生平

早年生活

拓跋珪在代王拓跋什翼犍建國三十四年七月七日（東晉太和六年，371年8月4日）在參合陂北出生。建國三十九年（376年），前秦滅代國，拓跋珪將要被強遷至秦都長安，但代王左長史燕鳳以拓跋珪年幼，力勸前秦天王苻堅讓拓跋珪留在部中，稱待拓跋珪長大後為首領，會念及苻堅施恩給代國。苻堅同意，拓跋珪得以留下。其時，代國舊部由劉庫仁及劉衞辰分掌，拓跋珪母賀氏帶拓跋珪、拓跋儀及拓跋觚從賀蘭部遷至獨孤部，與南部大人長孫嵩等人同屬劉庫仁統領。劉庫仁本亦為南部大人，拓跋珪等人到後仍盡忠侍奉他們，並沒有因代國滅亡、自己改受前秦官位而變節，又招撫接納離散的部人，甚有恩信。

383年，苻堅於淝水之戰中戰敗，其後國中大亂，劉庫仁助秦軍對抗後燕，但於次年遭慕輿文夜襲殺害，其弟劉頭眷代領其眾。385年，劉庫仁之子劉顯殺頭眷自立，又想要殺拓跋珪。劉顯弟劉亢埿的妻子是拓跋珪的姑姑，並將劉顯的意圖告訴賀氏。劉顯謀主梁六眷是拓跋什翼犍的甥子，也派部人穆崇、奚牧將此事密報拓跋珪。賀氏於是約劉顯飲酒，將其灌醉，讓拓跋珪與舊臣長孫犍、元他等人乘夜逃至賀蘭部。不久，劉顯部中內亂，賀氏得以到賀蘭部與拓跋珪等會合。但其時賀氏弟賀染幹忌憚拓跋珪得人心，曾試圖殺害他，但都因尉古真告密及賀氏出面而失敗。而拓跋珪的堂叔曾祖拓跋紇羅及拓跋建就勸賀蘭部首領賀訥推拓跋珪為主。

登國元年正月六日（386年2月20日），拓跋珪得到以賀蘭部為首的諸部支持在牛川大會諸部，召開部落大會，即位為代王，年號登國。拓跋珪任用賢能，勵精圖治，重興代國。即位不久，便移都代國原都盛樂，並推動農業，讓人民休養生息。同年四月，改稱魏王，稱國號為魏，史稱北魏。

北魏建立時四週有強敵環伺，北有賀蘭部、南有獨孤部、東有庫莫奚部、西邊在河套一帶有匈奴鐵弗部、陰山以北為柔然部和高車部、太行山以東為慕容垂建立的後燕及以西的慕容永統治的西燕。因為叔父拓跋窟咄為了爭位與劉顯勾結，企圖取拓跋珪而代之形成內部不穩，于桓等人意圖殺害拓跋珪以響應窟咄，莫題等人亦與窟咄通訊。拓跋珪殺死于桓等五人，赦免莫題等七姓，但都因恐懼內亂而往依賀蘭部，借陰山作屏障防守，又派人向後燕求援。

同年十一月，拓跋窟咄逼近，部眾惶恐不安。慕容垂之子慕容麟帶領的後燕援軍此時仍未到，於是先讓北魏使者安同先回去，讓魏人知燕軍已在附近，穩定人心。拓跋珪於是領兵會合後燕援軍，在高柳大敗拓跋窟咄。窟咄帶領殘兵敗將西逃，依附鐵弗部，被鐵弗部首領劉衞辰殺死，拓跋珪接收其部眾。十二月，後燕任命拓跋珪為西單于，封上谷王，但拓跋珪不受。

次年，拓跋珪與後燕聯手擊敗劉顯，逼劉顯出奔西燕。六月，拓跋珪又於弱落水大敗庫莫奚部；七月再擊敗來攻的庫莫奚。登國四年（388年），拓跋珪大破高車諸部。登國五年（389年），拓跋珪又西征高車袁紇部，並在鹿渾海大敗對方，俘獲人口及牲畜共計二十多萬。不久更聯同慕容麟所率的後燕軍進攻賀蘭部、紇突隣部及紇奚部，後兩者向北魏請降。七月，賀蘭部遭鐵弗部攻擊，賀訥於是向北魏投降求援，拓跋珪於是領兵去救援，擊退鐵弗，並將賀訥等人遷至東界。

拓跋珪進擊高車諸部，唯獨柔然不肯降魏，遂於登國七年（391年）進攻柔然。柔然當時率眾退避，拓跋珪追擊，軍糧用盡後以備乘戰馬作軍糧，終在南牀山追及，並俘獲其一半部眾。接著拓跋珪繼續派兵追擊餘部，逼令首領縕紇提投降。同年，拓跋珪進攻鐵弗，直攻代來城，擒獲直力鞮，衞辰被部下殺害。拓跋珪更盡誅劉衞辰宗族共五千多人，將屍體丟在黃河中。此戰後，黃河以南諸部都向北魏投降。北魏至此已擊敗大部份強鄰，國力亦大增。

燕魏爭霸

北魏與後燕皆是386年建立，後燕強而北魏弱，拓跋珪與後燕結好，而北魏開國之初的內亂，後燕亦曾出兵支援拓跋珪，每年兩回亦派使者往來。登國六年（391年），賀蘭部內亂，賀染幹和賀訥互相攻擊，拓跋珪亦自請為響導，請後燕出兵討伐。但同年，後燕將來使拓跋觚扣留，以向北魏求名馬。拓跋珪拒絕，拓跋觚亦一直遭扣留，此後兩國關係惡化。北魏轉而聯結西燕對付後燕。但後燕帝慕容垂於登國九年（394年）六月出兵進攻西燕，圍攻長子，西燕帝慕容永曾向北魏求援，拓跋珪遂派陳留公拓跋虔及庾岳救援西燕，可是援軍尚未趕到，長子就失陷。慕容永及其公卿大將三十多人都被誅殺，西燕滅亡。華北一帶就剩下北魏與後燕兩國互相對峙。

