生平經歷

亂世即位

漢獻帝劉協是漢靈帝劉宏的兒子，漢少帝劉辯的庶弟，母親是美人王榮（五官中郎將王苞的孫女）。因漢靈帝何皇后性強忌威懾後宮，王榮剛懷孕時害怕，服藥欲墮胎，而胎安不動，又數次夢到肩負著太陽行走，是為吉兆。劉協出生後，母親王榮即被何皇后毒殺，他由祖母董太后撫養成人。中平六年（189年）四月，漢靈帝崩，劉協的異母兄劉辯即位，是為漢少帝，封劉協勃海王，又改封陳留王。

袁紹等人誅殺宦官時，他隨劉辯被宦官張讓和段珪綁架，遇到董卓。董卓曾和少帝談話，少帝語無倫次，再和劉協談話，劉協則將事情經過完整交代。董卓以為劉協賢能，且為董太后所養，又自以為與董太后同族，再加上要顯示自己的權力，遂有廢立之意。

中平六年（189年），董卓為了立威，廢少帝，於九月甲戌日（9月28日）立當時九歲的劉協為皇帝。關東諸侯起兵討伐董卓時，董卓殺少帝、何太后，火燒都城雒陽，挾劉協遷都長安。初平三年（192年），司徒王允成功誅殺董卓，但不久董卓的部下李傕、郭汜即攻陷長安，殺死大批大臣，再次挾持獻帝。後來李郭二人內訌戰鬥，民不聊生，獻帝與一批朝臣于興平二年（195年）七月逃離長安，途中多次成為李傕、郭汜、張濟、楊奉等軍閥爭奪挾制的目標。

遷至許都

漢獻帝與朝臣歷經一年才于建安元年（196年）七月到達舊都雒陽。不過雒陽早經董卓撤離時焚燒，宮室盡毀，百官披荊棘藏身斷壁之間，更加糧草斷絕。八月，朝臣曹操從雒陽挾劉協到許縣，稱許都，作為其「奉天子以令不臣」戰略的一部分，劉協成為一位毫無實權的傀儡皇帝。宮中的守衛和侍從其實都是曹操的人，此前侍中臺崇、尚書馮碩等官員被曹操殺死，此外議郎趙彥曾經向獻帝進言分析局勢和對策，因而被曹操殺害。漢獻帝對曹操頗有微詞。

建安五年（200年），大臣董承連同與王子服、种輯、劉備等人謀劃對付曹操，董承卻被曹操所刺。曹操欲殺董承之女董貴人，獻帝以董貴人懷有漢室的血脈拒絕，但最終董貴人仍被曹操弒殺。

建安十八年（213年）時，曹操將三個女兒曹憲、曹節和曹華送入漢獻帝後宮為夫人，年紀最小的曹華在國待年。次年，三女都被封為貴人。

建安十九年（214年），獻帝的皇后伏壽之前寫信給父親伏完圖謀誅殺曹操之事洩露，曹操大怒，逼獻帝廢后，更先替獻帝寫好詔書，命郗慮持節接收皇后印綬，又命尚書令華歆領兵入宮捉拿伏壽。伏壽躲在牆壁之中但被華歆發現拉出，經過外殿時見獻帝，伏壽哭著說：「不能復相活邪？（不能再救救我嗎？）」獻帝答：「我亦不知命在何時。（我亦不知我何時會死。）」又對身旁的郗慮說：「郗公，天下寧有是邪？（郗公，天下間有這樣的事嗎？）」伏壽後被幽閉至死（《曹瞞傳》稱當場被弒），所生的兩位皇子亦以毒酒毒害，伏氏宗族有百多人亦被處死，伏壽母親盈等十九人都被流放到涿郡。

建安二十年正月（215年），立貴人曹節為皇后。

建安二十五年（220年）正月，曹操去世。三月獻帝改元延康。十月乙卯日（11月25日），獻帝在繁陽的受禪臺之上將帝位「禪讓」給曹丕，東漢結束。

禪讓之後

曹丕篡漢後，封劉協為山陽公（屬司隸河內郡），「邑一萬戶，位在諸侯王上，奏事不稱臣，受詔不拜，以天子車服郊祀天地，宗廟、祖、臘皆如漢制，都山陽之濁鹿城」（《後漢書》本紀）。曹丕並對衛臻說「天下之珍，吾與山陽共之」（《三國志·衛臻傳》）。而劉備一方誤以為劉協被殺，給其上諡號為孝愍皇帝。

