简介

荷兰的领土可分为欧洲区与加勒比区两个部份。欧洲区领土位于欧洲西北部，濒临北海，与德国、比利时接壤，并与英国隔海相望。加勒比海区，位于美洲加勒比海地区，包括博奈尔岛、圣尤斯特歇斯岛和萨巴岛三个小岛。荷兰最大的三个城市分别为阿姆斯特丹、鹿特丹与海牙。阿姆斯特丹是宪法确定的正式首都，然而，政府、国王的王宫和大多数都位于海牙。此外，国际法庭也设在海牙。鹿特丹港，位于鹿特丹，为全世界进出量第八的大型港口。

「尼德兰」（）的字面意义，为低地国家，这个名称来自于它国内平坦而低湿的地形。其国土中，只有约50%的土地高于海拔1公尺。其国土中，低于海平面的土地，绝大多数是人造的。从16世纪开始，荷兰人利用风车及堤防排乾积水，逐步由海中及湖中制造出圩田。现今荷兰国土总面积中，有17%是人造的。荷兰是一个人口非常稠密的国家，其人口密度为每平方公里406人，若不计入水域面积则是每平方公里497人。在全世界上，也只有孟加拉、台湾、韩国的总人口数与人口密度，同时高于荷兰。尽管如此，荷兰是世界第二大的粮食与农产品出口国，仅次于美国。

荷兰是世界上最早拥有议会选举的国家之一，自1848年起，就确立了议会民主及君主立宪制。荷兰被认为是一个自由的国度，其社会长久以来就以宽容异己的风气闻名，其法律允许堕胎、性交易及安乐死等，有限度的放宽娱乐性药物的合法使用，如大麻。1579年开始，就允许国内居民有宗教自由，领先当时欧洲其他国家。2001年，成为全世界第一个立法承认同性婚姻的国家。

荷兰是欧盟、十国集团、北约、经合组织、世界贸易组织的创始成员国之一，也是比荷卢联盟的一部份。禁止化学武器组织的总部位于海牙。在这个国家中，拥有五个国际性法庭，包括常设仲裁法院、国际法院、前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、国际刑事法院、等。前四个法庭都设在海牙，此外，欧洲刑警组织与欧洲检察官组织的总部也位于此，这使得海牙得名「国际司法之都」。

荷兰是以市场经济为主的经济体，在经济自由度指数列出的全球177个国家中，排名第17。在2011年，它是全世界人均收入第10高的国家。在2013年，联合国世界快乐报告中，将荷兰列为全世界第四快乐的国度，显示了这个国家人民的高品质生活。

名称

荷兰的正式国名为尼德兰（），字面意义为低漥之地，因此也被意译为「低地国家」，或「低地国」。以普通名词的单数形式出现时，即，通常指的只有这个构成国在欧洲区的领土部份；使用普通名词的复数形式，加上冠词，就成为专属名词，用来作为整个主权国家的名称，在日耳曼语族中，英文称之为「」，德文拼为「」。与英国或法国不同，这个名称并不是起源于民族名称，而是由地名转化而来。这个名称最早并不是一个特殊的名称，在德语地区，只要是低漥地区，都常使用Nederr（低）这个名称来命名，例如下莱茵河地区与下默兹河地区，就曾被称为是Nederlanden（低地）；相对而言，地势高的地区，就会被称为Oberland（高地）。从15世纪开始，尼德兰（）这个名字开始被使用来当成国家称呼。因为比利时与卢森堡在历史上曾经属于荷兰的一部份，在罗曼语族，如法语及西班牙语中，包括比利时与卢森堡，都可以称为低地国（les Pays-bas，los Países Bajos），要视语句的情境来决定它所说的国家。

在许多其它语言中，包括在荷兰王国的加勒比海地区，常把「荷兰」（）当成这个国家的国名。这是一个常见的俗称，但严格来说是错误的。「荷兰」（）原是尼德兰（）中一个地区的名称，相当于今北荷兰省与南荷兰省两地。荷兰（）的字根来自老荷兰语，字面意义为盛产木头之地，最早是指哈勒姆（）周边地区，到1064年被用作整个县的名称，后成为一个地区的名称。在神圣罗马帝国时，此地区由荷兰伯爵统治，在12世纪初，此地居民在拉丁文本中被称为，也就是后来的荷兰人（）。在七省联合共和国时代，荷兰（）是其国内土地最大、人口最多、经济最富裕的地区，因此被用来转喻代指尼德兰（）整体。在法兰西第一帝国时期，曾于1806年建立荷兰王国（），短暂以荷兰（）作为国名。但从15世纪以来，其正式国名皆为尼德兰（），荷兰（）为非正式俗称。

用荷兰（）的名称指称尼德兰（）这个国家的用法，在许多国家被普遍接受，英语、中文等语言常这么称呼，荷兰人自己也常这么使用，但也有对此称呼敏感的人。「荷兰」（）这个名称可在非正式场合中使用，这须视情况而定。例如将他们的国家代表队（）称呼为「荷兰队」（），大多数人是可以接受的。但用「荷兰」（）来称呼他们的国家，在其国内并不是被完全接受，特别是对来自南北荷兰省之外其他省份的居民来说，使用荷兰（）来称呼他们的国家并不礼貌。在正式场合中，一般建议应使用其正式名称，尼德兰（）。为重塑国家形象，荷兰政府于2019年宣布，自2020年1月起，在运动赛事及观光宣传场合中不再使用非正式的「荷兰」（）称谓，一律使用官方的正式名称「尼德兰」（），包括国家足球队等荷兰国家代表队今后均会以「尼德兰」（）名义出赛，不再使用「荷兰队」（）。不过，在中文译名方面，荷兰旅游局与荷兰在台办事处等荷兰官方机构表示不会更改译名，会维持原有翻译──「荷兰」（）。

如同用荷兰（）来称呼尼德兰（）这个国家，用法兰德斯（）代称尼德兰（），在16世纪至20世纪初也是常见称法。法兰德斯（）字面意思为泛水之地，原是尼德兰（）中的一个地区名称，相当于今尼德兰（）南部与比利时北部一带。在中国，直到清朝末年，都曾经用法兰德斯来作为这个国家的称呼。

