most complex cases of all, the advice of Cixi was sought.

In 1894, the First Sino-Japanese War broke out at the instigation of Japan which used the war as a pretext to annex Taiwan from Qing China. Of note, the Japanese annexation of Taiwan followed Japanese annexation of the RyuKyu island Kingdom in 1874 and was followed by Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910. During this period, Cixi was continuously called upon to arbitrate policy-making, and the emperor was sometimes even bypassed in decision-making processes. Cixi eventually was given copies of the secret palace memorials as well, a practice that was carried on until 1898, when it became unnecessary.

In November 1894, Cixi celebrated her 60th birthday. Borrowing from the plans used for the celebrations of the 70th and 80th birthdays of Empress Xiaoshengxian (the Qianlong Emperor's mother), plans included a triumphal progress along the decorated road between the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace, decorations for the Beijing city gates and monumental archways, free theatrical performances, remission of punishments and the restoration of degraded officials. However, the war between China and Japan forced the empress dowager to cancel the lavish celebrations she had planned and settle for a much smaller commemoration that was held in the Forbidden City.

Hundred Days Reform

After coming to the throne, the Guangxu Emperor became more reform-minded. After a humiliating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894, during which the Chinese Beiyang Fleet was virtually destroyed by the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Qing government faced unprecedented challenges internally and abroad, with its very existence at stake. Under the influence of reformist-officials Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, the Guangxu Emperor believed that by learning from constitutional monarchies such as Japan and Germany, China would become politically and economically powerful. In June 1898, the Guangxu Emperor launched the Hundred Days' Reform aimed at sweeping political, legal and social changes and issued edicts for far-reaching modernising reforms.

These abrupt reforms, however, came without building support either at court or in the bureaucracy. Cixi, whether concerned that they would check her power or fearful that they would lead to disorder, stepped in to prevent them from going further. Some government and military officials warned Cixi that the ming-shi (reformation bureau) had been geared toward conspiracy. Allegations of treason against the emperor, as well as suspected Japanese influence within the reform movement, led Cixi to resume the role of regent and resume control at the court. The Manchu general Ronglu on 21 September 1898, took the Emperor to Ocean Terrace, a small palace on an island in the middle of Zhongnanhai linked to the rest of the Forbidden City only by a controlled causeway. Cixi followed this action with an edict that proclaimed the Guangxu Emperor's total disgrace and unfitness to be emperor. The Guangxu Emperor's reign effectively came to an end.

According to research by Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家圣), during the Hundred Days' Reform, former Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi arrived in China on 11 September 1898. Almost at the same time, British missionary Timothy Richard was invited to Beijing by the reformist Kang Youwei. Richard suggested that China should hand over some political power to Itō in order to help push the reforms further. On 18 September, Richard convinced Kang to adopt a plan by which China would join a federation composed of China, Japan, the United States, and England. This suggestion did not reflect the policies of the countries concerned. It was Richard's (and perhaps Itō's) trick to convince China to hand over national rights. Kang nonetheless asked fellow reformers Yang Shenxiu (杨深秀) and Song Bolu (宋伯鲁) to report this plan to the Guangxu Emperor. On 20 September, Yang sent a memorial to this effect to the emperor. In another memorial written the next day, Song Bolu also advocated the formation of a federation and the sharing of the diplomatic, fiscal, and military powers of the four countries under a hundred-man committee.

Still according to Lei's findings, on 13 October, British ambassador Claude MacDonald reported to his government about the Chinese situation, saying that Chinese reforms had been damaged by Kang Youwei and his friends' actions. British diplomat Frederick Bourne claimed in his own report that Kang was a dreamer who had been seduced by Timothy Richard's sweet words. Bourne thought Richard was a plotter. The British and U.S. governments were unaware of the "federation" plot, which seems to have been Richard's personal idea. Because Richard's partner Itō Hirobumi had been Prime Minister of Japan, the Japanese government might have known about Richard's plan, but there is no evidence to this effect.

A crisis over the issue of abdication emerged. Bowing to increasing pressure from the West and general civil discontent, Cixi did not forcibly remove the Guangxu Emperor from the throne, although she attempted to have Pujun, a boy of 14 who was from a close branch of the imperial family, installed as crown prince. The Guangxu era nominally continued until his death in 1908, but the emperor lost all respect, power, and privileges, including his freedom of movement. Most of his supporters, including his political mentor Kang Youwei, fled into exile, and the six prominent reformers including Tan Sitong and Kang's younger brother, were publicly beheaded. Kang continued to work for a constitutional monarchy while in exile, remaining loyal to the Guangxu Emperor and hoping eventually to restore him to power. His efforts would prove to be in vain.