曹魏青龍二年（234年）三月庚寅（4月21日），劉協駕崩，享年五十四歲。曹叡聞訊後，「素服發哀，遣使持節典護喪事……追諡山陽公曰『孝獻皇帝』，冊贈璽紱……車旗服章喪葬禮儀，一如漢氏故制」，並宣布大赦天下。八月壬申（9月30日），劉協被安葬于山陽國，陵曰禪陵，置園邑。諡號為孝獻皇帝。

大事記

光和四年（181年）

• 三月癸巳（4月2日），劉協出生，為祖母孝仁董皇后所養。劉協母為王美人（王榮），在庚子日（4月9日）為何皇后鴆殺。

中平六年（189年）

• 四月，孝靈帝劉宏去世，皇子劉辯即位，是為少帝（弘農懷王），封弟劉協為渤海王。七月，改封劉協為陳留王。八月，張讓等殺害大將軍何進，董卓入京。

• 九月甲戌（9月28日），董卓廢少帝為弘農王，立陳留王為皇帝。丙子（9月30日），董卓鴆弒何太后。乙酉（10月9日），以太尉劉虞為大司馬，卓自為太尉。領前將軍事，加節傳、斧鉞、虎賁，更封郿侯。丙戌（10月10日），太中大夫楊彪為司空。甲午（10月18日），豫州牧黃琬為司徒。

• 十一月，以董卓為相國，贊拜不名，入朝不趨，劍履上殿。十二月戊戌（無此日），以司徒黃琬為太尉，司空楊彪為司徒，光祿勳荀爽為司空。

• 詔除光熹、昭寧、永漢三號，還復中平六年。

初平元年（190年）

• 正月，關東州郡起兵以討伐董卓，推袁紹為聯軍盟主。癸丑（3月5日），董卓鴆弒廢帝弘農王劉辯。二月，遷都長安，驅徙雒陽百姓悉西入關中。三月乙巳（4月27日），車駕入長安。董卓焚雒陽宮室，殺袁紹族人太傅袁隗、太僕袁基，夷其族。

初平二年（191年）

• 二月丁丑（3月25日），董卓自任太師。袁術遣將孫堅與董卓將胡軫戰於陽人，軫軍大敗。董卓遂盜掘雒陽諸帝陵。夏四月，董卓入長安。

• 七月癸卯（8月18日），以光祿大夫淳于嘉為司空，太常馬日磾為太尉。十月壬戌（11月5日），董卓殺衛尉張溫。十一月，公孫瓚與青州黃巾軍大戰於勃海東光，大破黃巾軍。

初平三年（192年）

• 正月，袁術遣孫堅攻劉表，堅軍敗；是月袁紹與公孫瓚戰於界橋（今河北威縣北），瓚軍敗。四月辛巳（5月22日），司徒王允與呂布誅董卓；東郡太守曹操大敗黃巾軍於壽張。五月，董卓部將李傕、郭汜、樊稠、張濟等反。六月戊午（6月28日），攻陷長安，太常种拂、太僕魯旭、大鴻臚周奐、城門校尉崔烈、越騎校尉王頎並戰歿。殺害司隸校尉黃琬、司徒王允及其妻子。九月，李傕自為車騎將軍，郭汜為後將軍，樊稠為右將軍，張濟為鎮東將軍。

初平四年（193年）

• 三月，袁術殺揚州刺史陳溫，據淮南。曹操父曹嵩為陶謙別將所斬。秋，曹操引兵擊陶謙，奪徐州十餘城，坑殺男女數十萬口。冬十月，公孫瓚殺大司馬劉虞，據幽州。

興平元年（194年）

• 正月辛酉（2月20日），改元興平。甲子（2月23日），獻帝加元服。三月，韓遂、馬騰與郭汜、樊稠戰於長平觀，遂、騰敗績，左中郎將劉範、侍中馬宇、諫議大夫種劭戰歿。是月，曹操攻徐州陶謙。夏，使荀彧、程昱守鄄城，復征陶謙，拔五城，遂略地至東海。還過郯，謙將曹豹與劉備屯郯東，曹操破劉備，攻襄賁（今山東蒼山縣南）。八月，馮翊羌叛，寇屬縣，郭汜、樊稠擊破之。十二月，揚州刺史劉繇與袁術將孫策戰於曲阿，繇軍敗績，孫策遂據江東。