另一个常见的英语俗称「」，用于称呼荷兰的主要族群，也就是荷兰人（）中的日耳曼族群，但也可以指荷兰人（）整体。这个单字由德意志（）这个单字分化出来，最早来自Theodiscus，本义为「部落的」或「人民的」，是日耳曼民族（）的称呼之一。荷兰与德国同属于日耳曼民族，有共同祖先，在16世纪时分别建立了自己的民族国家，因此分化为两个民族，德意志人（）或日耳曼人（）成为德国人专有称呼。在英语传统中，称呼荷兰人为仍然被保持下来，但对于荷兰人来说，称呼他们为尼德兰人（）是较为正式的用法。

尼德兰在明朝末年开始与中国交往，最早中国人称之为红毛鬼、米粟果、红毛番，也称为荷兰、波斯胡、红夷、红彝，《明史》中，称为和兰、阿南，《清史稿》同样称和兰。在《海录》称为荷囒，又有贺兰、荷南等称呼，在1794年，乾隆皇帝下旨改称荷兰，作为官方称呼。同治2年签署之《中荷天津条约暨另款 》与光绪27年《辛丑和约 》，皆称荷兰为大和，因此大和、和国可视为晚清官方对荷兰之正式译名。《海国图志》称此地区为尼达兰，此国为荷兰。汉语中，称呼为荷兰、和兰、贺兰、阿兰陀、荷兰陀等，皆源自于Holland、Holandés或Hollanda。日文汉字译为「」。

因为历史因素，汉语将荷兰（Holland）这个非正式名称承袭下来，作为尼德兰（Nederland）这个国家的正式称呼。在中文中，往往不区分Nederland、Holland及Dutch，笼统地译为荷兰。这种译法极为通行，但在某些时候，这种译法可能会造成混淆：例如荷兰地区（Holland），与尼德兰（Nederland）这个国家，在中文里一律译为荷兰；居住在荷兰地区的荷兰人（），日耳曼族裔荷兰人（），与这个国家的居民尼德兰人（），在中文里同译为荷兰人；法国占领时期的荷兰王国（Kingdom of Holland），与尼德兰王国（Kingdom of the Netherlands），经常都统一译为荷兰王国。在这种时候，需要回顾原文，以及经由上下文来分辨，才能确定它的内容是什么。

历史

在罗马帝国统治荷兰之前，据说凯尔特人与日尔曼人曾居住在此。

罗马帝国时期的荷兰（前55年－410年）

在古罗马时代，莱茵河南的地区先是属于「比利时高卢」省，后归于「日耳曼行省」。这里的北部地区居住著许多日耳曼部落，南部则是高卢人，而这些高卢人在移民时期也融合了许多日耳曼部落，其中撒利恩法兰克人从这里迁移到高卢，并在公元五世纪建立起了强大的墨洛温王朝（Merovingian dynasty）。

哈布斯堡时期的荷兰（1519年－1581年）

中世纪，低地国家（大约包括现在的荷兰、德国西部部分地区、卢森堡、比利时、法国北部部分地区）存在著很多诸侯封建领地，分别属于勃艮地公国(Duchy of Burgundy) 和神圣罗马帝国。到了十六世纪初，因为复杂的皇室联姻，他们在神圣罗马帝国哈布斯堡王朝之下统一起来。

1556年帝国皇帝查理五世（1519年－1556年在位）退位，将西班牙和低地（被称为北方省）分给他的儿子腓力二世，将奥地利等其他地区以及哈布斯堡王朝正统分给他的弟弟斐迪南一世。就这样，北方省属于西班牙王国。

尼德兰七省共和国时期（1581年－1795年）

1568年，因反抗西班牙国王的中央集权和对新教加尔文派的迫害，爆发了北方省反抗西班牙的八十年战争。1579年北方省中的七省（现在荷兰、比利时和卢森堡的区域）成立了乌得勒支同盟，共同反对西班牙统治。这被认为现代荷兰的开始。1581年，联盟正式宣布独立。战争在继续，直到1648年西班牙国王菲利普四世才签订《明斯特条约》，承认七低地（尼德兰）／七省联合共和国，从西班牙获得独立之后，荷兰发展成为17世纪航海和贸易强国。荷兰在世界各地建立殖民地和贸易据点，包括台湾的部分地区于1624年－1662年和1664年－1667年曾为其殖民地。这段时期在荷兰被称为「黄金年代」。先后开发与殖民四地，即纽约、南非、印尼、与台湾。荷兰也曾在毛里求斯殖民，但收效甚微，最终放弃。

17世纪后期，荷兰先后与英国、法国交战，在海上荷兰败于英国（英荷战争），在陆地荷兰败于法国（法荷战争），从而衰落下来。第二次英荷战争后，荷兰用新阿姆斯特丹（纽约）交换了苏里南（荷属圭亚那）。第四次英荷战争导致荷兰东印度公司运营不善进而破产，斯里兰卡被英国夺得，阿姆斯特丹失去了欧洲金融中心地位。1672年，荷兰同时面对英法两大强权进攻，被称为「灾难年」（Rampjaar）。

1740年（清乾隆五年）10月9日－12日，在爪哇巴达维亚（今印尼爪哇岛雅加达）爆发荷兰人屠杀华人移民的红溪惨案，华人死亡万馀人。

法国占领时期（1795年－1814年）

1795年荷兰被法兰西帝国占领，拿破仑先后在此扶植了巴达维亚共和国与荷兰王国。

荷兰王国时期（1815年－1940年）

在1815年被拿破仑统治的法国占领结束后，荷兰和现在的比利时、卢森堡组成荷兰联合王国，同时荷属开普殖民地正式被英国统治。比利时很快在1830年独立，卢森堡也紧随其后，荷兰联合王国随之瓦解。