Boxer Rebellion

In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion broke out in northern China. Perhaps fearing further foreign intervention, Cixi threw her support to these anti-foreign bands by making an official announcement of her support for the movement and a formal declaration of war on the Western powers. The general Ronglu deliberately sabotaged the performance of the imperial army during the rebellion. Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops (the "Kansu Braves") were able and eager to destroy the foreign military forces in the legations, but Ronglu stopped them from doing so. The Manchu prince Zaiyi was xenophobic and friendly with Dong Fuxiang. Zaiyi wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from destroying the legations. When artillery was finally supplied to the imperial army and Boxers, it was only done so in limited amounts; Ronglu deliberately held back the rest of them. The Chinese forces defeated the small 2,000-man Western relief force at the Battle of Langfang, but lost several decisive battles, including the Battle of Beicang, and the entire imperial court was forced to retreat as the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing. Due to the fact that moderates at the Qing imperial court tried to appease the foreigners by moving the Muslim Kansu Braves out of their way, the allied army was able to march into Beijing and seize the capital.

During the war, Cixi displayed concern about China's situation and foreign aggression, saying, "Perhaps their magic is not to be relied upon; but can we not rely on the hearts and minds of the people? Today China is extremely weak. We have only the people's hearts and minds to depend upon. If we cast them aside and lose the people's hearts, what can we use to sustain the country?" The Chinese people were almost unanimous in their support for the Boxers due to the Western Allied invasion.

When Cixi received an ultimatum demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial affairs to foreigners, she defiantly stated before the Grand Council, "Now they Powers have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why not fight to the death?" It was at this point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the armies of the Beijing Field Force, which began the siege.

Cixi stated that "I have always been of the opinion, that the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge has come", and said that millions of Chinese would join the cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great benefits" to China.

During the Battle of Beijing, the entire imperial court, including Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor, fled Beijing and evacuated to Xi'an as the allied forces invaded the city. After the fall of Beijing, the Eight-Nation Alliance negotiated a treaty with the Qing government, sending messengers to the empress dowager in Xi'an. Included in the terms of the agreement was a guarantee that China would not have to give up any further territories to foreign powers. Many of Cixi's advisers in the imperial court insisted that the war against the foreigners be continued. They recommended that Dong Fuxiang be given responsibility to continue the war effort. Cixi was practical, however, and decided that the terms were generous enough for her to acquiesce and stop the war, at least after she was assured of her continued reign when the war was concluded. The Western powers needed a government strong enough to suppress further anti-foreign movements, but too weak to act on its own; they supported the continuation of the Qing dynasty, rather than allowing it to be overthrown. Cixi turned once more to Li Hongzhang to negotiate. Li agreed to sign the Boxer Protocol, which stipulated the presence of an international military force in Beijing and the payment of £67 million (almost $333 million) in war reparations. The United States used its share of the war indemnity to fund the creation of China's prestigious Tsinghua University. The Guangxu Emperor and Cixi did not return to Beijing from Xi'an until roughly 18 months after their flight.

Return to Beijing and reforms

In January 1902, Cixi, the Guangxu Emperor, the empress and the rest of the court made a ceremonious return to Beijing. At the railhead at Chengtingfu, Cixi and the court boarded a 21-car train to convey them the rest of the way to the capital. In Beijing, many of the legation women turned out to watch the procession from the Beijing railway station to the Forbidden City, and for the first time, commoners were permitted to watch as well.

Once back in the palace, Cixi implemented sweeping political reforms. High officials were dispatched to Japan and Europe to gather facts and draw up plans for sweeping administrative reforms in law, education, government structure, and social policy, many of which were modeled on the reforms of the Meiji Restoration. The abolition of the examination system in 1905 was only the most visible of these sweeping reforms. Ironically, Cixi sponsored the implementation of the New Policies, a reform program more radical than the one proposed by the reformers she had beheaded in 1898.

In an attempt to woo foreigners, Cixi also invited the wives of the diplomatic corps to a tea in the Forbidden City soon after her return, and in time, would hold summer garden parties for the foreign community at the Summer Palace. In 1903, she acquiesced to the request of Sarah Conger, wife of Edwin H. Conger, the U.S. Ambassador to China, to have her portrait painted by American artist Katharine Carl for the St. Louis World's Fair. Between 1903 and 1905, Cixi had a Western-educated lady-in-waiting by the name of Yu Deling, along with her sister and mother, serve at her court. Yu Deling, fluent in English and French, as well as Chinese, often served as translator at meetings with the wives of the diplomatic corps.