興平二年（195年）

• 二月，李傕殺樊稠而與郭汜相攻。三月丙寅（4月22日），李傕脅帝幸其營，焚宮室。四月甲午（5月20日），立貴人伏氏為皇后。丁酉（5月23日），郭汜攻李傕，矢及御前。是日，李傕移帝幸北塢。閏五月辛巳（7月6日），李傕自為大司馬。六月庚午（無此日），張濟自陝來和傕、汜。

• 秋七月甲子（無此日），車駕東歸。郭汜自為車騎將軍，楊定為後將軍，楊奉為興義將軍，董承為安集將軍，並侍送乘輿。張濟為票騎將軍，還屯陝。八月甲辰（9月27日），幸新豐。冬十月戊戌（11月20日），郭汜使其將伍習夜燒所幸學舍，逼脅乘輿。楊定、楊奉與郭汜戰，破之。壬寅（11月24日），幸華陰，露次道南。

• 十一月庚午（12月22日），獻帝幸弘農，李傕、郭汜等追乘輿，戰於東澗，王師敗績，殺光祿勳鄧淵、衛尉士孫瑞、廷尉宣播、大長秋苗祀，步兵校尉魏桀、侍中朱展、射聲校尉沮儁。壬申（12月24日），幸曹陽，露次田中。楊奉、董承引白波帥胡才、李樂、韓暹及匈奴左賢王去卑，率師奉迎，與李傕等戰，破之。庚辰（1月1日），車駕乃進。李傕等復來追戰，王師大敗，殺略宮人，少府田芬、大司農張義等皆戰歿。進幸陝，夜度河。

• 十二月己亥（1月20日），幸安邑。庚子（1月21日），拜胡才為征東將軍，張楊為安國將軍。乙卯，（2月5日）張楊來朝，與董承謀以乘輿還雒陽；諸將不聽，楊還野王。是歲，袁紹遣將麴義與公孫瓚戰於鮑丘，瓚軍大敗。

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建安元年（196年）

• 正月癸酉（2月23日），大赦天下，改元建安。二月，韓暹攻衛將軍董承。六月乙未（7月14日），幸聞喜。七月甲子（8月12日），車駕至雒陽，宮室前已焚毀，獻帝居于中常侍趙忠宅。八月癸卯（9月20日），安國將軍張楊為大司馬，韓暹為將軍，楊奉為車騎將軍。時值飢荒，尚書郎以下官員挖野菜充飢，百官宮人多餓死，士兵亦剽殺官員。辛亥（9月28日），鎮東將軍曹操自領司隸校尉，錄尚書事。曹操殺害侍中臺崇、尚書馮碩等。封衛將軍董承為輔國將軍，伏完等十三人為列侯，贈沮儁為弘農太守。庚申（10月7日），遷都許。

• 九月己巳（10月16日），車駕到許，幸曹操營。甲戌（10月21日），以曹操為大將軍，封武平侯。始立宗廟社稷於許。十一月丙戌（1月1日），曹操自為司空，行車騎將軍事，百官總己以聽。呂布襲徐州，劉備投奔曹操。

建安二年（197年）

• 春，袁術自稱天子。三月，詔將作大匠孔融持節拜袁紹為大司馬。九月，曹操東征袁術，袁術敗走南渡淮水。

建安三年（198年）

• 四月，使謁者僕射裴茂詔關中諸將段煨等討李傕，夷其三族，傳李傕首到許。十一月，楊醜殺大將軍張楊。十二月癸酉（2月7日），曹操斬呂布。

建安四年（199年）

• 三月，袁紹滅公孫瓚于易京。

建安五年（200年）

• 正月，車騎將軍董承、偏將軍吳子蘭、王子服、越騎校尉种輯、議郎吳碩受密詔誅曹操，事洩。壬午（2月11日），曹操殺害董承等，夷三族。曹操東擊劉備，破之，劉備奔青州。六月，孫策死。