第二次世界大战（1940年－1945年）

荷兰在第一次世界大战中保持中立。

荷兰在第二次世界大战中自1940年5月被纳粹德国占领直至1945年才被解放。

战后时期（1945年至今）

战后，荷兰经济再度繁荣发展。荷兰是比（利时）荷（兰）卢（森堡）经济联盟、欧洲经济共同体和北约的成员。

1949年，荷兰承认印度尼西亚独立，失去了对荷属东印度的统治权。同年荷兰在西巴布亚建立荷属新几内亚。

于1954年12月15日，荷兰通过《荷兰王国章程》（Het Statuut），使荷兰的原殖民地和属地在王国内与荷兰本土享有同等地位。自此荷兰王国专指由荷兰本土及其前殖民地组成部份的王国，而「荷兰」则专指欧洲大陆荷兰。

1962年10月，在美国压力下，荷兰将荷属新几内亚交付联合国托管，该地区后来并入印尼。

1975年，荷兰承认苏里南独立。

现时荷兰王国包括四个部份，分别是欧洲大陆荷兰、阿鲁巴、库拉索和荷属圣马丁，而博奈尔岛、圣尤斯特歇斯岛和萨巴岛则并入荷兰本土成为特别行政区。

地理

荷兰本土位于欧洲西北部。西、北部临北海，南部与东部分别和比利时与德国接壤，其总面积为4,1526平方千米，其中水域面积就有7,643平方千米。

欧洲区荷兰

平坦是荷兰地形最突出的特点。其国土面积的一半海拔低于1米，26%甚至低于海平面。部分地区甚至是由围海造地形成的，比如弗莱福兰省的大部分地区。这些低地都修建了海堤来保护。而荷兰人世代与海争地，在荷兰人眼中最大的敌人是海洋。欧洲区荷兰的最高点是位于国家最东南角的法尔斯山，海拔321米，但全荷兰的最高点却是位于加勒比海沙巴岛的风景山，高887米，这也是整个王国的地理最高点。

莱茵河、和马斯河将荷兰一分为二。

洪水

长期以来，因为自然灾害与人类介入，荷兰的海岸线不断的在改变中。最著名的例子是1134年的暴风，让大量土地渗入海里，创造出泽兰省西南边的群岛。

1278年12月14日，圣露西亚洪灾（St. Lucia's flood）造成尼德兰与德国超过5万人丧生，是在荷兰历史上最严重的一次洪灾之一。1421年的（St. Elizabeth flood）过后，摧毁了大量圩田，造成72平方公里的Biesbosch潮汐洪泛平原的出现。1953年2月，北海出现的洪水，造成尼德兰西南方数个海堤溃堤，超过1,800位居民在洪水中丧生。荷兰政府因此拟定了大规模的防洪计画，以保护这个国家不受洪水威胁，其中最著名的为三角洲工程

。

气候

欧洲区荷兰盛行来自的西南风，属温带海洋性气候，冬暖夏凉，年降水量650～700毫米。但加勒比海的波奈尔则属热带半乾旱气候；沙巴和圣佑达修斯则热带而潮湿。

荷兰加勒比区

荷兰加勒比区是荷兰本土三个特别行政区：博奈尔岛、圣尤斯特歇斯岛和萨巴岛的集体名称，又称BES岛屿。

政治

自1581年至1806年，荷兰是共和体制，但并非议会民主制国家。其后的1806年至1815年，荷兰被法国短暂的统治。从1815年起，荷兰一直是君主立宪制国家。

自2013年，国王威廉-亚历山大就任国家元首至今。理论上说，国王有权任命政府成员。实际上通常会按照选举结果建立联合政府，再由国王宣布政府首脑的任命。

荷兰议会由下议院（第二院）和上议院（第一院）构成。150名议员组成的下议院一般每隔四年选举一次，可以提前改选，而选举制度为比例代表制。由于下议院的政党众多，因此选举后难以有单一政党可以组建政府，因此组建政府的过程可能需要几个月，不过联合政府必须要在下议院获得多数支持，但无须在上议院获得多数。上议院权力较小，上议员则是每隔四年由新当选的省议会议员，根据地方选举结果挑选组成。

荷兰宪法也规定，法院为主的司法机关不得宣布国会通过的法案违宪。

政治学家一般认为荷兰是协商民主政体的典型样本。

2010年荷兰大选，荷兰举行议会下议院选举。选举后，荷兰基督教民主联盟与自由民主人民党组建中间偏右少数派联合政府，获自由党支持信任动议。2010年10月24日，马克·吕特接替扬·彼得·巴尔克嫩德出任首相，成为荷兰92年首个自由主义政党的首相。2012年联合政府提前解散，大选提前举行。在重新举行的大选，自由民主人民党取得41席，工党取得38席，选举后自由民主人民党与工党组建大联合政府。

政党

荷兰属于多党制，通常由多个政党组成执政联盟。目前该国主要大党有自由民主人民党，工党，自由党和基督教民主党。

行政区划

荷兰本土的行政区划为行省及下一级的荷兰基础政权（市镇）。较特殊的是因为荷兰多数国土位于低于海平面的地区，境内布满堤防以及其他水利工程，因此还拥有独有的（Waterschap），委员会的运作是独立的，其选举不得有政党介入。另外荷兰还分成25个安全和防灾广域行政区域（Veiligheidsregio），其任务是促进区域合作，以维持消防、灾难防护、危机管理、健康援助、公共秩序和安全的执行。

省份

荷兰本土分为12个省。荷兰省级政治是构成荷兰政治的网络之一，省份的地位仅次于中央政府，而省级政治由十二个省分主导。

省级单位的官员主要有三种来源：第一种是女王专员，第二种是省议会，第三种是省行政部门，他们共享立法权，女王专员以及行政部门的官员负责执行省政府的行政权，两者与省政府的关系就是官方所称作的。