In 1903, Cixi allowed a young aristocratic photographer named Xunling, a brother of Yu Deling, to take elaborately staged shots of her and her court. They were designed to convey imperial authority, aesthetic refinement, and religious piety. As the only photographic series taken of Cixi – the supreme leader of China for more than 45 years – it represents a unique convergence of Qing court pictorial traditions, modern photographic techniques, and Western standards of artistic portraiture. The rare glass plates have been blown up into full-size images, included in the exhibition "The Empress Dowager" at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Xuantong era

Empress Dowager Cixi died in the Hall of Graceful Bird at the Middle Sea (中海仪鸾殿) of Zhongnanhai, Beijing, on 15 November 1908, after having installed Puyi as the new emperor on 14 November 1908. Her death came only a day after the death of the Guangxu Emperor. Radicals greeted the news with scorn. The anarchist Wu Zhihui, who had leveled some of the most vitriol at Cixi in life, wrote from exile in Paris of the "vixen empress and vermin emperor" that "their lingering stench makes me vomit."

On 4 November 2008, forensic tests concluded that the Guangxu Emperor died from acute arsenic poisoning. China Daily quoted an historian, Dai Yi, who speculated that Cixi may have known of her imminent death and may have worried that the Guangxu Emperor would continue his reforms after her death. It was reported in November 2008 that the level of arsenic in his remains was 2,000 times higher than that of ordinary people.

Empress Dowager Cixi was interred amidst the Eastern Qing tombs, east of Beijing, in the Eastern Ding Mausoleum, along with Empress Dowager Ci'an. Empress Dowager Ci'an lies in the Puxiangyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (; lit. "Tomb East of the Ding Mausoleum in the Broad Valley of Good Omen"), while Empress Dowager Cixi built herself the much larger Putuoyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (; lit. "Tomb East of the Ding Mausoleum in the Putuo Valley"). The Ding Mausoleum (lit. "Tomb of Quietude"), where the Xianfeng Emperor is buried, is located west of the Dingdongling. The Putuo Valley owes its name to Mount Putuo, one of the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains of China.

Empress Dowager Cixi, unsatisfied with her tomb, ordered its destruction and reconstruction in 1895. The new tomb was a complex of temples, gates, and pavilions, covered with gold leaf, and with gold and gilded-bronze ornaments hanging from the beams and the eaves. In July 1928, Cixi's tomb was plundered by the warlord Sun Dianying and his army as part of the looting of the Eastern Mausoleum. They methodically stripped the complex of its precious ornaments, then dynamited the entrance to the burial chamber, opened Cixi's coffin, threw her corpse (said to have been found intact) on the ground, and stole the jewels contained in the coffin. They also took the massive pearl that had been placed in the empress dowager's mouth to protect her corpse from decomposing (in accordance with Chinese tradition).

After 1949, the complex of Empress Dowager Cixi's tomb was restored by the Chinese government.

Appraisal

For many years, the mainstream view of Empress Dowager Cixi was that she was a devious despot who contributed in no small part to China's slide into corruption, anarchy, and revolution. Cixi used her power to accumulate vast quantities of money, bullion, antiques and jewelry, using the revenues of the state as her own. The long-time China journalist Jasper Becker recalled that "every visitor to the Summer Palace is shown the beautiful lakeside pavilion in the shape of an elegant marble pleasure boat and told how Cixi spent funds destined for the imperial navy on such extravagant fripperies—which ultimately led to Japan's victory over China in 1895 and the loss of Taiwan".

Yet even after the violent anti-foreign Boxer movement and equally violent foreign reprisal, the initial foreign accounts of Cixi emphasized her warmth and friendliness.

This was perhaps because Cixi took the initiative and invited several women to spend time with her in the Forbidden City. Katharine Carl, an American painter, was called to China in 1903 to paint Cixi's portrait for the St. Louis Exposition. In her With the Empress Dowager. Carl portrays Cixi as a kind and considerate woman for her station. Cixi, though shrewd, had great presence, charm, and graceful movements resulting in "an unusually attractive personality". Carl wrote of the empress dowager's love of dogs and of flowers, as well as boating, Chinese opera and her Chinese water pipes and European cigarettes. Cixi also commissioned the well-known portraitist, Hubert Vos to produce a series of oil portraits.