登國十年（395年）北魏侵逼後燕附塞諸部，慕容垂就於同年五月派其太子慕容寶伐魏。拓跋珪知大軍前來，率眾到河西避戰。燕軍於七月到五原後收降魏別部三萬多家人，又收穄田穀物及造船打算渡河進攻。拓跋珪亦進軍河邊，與燕軍對峙。北魏一方面派許謙向後秦請求援兵，一面卻派兵堵截燕軍與後燕都城中山的道路，並抓住取道去前線的燕國使者。因著慕容垂在出兵時已經患病，而堵截道路令慕容寶久久都不知道國內消息，拓跋珪於是逼令抓到的使者向燕軍謊稱慕容垂的死訊，成功動搖燕軍將士的軍心。燕魏兩軍自九月起隔河對峙至十月，燕軍終因內亂而被逼燒船撤退。其時黃河河水未結，魏軍未能及時渡河追擊。但次月大風令河面結冰後，拓跋珪即下令渡河並派二萬多精騎追擊燕軍。魏軍在參合陂打敗燕軍，俘獲大量燕軍將士及官員，拓跋珪除了選用有才的如賈閏、賈羿等人留下外，將其他官員都送回後燕，但同時將燕兵都坑殺。史稱參合陂之戰。

登國十一年（396年）三月，慕容垂率軍再度伐魏，攻陷平城（今山西大同市），留守平城的拓跋虔戰死，守城的三萬餘家部落皆被俘。接著慕容垂更派慕容寶等進逼拓跋珪。拓跋珪此時十分驚懼，打算離開盛樂避兵，而諸部因驍勇善戰的拓跋虔戰死，亦有異心，令拓跋珪不知所措。可是慕容垂因見參合陂堆積如山的燕兵屍體而發病，被逼退兵，並病逝于上谷。同年七月，拓跋珪建天子旌旗，並改元皇始，並正式圖取後燕所佔的中原土地。

稱霸華北

皇始元年（396年）八月，拓跋珪就大舉伐燕，親率四十多萬大軍南出馬邑，越過句注南攻後燕并州，同時又命封真率偏師進攻後燕幽州。九月，魏軍進至晉陽，守城的慕容農出戰但大敗，晉陽城守將此時叛燕逼使慕容農率眾東走。長孫肥率眾追擊，在潞川追上，慕容農妻兒被擄，只能與三騎逃回中山。北魏遂奪取後燕并州 ( 今山西地區 )之地，並置官員治理當地。

隨後，拓跋珪命于栗磾及公孫蘭等暗中開通昔日韓信在井陘用過的路，並在同年十月，越過太行山率軍取道該路進攻後燕京師中山城 ( 河北省定縣 )。其時燕軍決意嬰城自守，打持久戰，於是拓跋珪在攻下常山後，其東各郡縣的官員不是棄城就是投降，北魏於是輕易地得到中原大部分郡縣歸附，僅餘中山城、鄴城及信都城三城仍然拒守。拓跋珪於是兵分三路分攻三城：自攻中山，拓跋儀攻鄴及王建、李慄攻信都。然而，拓跋珪在攻中山城時遭燕軍力拒，於是暫時放棄中山城，改而南取其餘二城。

皇始二年（397年）正月，拓跋珪加入進攻信都城，終於逼得守將慕容鳳棄城出走，但其時慕容德卻成功離間進攻鄴城的拓跋儀及賀賴盧，令他們退兵，並乘機從後追擊，大破魏軍。

上一年，為拓跋珪憎惡的魏將沒根自疑而叛魏投燕，其侄兒醜提恐怕會被株連，於是決定自并州率部回北魏後方作亂。拓跋珪見內亂起，於是自後燕求和，但慕容寶卻意圖乘此機反擊，拒絕之餘更派步兵十二萬及騎兵三萬七千出屯柏肆，在滹沱水以北阻擊魏軍。魏軍在滹沱水南岸設營，燕軍於是乘夜渡水進攻，以萬餘兵突襲魏營，並乘風勢放火。魏軍此時大亂，拓跋珪慌忙起來棄營逃跑，僅而避過攻到其帳下的燕將乞特真。可是，燕軍此時卻無故自亂，互相攻擊，拓跋珪在營外見到，就擊鼓收拾餘眾，集結好後進攻營內燕軍，並乘勢進攻營北作支援的慕容寶軍，逼使慕容寶退回北岸。此戰後，燕軍士氣大降，而魏軍卻已重整。拓跋珪乘慕容寶撤退的機會追擊，屢敗燕軍。慕容寶恐懼下更拋下大軍率二萬騎兵速返中山；又怕被追上，命令士兵拋棄戰衣及兵器輕裝撤還。其時大量燕兵因大風雪而凍死，很多後燕朝臣及兵將都被俘或投降。

三月，慕容寶向拓跋珪求和，並說要送還拓跋觚，並割讓常山以西土地。拓跋珪已答允，但慕容寶卻反悔，拓跋珪於是進圍中山。最終慕容寶等人棄中山城出走，拓跋珪原本打算在該晚入城，王建則以士兵會乘夜盜取城中財寶為由勸阻，拓跋珪於是等到日出才入城。可是慕容詳卻趁機自立為主，閉門拒守，拓跋珪試圖強攻但攻了幾日都不果，於是試圖勸降，可是城中軍民卻表示擔心會有昔日在參合陂被殺的燕降卒一樣的下場，所以堅守到最後。拓跋珪想起當日勸他殺俘的正是王建，導致現在難取中山，於是向其吐口水。至五月，拓跋珪撤圍，到河間補充軍糧。在圍攻中山的同時，拓跋珪派庾岳率兵討平國內叛變的賀蘭部、紇鄰部及紇奚部，成功解決內亂。