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市镇

荷兰所有的省份的下一级行政区划均为市镇（gemeenten）。截至2019年1月，荷兰共有355个市镇。市镇是荷兰的第二级行政区划，也是荷兰的第三层公共行政单位，次于中央政府和省分。市镇是由市长与市政委员所组成的（college van burgemeester en wethouders，简称college van B&W或B&W），以及（Gemeenteraad，简称GR）共同治理。特别市的市议会则被称为（eilandsraad）。市议会每四年选举一次，市议会的成员数依所属市的规模不等，少至九名，多至四十五名成员。市议会是市的最高行政机构，负责领导公共政策的走向。执行委员会由（burgemeester）和数名市政委员（wethouder）组成，握有市镇的执行权，负责执行政策的立法。市长六年一任，由中央政府指派，而市政委员则是由市议会选举出来。市长除了负责维护市的公共秩序，在紧急危难时负有指挥权之外，其馀的治理任务可自由分配给市长和市政委员，因此具体的工作分配也因市而异。

荷兰政府在陆续推行市的合并后，大幅减少了市镇的数量，目前大约是自十九世纪中期行政区划划定以来的三分之一。市镇又可因行政或统计的需求，被非正式地划分为「社区」（wijken）和「邻里」（buurten）等地区。

公共实体（加勒比海部分）

荷兰除本土12个省外，另外在加勒比海有博奈尔、圣尤斯特歇斯、萨巴三个直属荷兰的三个特别行政区（Bijzondere gemeenten），依荷兰法律定义为，合称荷兰加勒比区，并不隶属于任何省分，拥有一般荷兰本土市政府功能。各岛政府由一名市长（gezaghebber）及市内阁（bestuurscollege）组成，向各岛公民选出的（eilandsraad）问责。荷兰加勒比区国家办公室（Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland）则负责税务、治安、入出境、教育、社会福利。

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外交

荷兰外交历史上的一个重要特色，就是它过去的中立性。在第二次世界大战之后，许多国际组织都设立在荷兰国内，最著名的是联合国及国际法庭组织。不过，荷兰外交实际上放弃中立政策，先后加入北约与欧盟。

荷兰的外交政策，基于四项基本立场：大西洋区域合作，欧洲整合（European integration），国际发展（International development），以及国际法。

军事

荷兰军队由四个部分构成：

• 荷兰皇家陆军（KL）

• 荷兰皇家海军（KM），包含海军航空兵和海军陆战队。

• 荷兰皇家空军（KLu）

• 荷兰皇家宪兵队（KMar）

荷兰以「军队」（）一词来统称全军，该词衍生自战争（）和武力（）两词的复合。全军最高统帅为荷兰君主、国防部领导人为国防大臣、由现役四星上将者出任，陆海空各军种各由一名三星中将担任司令。

荷兰军队在过去是采用徵兵制，到1996年后完全实施募兵制；目前荷兰国防部雇用四万八千名武装人员以及两万一千人的文职人员，其中包括文职人员和军事人员也有雇用女性。军事费用在2009年大概占GDP的1.65％，2010年11月国防部表示将削减一百万欧元的国防预算；同时甫上任不久的汉斯·希伦表示将会裁减一万馀的人员并有更大规模的裁军计画，其具体内容为军事演习次数减少20%，舰艇海上巡逻时间减少11%，领空飞行巡逻任务减少10%，这样的削减内容不胜枚举。截至2020年，其军事费所占GDP比例已降至1.48％。

经济

综述

荷兰经济高度发达，人均GDP超过5万美元，居世界前十位，2011年人类发展指数高居世界第三位，为西方十大经济强国之一。是世界第三大农产品出口国和世界主要造船国。荷兰自然资源相对贫乏，但天然气储量丰富，2005年开采量达745亿立方米，自给之馀还能出口。荷兰交通十分发达，运输总量占欧盟的30%。

工业

荷兰工业非常发达，主要工业部门有食品加工、石油化工、冶金、机械制造、电子、钢铁、造船、印刷、钻石加工等。鹿特丹是欧洲最大的炼油中心。荷兰有许多著名的跨国公司，2011年共有12家荷兰企业进入「世界500强」。

如：荷兰皇家壳牌集团（由荷兰皇家石油公司与英国壳牌运输和贸易公司于1907年合并而成，是世界最大工业公司之一，雄踞世界500强企业第二名，其成品石油和石化燃料的生产和销售能力居世界第二位，为世界第二大石油公司）；飞利浦电子公司（成立于1891年，居世界500强企业第277位，在全球电子电器企业中排前十名。其照明设备、彩色显像管、电动剃须刀、X光分析仪及音响设备在同行业居领先地位）；联合利华公司（成立于1930年，在世界500强企业中排第136名，是全球最大的日用品和食品生产企业之一，分鹿特丹和伦敦两个总部，荷兰负责食品生产，英国负责日用化工品生产）；阿克苏·诺贝尔公司（世界著名化工和医药企业，1994年由荷兰阿克苏公司和瑞典诺贝尔公司合并而成，列世界500强企业第479位）。

从1950年代开始，荷兰发现了以为主的巨大天然气资源。数十年来，天然气的销售为荷兰创造了龎大的收入，为政府的预算增加了数千亿欧元。然而另一方面，荷兰获得了过度富裕的生活，随著天然气出口的增加，当时的本国货币荷兰盾的汇率也随之上升，伴随著劳动者薪水上涨，导致生产成本大幅攀升，工业产品的国际竞争力急速下滑，工人失业造成经济恶化。伴随著经济恶化，由于经济增长时期大幅提高的社会保障体系负担对政府财政产生了巨大压力，财政赤字也随之急速增加。1977年《经济学人》也将这种由于出口自然资源，导致货币汇率上升，因而工业出口减少、国内制造业衰退的现象，称为『荷兰病』。

当时由首相维姆·科克所领导的政府，呼吁各界能够共体时艰以应经济问题，于是下令三年内劳方不得要求加薪，相反的资方做出的承诺是三年内不得裁员，最后荷兰的经济也成功再度复苏。