The publication of China Under The Empress Dowager (1910) by J. O. P. Bland and Edmund Backhouse contributed to Cixi's reputation with its back-door gossip, much of which came from palace eunuchs. Their portrait included contradictory elements, writes one recent study, "on the one hand... imperious, manipulative, and lascivious" and on the other "ingenuous, politically shrewd, and conscientious..." Backhouse and Bland told their readers that "to summarize her essence simply, she a woman and an Oriental". Backhouse was later found to have forged some of the source materials used in this work. The vivid writing and lascivious details of their account provided material for many of the books over the following decades, including Chinese fiction and histories that drew on a 1914 translation.

In the People's Republic after 1949, the image of the Manchu Empress was debated and changed several times. She was sometimes praised for her anti-imperialist role in the Boxer Uprising and sometimes she was reviled as a member of the "feudalist regime". When Mao Zedong's wife, Jiang Qing was arrested in 1976 for abuse of power, an exhibit at the Palace Museum put Cixi's luxurious goods on display to show that a female ruler weakened the nation.

By the mid-1970s, views among scholars began to change. Sue Fawn Chung's doctoral dissertation at University of California, Berkeley was the first study in English to use court documents rather than popular histories and hearsay. Her influential 1979 article titled "The Much Maligned Empress Dowager" opened with the sentence "Clio, the Muse of History, has not been kind" to Cixi. Traditional historians in China, Chung continued, "always have been prejudiced against feminine influence in court", and historians have long taken the word of Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and other Chinese, who opposed the Empress Dowager. Luke Kwong, in his analysis of the Hundred Days' Reform, argued that many of the allegations of Empress Dowager Cixi being power-hungry and immoral could not be verified. He portrays her as a relatively insecure woman, concerned about her legitimacy and haunted by her relatively humble origins in the palace. Chinese historians have traditionally held a negative prejudice of female members of court. The Empress Dowager was also a more conservative leader, which was not common for a female leader of those times. This has resulted in Empress Dowager Cixi being portrayed in a one-sided, negative and narrow view where she was called names such as "she dragon" or the "usurper of a throne" and viewed as either a tyrant or incompetent. Despite this, writers such as Jung Chang have criticized this narrative and have written works such as Chang's Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China in order to offer an opposing view.

In recent decades, says Pamela Kyle Crossley, a historian of the dynasty, historians in the West developed what had become "truisms" in the representation of Cixi: "that she has been obscured by misogyny and orientalist stereotyping, as well as the anti-Manchu sentiment running through Chinese nationalist narratives". Crossley felt that Cixi appealed to feminists as a powerful leader and to Chinese patriots as a defender of China. In the 1960s and 1970s, Cixi was one of "a small collection of 'powerful' women newly discovered" and now "she appears in the vanguard of stubborn Chinese opposition to foreign arrogance and encroachment".

Several widely read popular biographies appeared. Sterling Seagrave's Dragon Lady: The Life and Legend of the Last Empress of China portrays Cixi as a woman stuck between the xenophobic faction of Manchu nobility and more moderate influences. The empress dowager, Seagrave argues, did not crave power but simply acted to balance these influences and protect the Qing dynasty as best she could.

In 2013, Jung Chang's biography, Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China, portrays Cixi as the most capable ruler and administrator that China could have had at the time. Pamela Kyle Crossley said in the London Review of Books that Chang's claims "seem to be minted from her own musings, and have little to do with what we know was actually going in China". Although Crossley was sympathetic to restoring women's place in Chinese history, she found "rewriting Cixi as Catherine the Great or Margaret Thatcher is a poor bargain: the gain of an illusory icon at the expense of historical sense".

Titles and honours

Titles

• During the reign of the Daoguang Emperor (r. 1820–1850):

　• Lady Yehe Nara (from 29 November 1835)

• During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850–1861):

　• Noble Lady Lan (兰贵人; from 26 June 1852), sixth rank consort

　• Imperial Concubine Yi (懿嫔; from 28 February 1854), fifth rank consort

　• Consort Yi (懿妃; from 27 April 1856), fourth rank consort

　• Noble Consort Yi (懿贵妃; from January/February 1857), third rank consort

• During the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1861–1875):

　• Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧皇太后; from 22 August 1861)

• During the reign of the Xuantong Emperor (r. 1908–1912):

　• Grand Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧太皇太后; from 14 November 1908)

　• Empress Xiaoqinxian (孝钦显皇后; from 16 November 1909)

Honours

Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown (Empire of Japan).