九月，時據中山的慕容麟因飢荒而出據新市，拓跋珪於是主動進攻，並在次月於義臺大破慕容麟。慕容麟出走後，拓跋珪入據中山。皇始三年（398年），鄴城也因慕容德棄守而落入魏軍手中，拓跋珪於鄴置行臺後回到中山，並打算回盛樂，於是修治由望都至代的直道，設中山行臺以防變亂，又下令強遷新佔之山東六州官民和外族人士到代郡充實人口。

皇始三年（398年）七月，拓跋珪遷都平城，營建宮殿、宗廟、社稷。同年十二月二日（399年1月24日），改年號天興，即皇帝位。

天興二年（399年）正月，拓跋珪即位後不久便北巡，並分三道進攻高車各部，至二月會師時大破高車三十餘部，另拓跋儀又以三萬騎兵攻破高車殘餘的七部，皆大有所獲《魏書·太祖紀》：「庚午，車駕北巡，分命諸將大襲高車，大將軍、常山王遵等三軍從東道出長川，鎮北將軍高涼王樂真等七軍從西道出牛川，車駕親勒六軍從中道自駮髯水西北。二月丁亥朔，諸軍同會，破高車雜種三十餘部，獲七萬餘口，馬三十餘萬匹，牛羊百四十餘萬。驃騎大將軍、衞王儀督三萬騎別從西北絕漠千餘里，破其遺迸七部，獲二萬餘口，馬五萬餘匹，牛羊二十餘萬頭，高車二十餘萬乘，並服玩諸物。」。同年三月二十日，拓跋珪派遣建義將軍庾真及越騎校尉奚斤進攻北方的庫狄部及宥連部，將他們擊敗並逼令庫狄部的沓亦幹歸附。庾真等軍接著又擊破侯莫陳部，俘獲十多萬頭牲畜並一直追擊到大峨谷《魏書·太祖紀》：「丙子，遣建義將軍庾真、越騎校尉奚斤討厙狄部帥葉亦幹、宥連部帥竇羽泥於太渾川，破之，厙狄懃支子沓亦幹率其部落內附。真等進破侯莫陳部，獲馬牛羊十餘萬頭，追殄遺迸，入大峨谷。」。

魏秦爭戰

拓跋珪曾派賀狄幹向後秦獻馬一千匹並請結婚姻，不過其時拓跋珪已立慕容氏為皇后，故此後秦君主姚興拒絕了婚姻要求並強留賀狄幹，兩國遂有嫌隙。天興五年（402年）後秦高平公沒弈幹和屬部黜弗及素古延分別遭北魏常山王拓跋遵及材官將軍和突領兵進侵，其中拓跋遵軍更曾追擊至瓦亭，另魏平陽太守貳塵又進攻秦河東之地。這些行動威脅到秦都長安，關中各城白天都閉著城門，亦令得後秦準備進攻北魏。拓跋珪亦在該年舉行閱兵，又命并州各郡送穀物到平陽郡的乾壁儲存以防備秦軍進攻。

天興五年（402年）六月，後秦派軍進攻北魏，攻陷了乾壁。拓跋珪則派毗陵王拓跋順及豫州刺史長孫肥為前鋒迎擊，自率大軍在後。八月，拓跋珪至永安（今山西霍縣東北），秦將姚平派二百精騎視察魏軍但盡數被擒，於是撤走，但在柴壁遭拓跋珪追上，於是據守柴壁。拓跋珪圍困柴壁，而姚興則率軍來救援姚平，並要據天渡運糧給姚平。

拓跋珪接著增厚包圍圈，防止姚平突圍或姚興強攻，另又聽從安同所言，築浮橋渡汾河，並在西岸築圍拒秦軍，引秦軍走汾東的蒙阬。姚興到後果走蒙阬，遭拓跋珪擊敗。拓跋珪又派兵各據險要，阻止秦軍接近柴壁。至十月，姚平糧盡突圍但失敗，於是率部投水自殺，拓跋珪更派擅長游泳的人下水打撈自殺者，又生擒狄伯支等四十多名後秦官員，二萬多名士兵亦束手就擒。姚興雖然能夠與姚平遙相呼應，但無力救援，柴壁敗後多次派人請和，但拓跋珪不准，反而要進攻蒲阪，只是當時姚緒堅守不戰，且早於394年背魏再興的柔然汗國要攻魏，逼使拓跋珪撤兵。

不得善終

拓跋珪晚年因服食寒食散，剛愎自用、猜忌多疑，更常因想起昔日一點不滿就要誅殺大臣。大臣們大都惶恐度日，影響辦事能力，以至偷竊等行為十分猖獗。

天賜四年（407年）至天賜六年（409年）間，拓跋珪先後誅殺了司空庾岳、北部大人賀狄幹兄弟及高邑公莫題父子。往日曾與穆崇共謀刺殺拓跋珪的拓跋儀雖然因拓跋珪念其功勳而沒被追究，但眼見拓跋珪殺害大臣，於是自疑逃亡，但還是被追兵抓住，並被賜死。

天賜六年冬十月戊辰（409年11月6日），次子拓跋紹母賀夫人有過失，拓跋珪幽禁她於宮中，準備處死。到黃昏時仍未決。賀氏秘密向拓跋紹求救。拓跋紹與宮中守兵及宦官串通，當晚帶人翻牆入宮，刺殺拓跋珪。拓跋珪在拓跋紹來到時驚醒，試圖找武器反擊但不果，終為其所殺，享年三十九歲。