农业

荷兰土地面积不大，却是世界上农业最发达的国家之一，荷兰的农业部门机械化程度很高，并且非常重视国际出口。荷兰的农产品出口值在欧盟排名第一，在全球范围内排名第二，仅次于美国。农业构成中，畜牧业占50%，园艺业占38%，种植业占12%。2005年荷兰曾创造农产品和食品出口额789.3亿美元的记录。荷兰人平均一人拥有十分之一头牛、一头猪，处于畜牧业最发达国家行列。荷兰面积仅约41500平方公里，但全国却有110平方公里用于种植鲜花和果蔬的温室，因而享有「欧洲花园」的美誉。花卉是荷兰的支柱性产业，年出口额达100亿欧元，出口量占国际市场的60%。荷兰还是世界上奶酪产量最大的国家，世界上成立最早的豪达奶酪交易中心久负盛名，其运营时间已有300多年之久；北部的菲仕兰省是另一个酪农业发达的地区，著名的黑白双色荷斯坦牛（Holstein）与弗里斯兰马（Friesian horse）皆源自于此。此外，荷兰也是马铃薯种植最主要的生产国之一。

服务业

自上世纪80年代以来，服务业迅速发展，成为荷兰国民经济的支柱。主要产业为运输、银行、保险、股市、旅游及餐饮等。荷兰拥有多家著名银行和金融机构。例如：荷兰银行（由荷兰通用银行和阿姆斯特丹-鹿特丹银行于1991年合并而成，在全球拥有3000多家分支机构，是世界上拥有银行网络最多的银行之一。银行排名居欧洲前十、世界前20名）；荷兰国际集团（即ING，由荷兰中产-邮政集团与荷兰国民人寿保险公司于1991年合并而成。为荷兰第一大金融机构，在2011年世界500强企业中名列第17位）；荷兰农业合作银行（由荷兰数家农村信用社于1973年合并而成，是荷兰第二大银行，居全球银行50强）。

旅游业

有「欧洲花园」和「风车之国」之称的荷兰旅游业较为发达。2011年，有1130万外国游客造访了荷兰。

久负盛名的拦海造陆工程、美丽宜人的郁金香种植区（荷兰有「郁金香王国」之称，郁金香是其国花）、著名的奶酪小城豪达（拥有世界第一家奶酪交易中心）、充满古老气息的大型风车群（荷兰是风车最多的国家）都是旅游观光的好去处。

对外贸易

荷兰自古便是贸易强国，在17世纪上半叶有「海上马车夫」之称，首都阿姆斯特丹在当时的地位可与当今的纽约相提并论。时至今日，荷兰在对外贸易方面仍处于世界领先地位，荷兰是仅次于美国和法国的世界第三大农产品出口国。荷兰主要进口工业原料、原油、半成品和机械等。60%的产品供出口，主要为石油制品、电子产品、船舶和农产品等。

交通运输

荷兰的水陆空交通均十分便利。境内河道纵横，水路四通八达。流经南部注入北海的莱茵河是世界上航运最繁忙的河流之一。其河口的鹿特丹是世界顶级大港，吞吐量曾连续42年居世界第一。阿姆斯特丹机场为欧洲重要航空港，曾多次被评为世界最佳机场。荷兰人环保意识极强，人均拥有两辆自行车，自行车是重要的交通工具，城市干道建有自行车专用车道。

铁公路

荷兰拥有世界上最密集的公路网之一，密度超过德国和法国，但略不及比利时。荷兰的公路总长度达139,000公里，其中3,530公里是高速公路。

荷兰铁路是荷兰主要的铁路公司，负责营运该国之铁路。荷兰铁路网长达3,013公里，并连接了所有主要城镇和城市，拥有400多个车站。为欧盟第7繁忙，世界第16繁忙的铁路系统。

自行车

在荷兰，骑自行车是一种普遍的交通方式，境内拥有发达的自行车道，延伸至该国各地以及比利时和德国的边界。据估计，荷兰境内至少有1800万辆自行车，比全国的总人口还多，也是境内汽车数量（900万辆）的两倍。36％的荷兰人将自行车作为日常的交通工具。在2013年，将荷兰和丹麦列为欧洲对自行车最友好的国家。

水运

荷兰海运发达，是欧洲最重要的海运中心之一。截至2013年，鹿特丹港是欧洲最大的港口，并为世界第八大集装箱港口，每年处理4.405亿公吨货物，除此之外还拥有阿姆斯特丹港、泽兰港等港口。荷兰内河航运网络稠密程度居欧洲之最。截至2013年，荷兰内河航运（包括天然河流和人工运河）运输总里程为6,242公里。

航空

阿姆斯特丹史基浦机场座落于阿姆斯特丹西南方的市郊，为荷兰主要的进出门户，同时也是欧洲重要航空港，2019年是欧洲第三繁忙的机场。史基浦机场是荷兰皇家航空的枢纽机场，荷兰皇家航空是其中一间历史最悠久且从未更名的航空公司，更是第一家营运达到一百年的航空公司。荷兰本土其馀较小的国际机场包括鹿特丹海牙机场、埃因霍温机场、格罗宁根机场及马斯特里赫特亚琛机场。荷兰加勒比区则有博奈尔的火烈鸟国际机场、圣尤斯特歇斯的F.D.罗斯福机场及萨巴的胡安彻·亚拉斯奎恩机场。

通讯

荷兰拥有较先进的互联网基础设施，（AMS-IX）在欧洲同类设施中规模最大。

荷兰皇家电信目前为荷兰固定网和移动业务的主要电信运营商；国内市场占有率高达50%，同时其移动网路业务覆盖欧洲其他国家，如德国和比利时等。

人口和社会

人口

荷兰是世界上人口密度最高的国家之一。它的人口密度超过400人／平方公里。

在荷兰居住著多个种族的人群。尽管如此，纯正荷兰血统的居民仍占总人口的大多数。

• 80.9% 荷兰人

• 2.4% 印度尼西亚人

• 2.4% 德国人

• 2.2% 土耳其人

• 2.0% 苏里南人

• 1.9% 摩洛哥人

• 0.8% 荷属安第列斯人和阿鲁巴人

• 6.0% 其他种族

语言

荷兰语是荷兰的官方语言之一，属于印欧语系日耳曼语族下的西日耳曼语支，是荷兰、比利时、苏里南、阿鲁巴、库拉索、荷属圣马丁等地的官方语言。在荷兰全境、比利时北部的佛兰德斯地区和法国法兰德斯地区通用。欧洲约有两千四百万人以荷兰语为第一语言。曾经被荷兰统治了三个半世纪的印度尼西亚也有少量日常的使用。