• 七月，立皇子劉馮為南陽王。壬午（8月9日），南陽王劉馮薨。九月，曹操與袁紹戰於官渡。十月，袁紹軍大潰，前後所殺七萬餘人。

建安六年（201年）

• 十一月，曹操攻劉備。劉備奔劉表，屯新野。

建安七年（202年）

• 五月庚戌，袁紹去世。于闐國獻馴象。

建安八年（203年）

• 袁譚、袁尚爭冀州。

建安九年（204年）

• 八月戊寅，曹操大破袁尚，平冀州，曹操自領冀州牧。

建安十年（205年）

• 正月，曹操破袁譚於青州，斬之。四月，黑山賊張燕率衆降。

建安十一年（206年）

• 三月，曹操破高幹於并州，奪之。七月，武威太守張猛殺雍州刺史邯鄲商。

建安十二年（207年）

• 八月，曹操大破烏桓於柳城，斬其蹋頓。十一月，遼東太守公孫康殺袁尚、袁熙。

建安十三年（208年）

• 六月癸巳，曹操自為丞相。七月，曹操南征劉表。八月壬子，曹操殺害太中大夫孔融，夷其族。是月，劉表卒，少子劉琮立，劉琮以荊州降操。

• 冬，曹操以舟師伐孫權，孫權將周瑜與曹操戰於烏林、赤壁，曹軍大敗。

建安十四年（209年）

• 十月，荊州地震。

建安十五年（210年）

• 劉備以孫權行車騎將軍，劉備領荊州牧，屯公安。七月，曹操征孫權。

建安十六年（211年）

• 九月庚戌，曹操與韓遂、馬超戰於渭南，遂等大敗，關西平。是歲，劉備入益州。

建安十七年（212年）

• 五月癸未（無此日），誅衛尉馬騰，夷三族。八月，馬超破涼州，殺刺史韋康。九月庚戌，立皇子劉熙為濟陰王，劉懿為山陽王，劉邈為濟北王，劉敦為東海王。

建安十八年（213年）

• 正月庚寅，復禹貢九州。五月丙申，曹操自立為魏公，加九錫。是歲，曹操進三女曹憲、曹節、曹華為夫人。

建安十九年（214年）

• 四月，劉備破劉璋，領益州牧。十月，曹操遣將夏侯淵討宋建于枹罕，獲之。十一月丁卯，曹操弒皇后伏壽，滅其族及二皇子。

建安二十年（215年）

• 正月甲子（3月6日），立貴人曹節為皇后。七月，曹操奪漢中，張魯降。

建安二十一年（216年）

• 四月甲午，曹操自進號魏王。七月，匈奴南單于來朝。

建安二十二年（217年）

• 六月，丞相軍師華歆為御史大夫。

建安二十三年（218年）

• 正月甲子（2月18日），金禕與少府耿紀、丞相司直韋晃、太醫令吉本、吉本子吉邈、吉邈弟吉穆等起兵誅曹操，不克，夷三族。

建安二十四年（219年）

• 五月，劉備破曹操，取漢中。七月庚子（無此日），劉備稱漢中王。關羽伐曹操將曹仁，擒于禁於樊城。十一月，孫權將呂蒙襲取荊州，殺害關羽。

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延康元年（220年）

• 正月庚子（3月15日），魏王曹操去世。世子曹丕襲位。三月，改元延康。

• 冬十月乙卯（11月25日），獻帝被迫禪位，十月辛未（12月11日），魏王曹丕篡漢自立。十一月癸酉（12月13日），奉劉協為山陽公，行漢正朔，封邑一萬戶。四皇子封王者，皆降為列侯。