其子拓跋嗣登位後，於永興二年（410年）諡拓跋珪為宣武皇帝，廟號烈祖，泰常五年（420年）才改諡為道武皇帝，太和十五年（491年）改廟號為太祖。

評價

• 北齊史官魏收於《魏書》的「史臣曰」評論說：「晉氏崩離，戎羯乘釁，僭偽紛糾，犲狼競馳。太祖顯晦安危之中，屈伸潛躍之際，驅率遺黎，奮其靈武，克剪方難，遂啟中原，朝拱人神，顯登皇極。雖冠履不暇，棲遑外土，而製作經謨，咸存長世。所謂大人利見，百姓與能，抑不世之神武也。而屯厄有期，禍生非慮，將人事不足，豈天實為之。嗚呼！」

• 唐代某貴族「公子」與世族虞世南的對話：「公子曰：『魏之道武，始立大號，觀其器用，足為一時之傑乎？』先生曰：『道武經略之志，將立霸階，而才不逮也。末年沈痼，加以精虐，不能任下，禍及方悟，不亦晚乎！』；公子曰：『魏之太祖、太武，孰與為輩？』先生曰：『太祖、太武，俱有異人之姿，故能闢土擒敵，窺覦江外。然善戰好殺，暴桀雄武，稟崆峒之氣焉。至於安忍誅殘，石季龍之儔也。』」

• 北宋司馬光評論說：「後魏之先，世居朔野，有國久矣。道武帝乘燕氏之衰，悉舉引弓之眾，以馮陵中夏；馬首所向，無不望風奔潰。南取并州，東舉幽、冀；兵不留行，而數千里之地定矣！」

家庭

后妃

• 道武皇后，慕容氏，慕容寶幼女。

• 宣穆皇后，劉氏，劉頭眷之女，天賜四年（409年）因子貴母死制度被賜死

• 賀夫人，獻明皇后妹妹，天賜四年（409年），拓跋紹事敗後，被殺

• 大王夫人

• 王夫人

• 段夫人

子女

• 魏明元帝拓跋嗣，生母宣穆皇后

• 拓跋紹，北魏徵南大將軍、清河王，生母賀夫人

• 拓跋熙，北魏陽平王，生母大王夫人

• 拓跋曜，北魏河南王，生母王夫人

• 拓跋脩，北魏河間王

• 拓跋處文，北魏長樂王

• 拓跋連，北魏廣平王，生母段夫人

• 拓跋黎，北魏京兆王，生母段夫人

• 拓跋渾，早逝，無後

• 拓跋聰，早逝，無後

• 華陰公主，生母宣穆皇后，嫁閭大肥

影視文學形象

在黃易所著武俠小說《邊荒傳說》中，與男主角燕飛（拓跋漢）為總角之交，而燕飛之母為有拓拔飛燕之稱的拓拔燕。

注釋

出處

Life before founding of Northern Wei

Birth and childhood

According to official accounts, Tuoba Gui was born in 371, after his father Tuoba Shi (拓拔寔), the son and heir apparent to Tuoba Shiyijian the Prince of Dai, died earlier in the year from an injury he suffered while protecting Tuoba Shiyijian from an assassination attempt by the general Baba Jin (拔拔斤). His mother was Tuoba Shi's wife Heiress Apparent Helan, the daughter of the powerful tribal chief and Dai vassal Helian Yegan (賀蘭野干). Tuoba Shiyijian, while mourning his son's death, was very pleased by the grandson's birth, and he declared a general pardon in his state and named the child Tuoba Shegui. (Other than the reference to the naming at birth, however, the name "Shegui" was scantily mentioned in historical accounts of the rest of his life, and presumably was shortened to "Gui" for simplicity.)

Around New Years 377, Former Qin launched a major attack against Dai. Tuoba Shiyijian temporarily fled his capital Yunzhong (雲中, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), but returned after Former Qin retreated. After his return, however, his nephew Tuoba Jin (拓拔斤) convinced his oldest surviving son Tuoba Shijun (拓拔寔君) that Tuoba Shiyijian was considering naming one of the sons of his wife Princess Murong (a Former Yan princess) as heir and killing him. In response, Tuoba Shijun ambushed his father and brothers and killed them. This led to a collapse of Dai forces, and Former Qin forces occupied Yunzhong without a fight.

In the disturbance, Tuoba Gui's mother Lady Helan initially fled to her brother Helan Na (賀蘭訥), who had taken over as tribal chief after Helan Yegan's death. Later, the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān considered taking Tuoba Gui to the Former Qin capital Chang'an, but Tuoba Shiyijian's secretary Yan Feng (燕鳳) convinced Fu Jiān to instead allow Tuoba Gui to remain in Dai lands to be groomed as the eventual Dai prince, arguing that this would be the best way to maintain the tribes' allegiance to Former Qin. Meanwhile, Fu Jiān divided the Dai tribes into two groups, commanded by the Xiongnu chiefs Liu Kuren and Liu Weichen. Tuoba Gui, along with his mother, went to live with Liu Kuren, who honored the child as a prince.