Family

• Father: Yehenara Huizheng (惠徵; 1805–1853)

　• Paternal grandfather: Jingrui (景瑞)

　• Paternal grandmother: Lady Gūwalgiya

• Mother: Lady Fuca

　• Maternal grandfather: Huixian (惠显)

• Three younger brothers

　• Second younger brother: Guixiang (桂祥; 1849–1913), served as first rank military official (都统), and held the title of a third class duke (三等公), the father of Empress Xiao Ding Jing (1868–1913)

• One younger sister

　• Second younger sister: Wanzhen (1841–1896), the mother of the Guangxu Emperor (1871–1908)

Issue

• As Concubine Yi:

　• Zaichun (载淳; 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), the Xianfeng Emperor's first son, enthroned on 11 November 1861 as the Tongzhi Emperor

In fiction and popular culture

• Flora Robson portrays the empress 'Tzu Hsi' in the 1963 Nicholas Ray's American epic historical film 55 Days at Peking; this film (based on a book by Noel Gerson) dramatizes the siege of the foreign legations' compounds in Peking during the Boxer Rebellion.

• Der Ling's story The True Story of the Empress Dowager (originally published as Old Buddha) gives a portrayal of the history behind the character of the Empress-Dowager Cixi—not as the monster of depravity depicted in the popular press, but an aging woman who loved beautiful things and had many regrets about the past. (Soul Care Publishing, 2015)

• Pearl S. Buck's novel Imperial Woman chronicles the life of the Empress Dowager from the time of her selection as a concubine until near to her death.

• Bette Bao Lord's novel Spring Moon starts in the days of Cixi, and includes the involvement of the Imperial Court in the Boxer Rebellion.

• The novels Empress Orchid (2004) and The Last Empress (2007), by Anchee Min portray the life of Empress Dowager Cixi from a first-person perspective.

• The Noble Consort Yi is featured in George McDonald Fraser's novel, Flashman and the Dragon (1985).

• The 1968 novel Wij Tz'e Hsi Keizerin Van China ("We, Tz'e Hsi, Empress of China") by Dutch author Johan Fabricius is a fictional diary of the Empress.

• In the 1970s, she was portrayed by Lisa Lu in two Hong Kong-made films, The Empress Dowager (set during the Sino-Japanese War), and its sequel, The Last Tempest (set during the "Hundred Days of Reform").

• Lu reprised her role as Cixi in the 1987 film The Last Emperor, depicting the dowager on her deathbed.

• In the 1980s, she was portrayed by Liu Xiaoqing, in Burning of Imperial Palace (depicting her rise to power in the 1850s, and the burning of the Old Summer Palace by French and British troops in 1860), in Reign Behind a Curtain (depicting the Xinyou Coup of 1861), in The Empress Dowager (set during the latter part of the reign of Tongzhi), and in Li Lianying, the Imperial Eunuch.

• In the Lover of the Last Empress, she was portrayed by Chingmy Yau.

• The China Central Television production Towards the Republic portrayed Empress Dowager Cixi as a capable ruler, the first time that Mainland Chinese television had shown her in this light. The portrayal was not entirely positive, as it also clearly depicted her political views as very conservative.

• She is portrayed in the novel The Ginger Tree, by Oswald Wynd (1977).

• The novel The Pleiades, by Japanese author Asada Jiro, focuses on Empress Cixi's relationship with a court eunuch named Chun'er, and depicted Cixi as a ruthless and calculating leader. It was adapted into a 2010 Japanese television series, that was also broadcast in China, and starred Japanese actress Yūko Tanaka as Empress Cixi.

• Cixi is a major character in the novel Mandarin, by American author Robert Elegant. The novel is set in the 1850s through the 1870s.

• Earth Queen Hou-Ting in The Legend of Korra is clearly based upon Cixi and the state of the Earth Kingdom during her reign mirrors the decline of Imperial China in the late 19th century.

• Portrayed by Michelle Yim in The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty (1990) and The Confidant (2012)

• Portrayed by Susanna Au-yeung in The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty (1992)

• Portrayed by Law Lan in The Last Healer in Forbidden City (2016)

• Portrayed by Xi Meijuan in Nothing Gold Can Stay (2017)

• Empress Cixi is the primary antagonist and recurring character, though only ever named as "the Empress Dowager" in the 1991 animated show The Twins of Destiny by French writer/producer Jean Chalopin.

• Portrayed as the primary antagonist of the WEBTOON Phantom Paradise.