• 蜀地傳聞獻帝遇害，劉備乃發喪制服，上謚號為「孝愍皇帝」。

黃初二年（221年）

• 四月，劉備稱帝於荊蜀。十月，孫權稱王於吳。

黃初四年（223年）

• 十二月丙寅（1月20日），魏文帝曹丕賜山陽公夫人湯沐邑，封劉協女劉曼為長樂郡公主，食邑各500戶。

青龍二年（234年）

• 三月庚寅（4月21日），劉協駕崩，年五十四，魏明帝曹叡上謚號為「孝獻皇帝」。八月壬申（9月30日），以漢天子禮儀葬劉協於禪陵。

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【注】：

臣下

• 尚弘，官至行軍校尉，李傕之亂時，漢獻帝逃出長安，尚弘力大，背獻帝登船，渡河。

• 董承

• 楊彪

• 裴茂

• 王子服

• 種輯

• 吳子蘭

• 吉本

• 段煨

• 郗慮

• 伏完

家庭

長輩

• 祖母 董太后

• 父親 漢靈帝劉宏

• 嫡母 靈思皇后何氏

• 生母 美人王氏（追諡靈懷皇后）

姻親

• 岳飛

　• 伏完

　• 曹操

• 妻舅

　• 伏典

　• 曹丕

后妃

• 伏壽，元後。

• 曹節，繼后，諡號獻穆皇后，曹操之女。

• 曹憲，貴人，曹操之女，曹節之姊。

• 曹華，貴人，曹操之女，曹憲、曹節之妹。

• 董氏，貴人，車騎將軍董承之女

• 宋都，貴人，常山太守宋泓之女

• 郭宮人

• 趙宮人

子女

兒子

• 劉馮，建安五年（200年）七月封南陽王，同年逝世。

• 劉熙，建安十七年（212年）封濟陰王。

• 劉懿，建安十七年（212年）封山陽王。

• 劉邈，建安十七年（212年）封濟北王。

• 劉敦，建安十七年（212年）封東海王。

• 另伏壽生有二子，均于200年以後出生，名不詳，皆於建安十九年（214年）為曹操所弒。

• 太子，名字不詳，早卒。子劉康。

漢獻帝禪位時，尚有四皇子在世，曹魏皆封為列侯。

女兒

• 劉曼，魏文帝黃初四年十二月十二日（224年1月20日）封長樂郡公主，食邑五百戶。

• 另有二女皆為魏文帝曹丕之嬪。

孫

• 劉康，襲爵山陽公51年，西晉太康六年（285年）逝世。

曾孫

• 劉瑾，劉康子，襲爵山陽公4年，西晉太康十年（289年）逝世。

玄孫

• 劉秋，襲爵山陽公20年，西晉永嘉三年（309年），五胡亂華被殺。

評價

• 袁術：「聖主聰叡，有周成之質。」（《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳第六》）

• 袁山松：「獻帝崎嶇危亂之間，飄薄萬里之衢，萍流蓬轉，險阻備經，自古帝王未之有也。觀其天性慈愛，弱而神惠，若輔之以德，真守文令主也。曹氏始於勤王，終至陷天，遂力制群雄，負鼎而趨，然因其利器，假而不反，回山倒海，遂移天日。昔田常假湯、武而殺君，操因堯、舜而竊國，所乘不同，濟其盜賊之身一也。善乎！莊生之言：竊鉤者誅，竊國者為諸侯，諸侯之門仁義存焉。信矣。」

• 范曄：「傳稱鼎之為器，雖小而重，故神之所寶，不可奪移。至令負而趨者，此亦窮運之歸乎！天厭漢德久矣，山陽其何誅焉！」「獻生不辰，身播國屯。終我四百，永作虞賓。」

藝術形象

動漫

• 《三國志》

• 《三國演義》

• 《橫山光輝三國志》（橫山光輝）

• 《蒼天航路》（王欣太）

• 《火鳳燎原》（陳某）

電影

電視劇

Family background

Liu Xie was born in 181 to Emperor Ling and his Consort Wang. During her pregnancy, Consort Wang, fearful of Emperor Ling's Empress He, had taken drugs that were intended to induce an abortion, but was not successful in her attempt. Soon after she gave birth to Liu Xie, the jealous Empress He poisoned her by putting poison in her food. Emperor Ling was enraged and wanted to depose her, but the eunuchs pleaded on her behalf, and she was not deposed. Liu Xie was raised personally by Emperor Ling's mother Empress Dowager Dong and known by the circumspect title "Marquis Dong". (This is due to superstition; Emperor Ling had lost a number of sons previously, and therefore both Liu Xie and his elder brother Liu Bian were known by such titles; Liu Bian, having been raised by Shi Zimiao (史子眇), was known as "Marquis Shi"). Liu Bian was born of the empress and was older, but Emperor Ling viewed his behaviour as being insufficiently solemn and therefore considered appointing Liu Xie as his crown prince, but hesitated and could not decide.