Adolescence

Little is known about Tuoba Gui's life until 385, by which time Former Qin, which had come close to uniting all of China, had fallen into great disturbance in light of rebellions throughout the empire. In 384, Liu Kuren had attempted to aid Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi, who was then under siege by Murong Chui, the founder of Later Yan, but was assassinated by Muyu Chang (慕輿常), the son of a Later Yan noble; he was succeeded by his brother Liu Toujuan. In 385, however, Liu Toujuan was assassinated by Liu Kuren's son Liu Xian, who took over as chief and viewed Tuoba Gui, now 14, as a threat. However, his subordinates Balie Liujuan (拔列六眷) and Qiumuling Chong (丘穆陵崇) found out, and at Balie's instruction Qiumuling escorted Tuoba Gui to his uncle Helan Na, who put Tuoba Gui under his protection. In 386, at the urging of previous Dai officials, Helan Na supported Tuoba Gui in reassuming the title of Prince of Dai.

Alternative version

However, an alternative version of Tuoba Gui's early life was presented in documents such as the Book of Jin and Book of Song—the official histories of the rival Jin Dynasty (266–420) and Liu Song Dynasty, which obviously had a motive to be biased, and yet presented interesting issues. Under this version, Tuoba Gui was not Tuoba Shiyijian's grandson, but his son—and was born significantly earlier than the official 371 date, of Tuoba Shiyijian's wife Princess Murong. When Former Qin attacked in 377, it was Tuoba Gui who restrained his father Tuoba Shiyijian and surrendered. Fu Jiān, offended at this act of betrayal, exiled Tuoba Gui. When Murong Chui, his uncle, declared Later Yan in 384, Tuoba Gui joined him, and was later put in charge of his father's tribes through a military campaign waged by Later Yan. Then, later, in order to avoid having the people know Tuoba Gui's status as a traitor to his father, the official version of his personal history was manufactured.

This version is not well attested but would solve a number of apparent contradictions in early Northern Wei history. These difficulties apparent in the official version include:

• How Tuoba Gui's father, Tuoba Shi, had a nearly identical name to the perpetrator of the patricide, Tuoba Shijun. If both names were manufactured by Tuoba Gui's later apologists, then the similarity in name could be explained as lack of creativity.

• How Tuoba Han (拓拔翰), mentioned as Tuoba Shi's younger brother, was also referred to in some official sources as Tuoba Gui's younger brother; as Tuoba Yi (拓拔儀), Tuoba Han's son, played an important role early in Northern Wei history as a key diplomat and general, he would be too old to be possibly Tuoba Gui's nephew if Tuoba Gui were born in 371. Obviously, if the official history, which stated that Tuoba Yi was Tuoba Gui's cousin, were correct, then there is no problem.

• How Tuoba Gui appeared too willing to turn against his maternal uncles the Helans early in his reign. If he was actually the son of Princess Murong, then he would not be related to the Helans, and his campaigns against them seemed less problematic. (Of course, it would then render it problematic how he eventually attacked and seized most of Later Yan's history, as the Later Yan emperor Murong Bao would be his cousin.)

• How Tuoba Gui could have a younger brother—as given and undisputed in official history—Tuoba Gu (拓拔觚) -- described as also being a son of his mother Lady Helan, if he himself were born after Tuoba Shi's death. (Two alternative explanations exist, however—it could be that Tuoba Gu was actually born of a concubine of Tuoba Shi but raised by Lady Helan, or it could be that Lady Helan remarried after Tuoba Shi's death, to another member of the Tuoba clan—possibly Tuoba Yi's father Tuoba Han—and therefore her younger son Tuoba Gu would also carry the Tuoba name. The latter possibility is attested in that another semi-contradictory version of the official history stated that Tuoba Gu was Tuoba Yi's younger brother. Another possible explanation—that Tuoba Gu was a twin younger brother—appears unlikely, as the official accounts of Tuoba Gui's birth did not suggest the possibility of twin birth.)

• How Tuoba Gui's oldest son Tuoba Si, born in 392, was said to be a late-arriving son. According to the official chronology, Tuoba Gui would only be 21 at this point, and it might be difficult to comprehend his being characterized as having had a late fatherhood. On the other hand, during his lifetime, particularly among non-Han peoples, marriage and childbirth often happened during adolescence.

• How Tuoba Gui appeared to begin to show signs of mental deterioration when he was still just in his late 30s, with signs of paranoia that appeared to be more characteristic of men of much older age. The official version attribute this to poisoning from powders given him by alchemists, which is not an unreasonable explanation, however, or it also could have been that the paranoia had nothing to do with mental deterioration.

Whether Cui Hao, the prime minister of Tuoba Gui's grandson Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, propagated this version, and whether that contributed to Emperor Taiwu's execution of not only himself but his entire clan, is not completely clear, but appeared likely.

As Prince of Wei

Establishment of rule

For the first several years of his reign, Tuoba Gui had to endure constant gravitating of positions by tribal chiefs, and his position was not secure. As he gradually asserted his leadership, however, the tribal chiefs began to coalesce around him.

In spring 386, Tuoba Gui set his capital at Shengle (盛樂, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), and was said to encourage agriculture to try to rest his people. In summer 386, he changed his title to Prince of Wei (and thus the state became known in history as Northern Wei).

In fall 386, with support of Western Yan and Liu Xian, Tuoba Gui's youngest uncle Tuoba Kuduo (拓拔窟咄) made a claim to the throne, and there were many chiefs under Tuoba Gui who secretly conspired with Tuoba Kuduo, causing Tuoba Gui to panic to flee to his maternal uncles' Helan tribe, while seeking assistance from Later Yan. Later Yan's emperor Murong Chui sent his son Murong Lin to assist, and together they defeated Tuoba Kuduo, who fled to and was executed by Liu Weichen.

Around the new year 387, Murong Chui offered the titles of Western Chanyu and Prince of Shanggu to Tuoba Gui, but as the title of Prince of Shanggu was not as honored of one as Prince of Wei, Tuoba Gui refused them.