荷兰语字母表由26或27个拉丁字母组成，除A至Z外，在Y后面有一个 IJ 。荷兰语有时用 IJ 代替Y。

荷兰语与英语和德语接近，同属西日耳曼语支。荷兰语是由古代低地德语诸方言演变而来，最早的荷兰语文献可追溯到12世纪的佛兰德。当代荷兰语是五种方言群体的集合：中西部方言（包括南、北荷兰省、乌德勒支、海尔德兰的大部和西兰的岛屿等地区使用的方言），东北方言（格罗宁根、德伦特、上艾瑟尔和海尔德兰东部使用的方言），中南部方言（北布拉班特及其周边的林堡地区，比利时的安特卫普、布拉班特和东佛兰德），西南部方言（西佛兰德）和东南部方言（荷兰的林堡地区大部和比利时的同名地区）。东北方言通常被称为萨克森方言，东南方言被称为东部低地法兰克方言，其他的三个群体则被称为西部低地法兰克方言。荷兰的弗里斯兰省的语言通常单独列为一种语言：弗里斯兰语。

南非语，又称「南非荷兰语」「阿非利卡语」「阿非利堪斯语」「布尔语」，是17世纪殖民者所说的荷兰语的变种，并融合了相当数量的马来、班图诸语言的词汇和语法，南非白人的祖先名为布尔人，其名称的由来是来自荷兰语中boer（农夫）这个单词。南非语是南非共和国的官方语言之一。

英语是荷兰普遍使用的外语之一，官方宣称有95%－98%的人口能使用英语。此外，英语是荷属圣马丁、圣犹斯特歇斯和萨巴的官方语言。

帕皮阿门托语是荷属加勒比的通用语之一，也是阿鲁巴、博奈尔、库拉索的官方语言。该语言是一种基于葡萄牙语的克里奥尔语，并同时受到西班牙语和荷兰语的深刻影响。该语言现有两种不同标准的正写法。一种通行于阿鲁巴，另一种通行于博奈尔和库拉索。

宗教

荷兰保障宗教自由。现在相对于其他欧洲国家，荷兰是目前欧洲最世俗化的国家之一，67.8%的人无宗教信仰，或不参加宗教活动。荷兰的主要宗教包括天主教（24.6%）和基督新教（10.8%）。天主教徒主要在南部地区，而基督新教，主要是荷兰归正宗教会，属于喀尔文教派，历史上曾经人人虔信，现在却已式微。另外由于穆斯林移民大增，达到全国人口的5%，使回教成为荷兰第三大宗教。此外，荷兰还有许多佛教、犹太教和印度教的信徒。

宽容的社会风气

荷兰以社会风气宽容开放著称。通常，荷兰的形象会与贸易、郁金香、风车、木鞋、奶酪和白蓝彩釉陶器等等相联系。在2001年4月1日，荷兰成为全球第一个同性婚姻合法化的国家

。在2002年4月1日，荷兰又成为全球第一个安乐死合法化的国家。同时荷兰在对待大麻等非致命毒品、性交易和堕胎的法律是在世界范围内最为自由化的。荷兰是对移民较为宽容的国家，也有众多荷兰人移民外国。

城市化进程

荷兰的四个最大城市是阿姆斯特丹、鹿特丹、海牙和乌得勒支，阿姆斯特丹是该国人口最多的城市和名义首都，而海牙则是国会、内阁和最高法院的所在地；鹿特丹拥有欧洲最大的海港，乌得勒支则因位置居于国土正中央，是荷兰铁路网路的中心。这四大城市所处的兰斯台德都市圈拥有750万居民，几乎占荷兰人口的一半，是欧洲第6大都市圈。除此之外荷兰还有为数众多的中等规模城镇，这些都是该国高度城市化的明证。

医疗

据2017年欧洲健康消费者组织发布的最新报告，荷兰的医疗系统被评为欧洲最完善的医疗体系，为荷兰连续第七年被评为欧洲第一。2016年，荷兰人口的平均预期寿命为81.7岁；其中男性预期寿命为80.0岁，比欧盟的平均寿命（78.2岁）高出近两年。女性预期寿命为83.2岁，接近欧盟平均水平。

荷兰是个医疗分级做得较为明确的国家，基础医疗机构为GP（General Practitioner，huisarts，即所谓家庭医生/私人医生），所有的荷兰民众都必须要注册一个家庭医师，有任何的疑难杂症都必须要先去家庭医师报到，再由家庭医师判断是否要转诊到专门的大医院。荷兰有超过160间基础医疗护理中心提供一周7天，每天24小时的服务。另一方面，荷兰的医疗费用也相对昂贵，不过荷兰政府也强制规定所有荷兰居民都必须有医疗保险，但人民可以自己选择各家不同的保险公司投保，而不同的保险公司也会有不同的方案。基本的医疗保险包括人们日常生活所需的大多数医疗服务，如普通和专科医生门诊、医学化验检查、医疗器械费用、住院医疗、处方药品、怀孕生产、以及18周岁以下未成年人的全面牙科医疗等。同时荷兰政府为低收入者提供医疗津贴，帮助交纳基本医疗保险的保险费。

文化

建筑

荷兰建筑的第一个辉煌时期大约起始于17世纪的荷兰黄金时代，由于经济蓬勃的城市大为扩大，新会堂和仓库的修建。商人从中大发横财，增建新建筑以及在其周围各城市挖河渠（国防、运输用途），房子的装饰门面的翻修以适合新的市容。在乡村，新的乡村住房不断出现。涌现了一大批知名的建筑师如：雅各布·范·坎彭（1595年-1657年）、Lieven de Key（c. 1560年-1627年）和Hendrik de Keyser (1565年-1621年)。