When Emperor Ling died in 189, an influential eunuch official whom he trusted, Jian Shuo, wanted to first kill Empress He's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, and then install Liu Xie on the throne, and therefore set up a trap at a meeting he was to have with He Jin. He Jin found out, and preemptively declared Liu Bian the new emperor. Later that year, Emperor Shao granted Liu Xie the title "Prince of Bohai" (渤海王) and later changed his title to "Prince of Chenliu".

Accession to the throne and collapse of the Han dynasty

Rise of Dong Zhuo

After Liu Bian became emperor, He Jin became the most powerful official in the imperial court, and he and his advisor Yuan Shao quickly entered into a conspiracy to exterminate the eunuchs. They were, however, rebuffed by Empress Dowager He, and they hatched the plan to secretly order a number of warlords to advance on the capital Luoyang to force Empress Dowager He to agree to their demands. One of these warlords was Dong Zhuo, who saw this as an opportunity to control the central government.

He Jin's plan was discovered by the eunuchs, who laid a trap for him and killed him. Yuan Shao then led his forces into the palace and killed the majority of the eunuchs. The remaining eunuchs initially took the young emperor and Liu Xie hostage, but were eventually forced to commit suicide when the battle turned against them. When Dong Zhuo then arrived on scene, he, impressed with his own power and unimpressed with the nervous Emperor Shao, forced the young emperor to yield the throne to Liu Xie (partly because he was raised by Empress Dowager Dong who, while not related to Dong Zhuo, was therefore respected by Dong Zhuo), who then ascended the throne as Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo then murdered Empress Dowager He and the former Emperor Shao, and became firmly in control of the political scene.

Forced relocation west and the death of Dong Zhuo

In the spring of 190, a number of local officials, loosely forming a coalition led by Yuan Shao, quickly rose up against Dong Zhuo. Even though they still feared Dong Zhuo's military power and did not directly advance on Luoyang, Dong Zhuo was also fearful of their collective strength, and therefore determined to move the capital west to the old Han capital Chang'an, closer to his power base in Liang Province (涼州; covering present-day Gansu). On 9 April 190, he forced Emperor Xian to relocate to Chang'an and set fire to Luoyang, leaving it largely in ruins.

After the revolting coalition collapsed, a number of officials, led by Wang Yun and Lü Bu, assassinated Dong on 22 May 192. For a while, it appeared that the Han regime might return to normal, as Wang Yun quickly established relatively friendly relations with the local officials resisting Dong but by this time acting more as local warlords. However, due to Wang Yun's failure to pacify Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, they rose in revolt and killed Wang.

Return to Luoyangs ruins

Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, led by Li Jue and Guo Si, took Emperor Xian and the imperial court under their control. However, Li Jue and Guo Si did not have serious ambitions, and their incompetence in governance furthered the breakdown of the Han Empire into warlord regimes. In 195, Li Jue and Guo Si had a major fallout, and Li took Emperor Xian hostage while Guo took the officials hostage as they battled. Later in the year, after peace talks between Li Jue and Guo Si, they agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to Luoyang, but as soon as Emperor Xian departed Chang'an, they regretted their decision and chased him with their troops. While they were never able to capture him, Emperor Xian's court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself, and once it returned to Luoyang, it lacked even the basic essentials of life. Many officials starved to death. At this time, Yuan Shao's strategist Ju Shou suggested that he welcome Emperor Xian to his base in Ji Province so that he could effectively be in control of the central government, but the other strategists Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong opposed – under the faulty logic that if he did, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan Shao listened to Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong and never again considered welcoming Emperor Xian.

Tight control by Cao Cao

What Yuan Shao would not do, Cao Cao did. Cao Cao was at this time a relatively minor warlord, as the governor of Yan Province (covering present-day western Shandong and eastern Henan), with his headquarters at Xu (present-day Xuchang, Henan). He saw the strategic advantage in having the emperor under his control and protection, and in 196 he marched west to Luoyang and, after securing an agreement with Emperor Xian's generals Dong Cheng and Yang Feng, convincing them of his loyalty, he entered Luoyang and technically shared power with Dong and Yang, but was in fact in command.

Unlike the situation with Dong Zhuo, though, Cao Cao knew how to assuage the other generals and nobles, and while he gave them little power, he made sure that they remained honoured, so minimal opposition against him developed at the imperial court. He then moved the capital to Xu to affirm his control over the central government, and when Yang Feng opposed him, he defeated Yang and was able to move the capital.