Despite Later Yan's assistance of him and his status as a Later Yan vassal, Tuoba Gui began to secretly consider whether he could eventually conquer Later Yan. In 388, he sent his cousin Tuoba Yi the Duke of Jiuyuan to offer tributes to Murong Chui but also to observe the Later Yan court, to consider whether he would have eventual chance of attacking it. Murong Yi concluded that Murong Chui was growing old, and that his crown prince Murong Bao was incompetent—and that there were many potential claimants who would weaken Later Yan. This encouraged Tuoba Gui greatly in his eventual planning.

In 391, Helan Na's brother Helan Rangan (賀蘭染干) plotted to kill Helan Na, and the brothers engaged in wars against each other. Tuoba Gui took this opportunity to request Later Yan to jointly attacked the Helan tribe—notwithstanding Helan Na and Helan Rangan's status as his uncles. In summer 391, Murong Lin captured Helan Na and Helan Rangan, but allowed Helan Na to remain free and be in command of his tribe, while taking Helan Rangan as a prisoner. It was after this campaign that Murong Lin, seeing Tuoba Gui's abilities, suggested to Murong Chui that Tuoba Gui be detained. Murong Chui refused.

In fall 391, an incident occurred that would lead to the break of relations between Later Yan and Northern Wei. That year, Tuoba Gui sent his brother Tuoba Gu to Later Yan to offer tribute, and Murong Chui's sons detained Tuoba Gu and ordered Tuoba Gui to offer horses to trade for Tuoba Gu's freedom. Tuoba Gui refused and broke off relations with Later Yan, instead entering into an alliance with Western Yan.

Following hostility with Later Yan

In 391, Tuoba Gui attacked Rouran—which had been a Dai vassal but had never submitted to him—inflicting major damage on Rouran, but was unable to destroy it. Rouran would remain an annoyance, and often a menace, for the rest of Northern Wei's history.

In winter 391, Liu Wenchen sent his son Liu Zhilidi to attack Northern Wei, and Tuoba Gui, despite having a much smaller army than Liu Zhilidi, defeated him, and further crossed the Yellow River to attack Liu Wenchen's capital Yueba (悅拔, in modern Ordos, Inner Mongolia), capturing it, forcing Liu Wenchen and Liu Zhilidi to flee. The next day, Liu Wenchen was killed by his subordinates, and Liu Zhilidi was captured. Tuoba Gui annexed Liu Wenchen's territory and people into his own, and slaughtered Liu Wenchen's clan and associates—more than 5,000 people. Liu Wenchen's youngest son Liu Bobo, however, fled to the Xuegan (薛干) tribe, whose chief Tai Xifu (太悉伏) refused to turn him over despite Northern Wei demands, and Liu Bobo would eventually marry the daughter of Later Qin's vassal Mo Yigan (沒奕干) and became dependent on him. To punish Tai Xifu, Tuoba Gui attacked him in 393 and slaughtered much of his tribe, although Tai Xifu himself fled.

In 394, Western Yan's emperor Murong Yong, under heavy attack by Murong Chui, sought aid from Tuoba Gui, but Tuoba Gui, while sending an army by his cousin Tuoba Qian (拓拔虔) the Duke of Chenliu and the general Yu Yue (庾岳) to distantly try to distract Later Yan, Northern Wei forces never actually engaged Later Yan, and Murong Yong was captured and killed later that year when his capital Zhangzi (長子, in modern Changzhi, Shanxi) fell, and Western Yan was annexed into Later Yan.

In 395, Tuoba Gui led raids against Later Yan's border regions. Later that year, Murong Chui commissioned an 80,000-men army led by Murong Bao, assisted by his brothers Murong Nong and Murong Lin, to try punish Northern Wei. Tuoba Gui, hearing about Murong Bao's army, abandoned Shengle and retreated west across the Yellow River. Murong Bao's army quickly reached the river in fall 395 and prepared to cross the river. However, by this point, Northern Wei scouts had cut off the line of communication between Murong Bao's army and the Later Yan capital Zhongshan (中山, in modern Baoding, Hebei), and Northern Wei had the captured Later Yan messengers declare that Murong Chui had already died, causing great disturbance in the Later Yan army. The Later Yan and Northern Wei forces stalemated across the Yellow River for 20 odd days, when Murong Lin's followers tried to start a coup and support Murong Lin as new leader, and while the coup failed, uncertainty fell on Later Yan forces. As winter came, Later Yan forces retreated and, not realizing that the Yellow River would freeze to allow Northern Wei forces to cross easily, Murong Bao left no rearguard as he retreated. Tuoba Gui personally gave chase, catching Later Yan forces unprepared at the Battle of Canhe Slope, killing or capturing nearly the entire Later Yan army, and only Murong Bao and a number of officers escaped. Tuoba Gui, fearful of the Later Yan captives, slaughtered them at the suggestion of his brother-in-law Kepin Jian (可頻建).

In 396, concerned that Northern Wei would then view Murong Bao lightly, Murong Chui personally led another expedition against Northern Wei, initially successful and killing Tuoba Qian. Tuoba Gui became concerned and considered abandoning Shengle again. However, as the army reached Canhe Slope, the soldiers cried out loud for their fathers and brothers, and Murong Chui became angry and ill, forcing the Later Yan forces to retreat to Zhongshan. He soon died, and Murong Bao succeeded him as emperor.