20世纪，荷兰建筑师更是带动了世界现代建筑的发展。

艺术

荷兰诞生过很多著名的画家。北方文艺复兴时期就有早期尼德兰画派出现。17世纪时，正值鼎盛的荷兰共和国又出现了荷兰黄金时代绘画，荷兰出现了伦勃朗、扬·弗美尔、扬·斯特恩和其他一些画家；据估计在1640年之后的20年内荷兰画家绘制了大约130万幅作品。19世纪和20世纪的画家包括梵谷和皮特·蒙德里安。而莫里茨·科内利斯·埃舍尔亦是一位知名的图形艺术家。

哲学和文学

荷兰的哲学家包括伊拉斯谟和斯宾诺莎。法国哲学家笛卡儿的主要著作也完成于此。

在「黄金年代」，荷兰的文学也曾十分繁荣，产生了约斯特·范·登·冯德尔和彼得·孔奈路思·霍夫特（Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft）两位著名作家。二十世纪的主要作家包括哈里·穆里施、杨·沃尔克斯（Jan Wolkers）、西蒙·费斯特代克（Simon Vestdijk）、塞斯·诺特博姆（）、赫拉德·雷夫（Gerard Reve）和威廉·弗雷德里克·赫尔曼斯（Willem Frederik Hermans）。《安妮日记》也是作于荷兰。

体育

与其他欧洲国家一样，足球是荷兰的第一运动，荷兰国家足球队是欧洲的一线强队，有「橙衣兵团」以及「无冕之王」的称号，曾经三次获得世界杯亚军，并于1988年荷兰三剑客时期夺得欧洲国家杯的冠军。荷兰同时亦诞生出zh-tw:告鲁夫;zh-cn:克鲁伊夫、zh-tw:朗奴·高文;zh-cn:罗纳德·科曼、zh-tw:云达沙;zh-cn:范德萨、zh-tw:云尼斯达莱;zh-cn:范尼斯特鲁伊、zh-tw:云佩斯;zh-cn:范佩西等众多著名足球员。荷兰甲组足球联赛是荷兰最高级别足球联赛，较知名的球队包括阿积士、PSV燕豪芬及飞燕诺。

荷兰国家女子足球队为欧洲进步最快的女子国家足球队之一，先于2017年欧洲女子足球锦标赛赢得首个重大国际比赛冠军，后于2019年国际足协女子世界杯获得亚军。

棒球在荷兰本土虽不普及，但在其海外属地库拉索及阿鲁巴非常盛行，荷兰棒球代表队亦常在各大国际赛事中夺下佳绩，曾于2013年、2017年连两届于世界棒球经典赛进入四强，是欧洲最具代表性的棒球劲旅。

荷兰拥有一些独特的传统体育竞赛，如十一个城市巡回赛是菲仕兰省的一项传统长途巡回溜冰比赛，这项竞赛需沿著结冰的河面，河流和湖泊穿越该省所有11个历史名城，因此得名。

荷兰迄今为止已经在夏季奥运会获得230块金牌，在冬季奥运会获得76块奖牌。

饮食

荷兰传统饮食文化比较简单。早餐和午餐通常是面包和配菜。晚餐则主要是肉和马铃薯。荷兰人的碳水化合物和脂肪摄取量较高，显示出体力劳动者的饮食需要，并且荷兰人的奶制品消费量也很高。传统荷兰食物因地区各有不同。东部、北部受德国影响较浓，较多食用香肠；西部属平原，畜牧业发达，盛产不同种类奶酪；南部则毗邻比利时，饮食较类似于法国菜。20世纪后，荷兰的饮食文化变得更加国际化。在荷兰的大城市可以品尝到来自世界各地的食物。

世界遗产

，荷兰王国共有十项遗产入选为世界遗产，包括九项文化遗产和一项自然遗产。其中九项位于荷兰本土，一项位于加勒比地区的荷兰王国的构成国库拉索。

教育

荷兰教育是分级、分年龄的，并依据学生的需求进行个人化调整。在荷兰，学校被分为一般公立学校、宗教学校、中立学校等，私立学校较少。法律上，荷兰的义务教育从五岁开始；但是大多数的学校会接受四岁的小童。义务教育在十六岁时结束；在十六岁之后，是部分义务教育，学生每周最少须上两天的学。在学生达到十八岁年纪时，他们会拿到VWO、HAVO或MBO证书，义务教育始结束。

在2008年经济合作与发展组织所举办的国际学生能力评估计划中，荷兰在全世界排名第九，远高于世界平均。

著名大学

荷兰在国际上享有很高学术荣誉，下为世界大学学术排名中排名较高的大学。

国定节日

注释

Etymology

The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term "Dutch" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.

The Netherlands and the Low Countries

The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nedre, Nether, Lage(r) or Low(er) (in Germanic languages) and Bas or Inferior (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Super(ior), Up(per), Op(per), Ober, Boven, High, Haut or Hoch. In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the lower region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding Upper region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.

The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term les pays de par deçà ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to les pays de par delà ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, Les pays de par deçà developed in pays d'embas ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as Neder-landen in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, Niderlant was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as Oberland (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.

From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a pars pro toto for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised Belgica Foederata, "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised Belgica Regia, "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.

Holland

The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a pars pro toto for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.

Dutch

The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz, Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch Dietsch, Old High German duitsch, and Old English þeodisc, all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word *þiudiskaz in modern Dutch, Diets, can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).

Terminology in Dutch and other languages

In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are Nederland, Nederlands and Nederlander, respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.

The plural Nederlanden is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name Koninkrijk der Nederlanden ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example Niederlande (German), Pays-Bas (French) and Países Bajos (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called Belanda, a name derived from 'Holland'.

History

Prehistory (before 800 BC)

The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.

Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.

Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.

Celts, Germanic tribes and Romans (800 BC–410 AD)

From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.