Cao Cao then began to issue imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name – including a harshly-worded edict condemning Yuan Shao for taking over nearby provinces – even though it still bestowed Yuan with the highly honorific post of Grand Commandant. Cao Cao and Emperor Xian maintained a superficially cordial relationship, but this did not prevent two major confrontations involving Cao and other court officials.

In early 199, as Cao Cao was facing a major military confrontation against Yuan Shao, Dong Cheng claimed to have received a secret edict issued by Emperor Xian (hidden in a belt), and he entered into a conspiracy with Liu Bei, Zhong Ji (种輯) and Wang Fu (王服) to assassinate Cao Cao. Late in 199, Liu Bei started a rebellion and waited for Dong Cheng to act in the capital, but in 200, Dong's conspiracy was discovered, and he, along with Zhong Ji and Wang Fu, were killed. Liu Bei was later defeated by Cao Cao and forced to flee to Yuan Shao's territory. Dong Cheng's daughter, an imperial consort, was pregnant, and Emperor Xian personally tried to intercede for her, but Cao Cao had her executed anyway.

Emperor Xian's empress, Fu Shou, angry and fearful about how Consort Dong died, wrote her father, Fu Wan (伏完), a letter accusing Cao Cao of cruelty, and implicitly asking her father to start a new conspiracy against Cao. Fu Wan was fearful of Cao Cao and never acted on the letter, in 214, her letter was discovered. Cao Cao was extremely angry and forced Emperor Xian to have Empress Fu deposed. Emperor Xian was hesitant, and Cao Cao sent his soldiers into the palace to put pressure on the emperor. Empress Fu hid inside the walls, but was finally discovered and dragged out. As she was led away, she cried out to Emperor Xian for him to save her life, but his only response was that he could not even know what would happen to him. She was killed, along with her three sons and family. Cao Cao soon forced Emperor Xian to instate his daughter Cao Jie, then an imperial consort, as the new empress.

Abdication and death

Cao Cao died on 15 March 220. His son and successor, Cao Pi, soon forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in favour of himself, ending the Han dynasty. Cao Pi established a new state known as Cao Wei (sometimes known inaccurately as the Kingdom of Wei), and he granted Emperor Xian a noble title – Duke of Shanyang (山陽公). The former Emperor Xian died in 234 and was buried with honours befitting an emperor, using Han ceremonies, and the then emperor of Wei, Cao Rui, was one of the mourners. As Emperor Xian's crown prince was already dead, his grandson Liu Kang inherited his dukedom, which lasted for 75 more years and two more dukes, Liu Jin and Liu Qiu, until the line was exterminated by invading Xiongnu tribes in about 309, during the Jin dynasty. This practice of an emperor conferring hereditary nobility on his predecessor, from whom he usurped the throne, was known as er wang san ke (二王三恪).

Era names

• 189: Yonghan (永漢 Yǒnghàn)

• 190–193: Chuping (初平 Chūpíng|labels=no)

• 194–195: Xingping (興平 Xīngpíng)

• 196–220: Jian'an (建安 Jiàn'ān|labels=no)

• 220: Yankang (延康 Yánkāng|labels=no)

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress, of the Fu clan (皇后 伏氏; d. 214), personal name Shou (壽)

　• Liu Feng, Prince of Nanyang (南陽王 劉馮; d. 214)

　• Two other sons (d. 214)

• Empress Xianmu, of the Cao clan (獻穆皇后 曹氏; 197–260), personal name Jie (節)

　• Princess Changle (長樂公主), personal name Man (曼)

• Guiren, of the Dong clan (董貴人; d. 200)

• Guiren, of the Cao clan ( 曹貴人), personal name Xian (憲)

• Guiren, of the Cao clan ( 曹貴人), personal name Hua (華)

• Unknown

　• Unnamed eldest son

　• Liu Xi, Prince of Jiyin (濟陰王 劉熙)

　• Liu Yi, Prince of Shanyang (山陽王 劉懿)

　• Liu Mao, Prince of Jibei (濟北王 劉貌)

　• Liu Dun, Prince of Donghai (東海王 劉敦)

　• Two other daughters, both married Cao Pi (187–226)

Ancestry