In fall 396, Tuoba Gui led his Northern Wei troops and made a surprise attack on Bing Province (并州, modern central and northern Shanxi), defeating Murong Nong and forcing him to flee back to Zhongshan. Tuoba Gui then advanced east, ready to attack Zhongshan. Accepting Murong Lin's suggestion, Murong Bao prepared to defend Zhongshan, leaving the Northern Wei forces free to roam over his territory, believing that Northern Wei would retreat once its forces are worn out. However, this had the effect that all of the cities' garrisons in modern Hebei abandoned them, except for Zhongshan and two other important cities—Yecheng (in modern Handan, Hebei) and Xindu (信都, in modern Hengshui, Hebei). After making an initial attack against Zhongshan and failing, Tuoba Gui changed his tactic to establishing his rule over the other cities while leaving Zhongshan alone. In spring 397, Xindu fell. Meanwhile, however, Tuoba Gui had received news of a rebellion near his capital Shengle and offered peace—which Murong Bao rejected, and Murong Bao attacked Northern Wei forces as Tuoba Gui prepared to retreat, but instead was defeated by Tuoba Gui at great loss. At this time, concerned about a coup attempt by Murong Lin, Murong Bao abandoned Zhongshan and fled to the old Former Yan capital Longcheng (龍城, in modern Jinzhou, Hebei). However, the remaining garrison at Zhongshan supported Murong Bao's nephew Murong Xiang (慕容詳) the Duke of Kaifeng as their leader, and Tuoba Gui was unable to take Zhongshan immediately. Realizing that he had alienated the Later Yan people by having slaughtered the captives at Canhe Slope, Tuoba Gui changed his policy and tried to be gentle with the conquered Later Yan territory, and while time would be required, the territories began to abide by his rule.

Murong Xiang, meanwhile, declared himself emperor, and put Tuoba Gu to death to try to show his resolve. In the fall, however, Murong Lin made a surprise attack on him, killing him and taking over Zhongshan. Murong Lin also claimed imperial title, but was unable to stand Northern Wei military pressure, and Zhongshan fell to Tuoba Gui, who was largely gentle to Zhongshan's population despite their resistance—although he slaughtered the clans of those who advocated Tuoba Gu's death. It was around this time, however, that his army suffered a serious plague that might have killed as much as half of the army and livestock. When his generals tried to persuade him to suspend the campaign, Tuoba Gui gave a response that might be quite demonstrative of his personality:

:This is the will of Heaven, and I can do nothing about it. A state can be established anywhere on earth where there are people. It only depends on how I govern it, and I am not fearful that the people would die.

Around the new year 398, with Tuoba Gui ready to attack Yecheng, Yecheng's defender Murong De abandoned it and fled south of the Yellow River, to Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan), where he declared an independent Southern Yan state. With resistance north of the Yellow River largely gone, Tuoba Gui left Tuoba Yi and Suhe Ba (素和跋) as viceroys over the former Later Yan territory, and returned to Shengle. In order to enhance communications and control, Tuoba Gui constructed a highway between Wangdu (望都, in modern Baoding, Hebei) and Dai (代, in modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei), over the Taihang Mountains. He soon, however, recalled Tuoba Yi to be his prime minister and replaced him with his cousin Tuoba Zun (拓拔遵) the Duke of Lueyang.

In summer 398, Tuoba Gui considered restoring the old name of the state, Dai, but at the suggestion of Cui Hong (崔宏), he kept the name Wei. He moved the capital from Shengle south to Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi), to be in greater proximity with the conquered territories. He also issued edicts to standardize weights and measures throughout the state, and to establish standard ceremonies based on Chinese and Xianbei traditions.

Around the new year 399, Tuoba Gui declared himself emperor. He also claimed descent from the mystical Yellow Emperor, to legitimize his reign over the Han.

Early reign as emperor

In 399, Emperor Daowu made a major attack on the Gaoche tribes near and in the Gobi Desert, inflicting great casualties and capturing many Gaoche tribesmen. In a display of cruelty and power, he ordered the captured Gaoche men to use their bodies as a wall on a hunt he carried out months later, to stop animals from escape. He also had the Gaoche slaves build a deer farm for him.

Later that year, he reorganized his government, expanding from 36 bureaus to 360 bureaus, and he also established a university at Pingcheng and ordered that books be collected throughout the empire and be delivered to Pingcheng.

In summer 399, the Southern Yan general Li Bian (李辯) surrendered the Southern Yan capital Huatai to Northern Wei, forcing the Southern Yan emperor Murong De to instead attack Jin and take over its Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) as his territory.

Later in 399, because Emperor Daowu was angry that, on a letter to Jin's general Chi Hui (郗恢), the official Cui Cheng (崔逞) insufficiently deprecated the status of Emperor An of Jin (and also because he had been offended by a previous remark made by Cui in which he thought Cui compared him to an owl), he ordered Cui to commit suicide. This incident caused Emperor Daowu's reputation among the states to suffer, as for the next few years, some important Jin officials who lost out in Jin civil wars declined to flee to him for refuge because of the incident.

In 400, Emperor Daowu considered creating an empress. Of his consorts, he most favored Consort Liu, the daughter of Liu Toujuan, who bore his oldest son Tuoba Si. However, according to Tuoba tribe customs, he was required to make the potential candidates try to forge golden statues, to try to discern divine favor. Consort Liu was unable to complete her statue, while Consort Murong, the youngest daughter of Murong Bao, whom he captured when he took Zhongshan in 397, was able to complete her statue, and so Emperor Daowu created her empress.

Around this time, Emperor Daowu became increasingly superstitious and became trusting of astrologers and alchemists, seeking immortality. He also began to use strict laws against his subordinates, punishing them harshly if they carried out what he perceived to be disrespectful actions.

In 401-402, Emperor Daowu made an attempt to attack Later Yan, by now limited to modern Liaoning, but was unable to make gains against Later Yan's emperor Murong Sheng.

Around this time, Emperor Daowu also sought marriage and peace with Later Qin. However, Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing, hearing that he already had Empress Murong, refused, and because around this time Emperor Daowu constantly attacked several Later Qin vassals, the states' relations broke down. Emperor Daowu therefore began to prepare for a confrontation with Later Qin. Later in the year, Yao Xing did make a major attack against Northern Wei. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping (姚平) the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi (柴壁, in modern Linfen, Shanxi), and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.