The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.

The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as foederati in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as laeti in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.

Early Middle Ages (411–1000)

After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.

To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.

The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.

High Middle Ages (1000–1384)

The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.

Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.

Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars (Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten) between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.

Burgundian, Habsburg and Spanish Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581)

Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.

Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:

On more than one occasion men were seen hanging their own brothers, who had been taken prisoners in the enemy's ranks... A Spaniard had ceased to be human in their eyes. On one occasion, a surgeon at Veer cut the heart from a Spanish prisoner, nailed it on a vessel's prow, and invited the townsmen to come and fasten their teeth in it, which many did with savage satisfaction.

The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.

The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)

Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.

Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.

Dutch Republic (1581–1795)

After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.

In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.

During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.

Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican Staatsgezinden and the supporters of the stadtholder the Prinsgezinden as main political factions.

Batavian Republic and Kingdom (1795–1890)

With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.

William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.

The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.

The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.

World wars and beyond (1890–present)

The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.

In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.

Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as special municipalities upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.

Geography

According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.

The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.

Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine (Rijn), the Meuse (Maas) and the Scheldt (Schelde), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.

The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" (de Grote Rivieren). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).

Geology

The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.

Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.

In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.

Floods

Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.

On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the Biesbosch tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.

The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.

Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.

To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called "waterschappen" ("water boards") or "hoogheemraadschappen" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.

In 1932 the Afsluitdijk ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.

The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.

Delta Works

After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.

Climate

The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.

Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.

Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.

Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).

The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.

The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.

Climate change

Nature

The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.

The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.

Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.

Caribbean islands

While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.

Within this island group:

• Bonaire is part of the ABC islands within the Leeward Antilles island chain off the Venezuelan coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.

• Saba and Sint Eustatius are part of the SSS islands. They are located east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Although in the English language they are considered part of the Leeward Islands, French, Spanish, Dutch and the English spoken locally consider them part of the Windward Islands. The Windward Islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The highest point is Mount Scenery, , on Saba. This is the highest point in the country and is also the highest point of the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.

Government and politics

The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, The Economist ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.

The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.

The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a primus inter pares, with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.

The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.

Political culture

Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.

The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.

In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.

Political parties

Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.

These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).

In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.

In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.

On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.

VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.

Government

Administrative divisions

The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner (Commissaris van de Koning). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor (Gouverneur). All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), of which there are 355 (2019).

The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board (waterschap or hoogheemraadschap), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.

The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of openbare lichamen (public bodies). In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as special municipalities.

The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.

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Foreign relations

The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.

The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.

During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.

Military

The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.

The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.

The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal):

• Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps;

• Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army;

• Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force;

• Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Marechaussee (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control.

The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.

The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Economy

The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index.

, the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).

The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.

In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.

Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.

The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.

The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.

Natural gas

Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.

Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.

The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.

Agriculture and natural resources

From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands』 biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.

The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.

One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.

Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.

Demographics

The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.

The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.

The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.

According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.

The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).

Functional urban areas

Language

The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland (Fryslân in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.

Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.

English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations (vmbo), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.

In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).

Religion

The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.

In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.

The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.

Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.

Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.

The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).

Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.

The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.

A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.

Education

Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.

All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.

The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.

Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.

Healthcare

In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.

The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.

Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.

Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:

• Zorgverzekeringswet (ZVW), often called "basic insurance", covers common medical care.

• Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care.

While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.

Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (huisartsen, comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.

Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.

For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.

Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.

A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).

Transport

Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.

Road transport

With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.

As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.

Public transport

About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.

Cycling

Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.

Water transport

Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.

Air transport

Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.

Culture

Art, architecture and philosophy

The Netherlands has had many well-known painters.

In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.

During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others.

Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist.

Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's Diary of a Young Girl was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.

Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.

The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250.

This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.

The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.

Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.

This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.

What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).

These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.

Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, Neoclassicism

Expressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.

The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.

Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.

Southern Netherlands

In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands.

These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.

Dutch value system

Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.

Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."

The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.

The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.

Dutch people and ecology

As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average

Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.

Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.

The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.

Music

The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning Song of life, to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.

Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.

Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.

Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop (Nederhop) also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.

Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.

The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.

In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.

Film and television

Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as Turkish Delight ("Turks Fruit", 1973), Soldier of Orange ("Soldaat van Oranje", 1977), Spetters (1980) and The Fourth Man ("De Vierde Man", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like RoboCop (1987), Total Recall (1990) and Basic Instinct (1992), and returned with Dutch film Black Book ("Zwartboek", 2006).

Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont (Speed), Anton Corbijn (A Most wanted Man), Dick Maas (De Lift), Fons Rademakers (The Assault), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film Submission.

Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema (Interstellar, Spectre, Dunkirk) and Theo van de Sande (Wayne's World and Blade). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen (X-Men), Carice van Houten (Game of Thrones), Michiel Huisman (Game of Thrones), Rutger Hauer (Blade Runner), Jeroen Krabbé (The Living Daylights) and Derek de Lint (Three Men and a Baby).

The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.

TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including Big Brother and Deal or No Deal. John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like The Voice and Utopia.

Sports

Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.

Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.

The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.

The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.

Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.

Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.

Cuisine

Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.

Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which (Gelderse) rookworst is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside stamppot, hutspot or zuurkool (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of Kruidkoek (such as Groninger koek), Fryske dúmkes and spekdikken (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of Fries roggebrood (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as Beerenburg) and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from Jenever, typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. Friese Nagelkaas (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.

The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, karnemelk (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called Zeeuwse Mossels, since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. Kibbeling, once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as lekkerbek. Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The oliebol (in its modern form) and Zeeuwse bolus are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like stroopwafel, as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like gevulde koek. The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and Jenever, a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, Advocaat, a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.

The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the Vlaai from Limburg and the Moorkop and Bossche Bol from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from Trappist to Kriek. 5 of the 10 International Trappist Association recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.

In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.

Colonial heritage

From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.

In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.

By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.

Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.

The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated Bronbeek Museum, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.

A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.

The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as Indische Nederlanders or as Indo (short for Indo-European).

Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.

Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year.