Late reign

In the last few years of Emperor Daowu's reign, he became increasingly harsher in his treatment of his officials. For example, in 406, as he planned the expansion of Pingcheng with intent to make it into an impressive capital, he initially had his official Mo Ti (莫題), an accomplished civil engineer, plan the city's layout, but over a relatively minor issue where Mo was not very careful, ordered Mo to commit suicide—and then used Mo's layout anyway. He also made increasing visits to Chaishan Palace (豺山宮, in modern Shuozhou, Shanxi), often spending months there at a stretch. Other key officials that he killed during this period included his cousin Tuoba Zun the Prince of Changshan, Yu Yue, Monalou Ti (莫那婁題), and Tuoba Yi the Prince of Wei.

In 407, Northern Wei and Later Qin entered into a peace treaty, returning previously captured generals to each other. This would have a disastrous consequence on Later Qin, however, as Liu Bobo, then a Later Qin general, became angry because his father Liu Weichen had been killed by Northern Wei, and therefore rebelled, establishing his own state Xia. However, he spent much more of his energy conducting guerilla warfare against Later Qin, gradually sapping Later Qin's strength, and did not actually conduct warfare against Northern Wei.

By 409, Emperor Daowu, who was said to be under the effect of poisonous substances given him by alchemists, was described to be so harsh and paranoid in his personality that he constantly feared rebellion, particularly because fortunetellers had been telling him that a rebellion would happen near him. He occasionally would not eat for days, or would not sleep overnight. He often mumbled about his past accomplishments or defeats, and he suspected all of his officials. Sometimes when officials made reports to him, he would suddenly think of their past faults and punish or even kill them. Occasionally, when others would behave even slightly inappropriately, he would be so angry that he would kill them personally and display their bodies outside the palace. The entire government came under a spell of terror. The only persons immune from this treatment were said to be the minister Cui Hong and his son Cui Hao, who were said to avoid the disaster by never offending or flattering the emperor—both of which could have brought disaster.

In fall 409, Emperor Daowu resolved to create Tuoba Si crown prince. Because of the Tuoba traditional custom of executing the designated heir's mother, he ordered Tuoba Si's mother Consort Liu to commit suicide. He explained his reasons to Crown Prince Si, who, however, could not stop mourning for his mother, and Emperor Daowu became very angry, and he summoned the crown prince. Crown Prince Si, in fear, fled out of Pingcheng.

At this time, however, Emperor Daowu would suffer death at another son's hand. When he was young, when he had visited Helan tribe, he saw his maternal aunt (Princess Dowager Helan's sister), who was very beautiful, and he asked to have her as a concubine. Princess Dowager Helan refused—but not under the rationale that it would be incest, but rather that the younger Lady Helan had already had a husband and was too beautiful—citing a saying that beautiful things were often poisonous. Without Princess Dowager Helan's knowledge, he assassinated the younger Lady Helan's husband and took her as a concubine, and in 394 she bore him a son, Tuoba Shao (拓拔紹), whom he later created the Prince of Qinghe. Tuoba Shao was said to be a reckless teenager, who often visited the streets in commoner disguises, and often robbed travelers and strip them naked for fun. When Emperor Daowu heard this, he punished Tuoba Shao by hanging him upside down in a well, only pulling him out as he neared death. In fall 409, Emperor Daowu had an argument with Consort Helan, and he imprisoned her and planned to execute her, but it was dusk at the time, and he hesitated. Consort Helan secretly sent a messenger to Tuoba Shao, asking him to save her. At night, Tuoba Shao, then 15, entered the palace and killed Emperor Daowu. The next day, however, the imperial guards arrested and killed Tuoba Shao and Consort Helan, and Tuoba Si took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan.

Era names

• Dengguo (登國 dēng guó) 386–396

• Huangshi (皇始 huáng shǐ) 396–398

• Tianxing (天興 tiān xīng) 398–404

• Tianci (天賜 tiān cì) 404–409

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Daowu, of the Murong clan (道武皇后 慕容氏), second cousin

• Empress Xuanmu, of the Liu clan (宣穆皇后 劉氏; d. 409)

　• Princess Huayin (華陰公主)

　　• Married Ji Ba, Prince Changle (嵇拔), and had issue (one son)

　• Tuoba Si, Emperor Mingyuan (明元皇帝 拓跋嗣; 392–423), first son

• Furen, of the He clan (夫人 賀氏; d. 409), aunt

　• Tuoba Shao, Prince Qinghe (清河王 拓跋紹; 394–409), second son

• Furen, of the Wang clan (夫人 王氏)

　• Tuoba Xi, Prince Yangping (陽平王 拓跋熙; 399–421)

• Furen, of the Wang clan (夫人 王氏)

　• Tuoba Yao, Prince Henan (河南王 拓跋曜; 401–422)

• Furen, of the Duan clan (夫人 段氏)

　• Tuoba Lian, Prince Guangping (廣平王 拓跋連; d. 426), seventh son

　• Tuoba Li, Prince Jingzhao (京兆王 拓跋黎; d. 428), eighth son

• Unknown

　• Tuoba Xiu, Prince Hejian (河間王 拓跋脩; d. 416), fifth son

　• Tuoba Chuwen, Prince Changle (長樂王 拓跋處文; 403–416), sixth son

　• Tuoba Cong (拓跋聰)

　• Princess Huoze (濩澤公主)

　　• Married Lü Dafei, Prince Zhongshan (閭大肥), a son of Yujiulü Datan, and had issue (one son)

Ancestry