生平

姚兴在前秦时任太子舍人。白雀元年（384年），姚苌在渭北马牧称万年秦王，建后秦，姚兴时在长安，冒险出走与父亲会合。建初元年（386年），姚苌在夺得长安（今陕西西安）后称帝，就立了姚兴为皇太子。其时姚苌屡次在外与前秦对抗，姚兴就经常留镇长安以统后事。其时又与太子中舍人梁喜及太子洗马范勖讲论经籍，不以兵戎废业，当时的人亦受他们影响。

消灭前秦

建初八年（393年）十二月，姚苌去世，死前命太尉姚旻、仆射尹纬、姚晃、将军姚大目及尚书狄伯支为辅政大臣，并向姚兴说：「若有人谤毁这几位大臣，小心不要听信。你以仁管教子女，以礼对待大臣，以信处事，以恩治民，这四项你能做到，我就不忧心了。」姚苌死后，姚兴秘不发丧，分命姚绪、姚硕德及姚崇驻安定、阴密及长安，自己就自称大将军，领兵进攻前秦。

次年春，前秦皇帝苻登听闻姚苌已死即十分高兴，又轻视姚兴，随即率众东进。至夏季，苻登要进攻废桥，尹纬则受命支援守马嵬堡的姚详，尹纬于是据守废桥等待前秦军。前秦军因无法取得水源而缺水，两三成士兵更因而渴死，于是急攻尹纬希望能夺取水源。姚兴当时认为苻登已是穷寇，于是派狄伯支命令尹纬要持重拒战，不要轻易与前秦军决战。不过尹纬认为姚苌新死，人心恐惧不安，应当用尽力量消灭敌人，安定众心。尹纬于是与苻登决战，终大败前秦军，苻登因兵众溃散而逃走，逃到马毛山。战后，姚兴才正式发丧，并在槐里（今陕西兴平东南）即位为帝，改元「皇初」。七月，姚兴进攻苻登并在马毛山南作战，擒杀苻登，并解散其部众。不久继位的前秦皇帝苻崇因被乞伏乾归逼逐而联结杨定进攻乞伏乾归，却遭对方所杀，前秦正式灭亡。

对外扩张

皇初七年（397年），姚兴率兵进攻东晋控制的湖城，弘农太守陶仲山及华山太守董迈都投降。姚兴于是进至陕城（今河南陕县），并攻下上洛（今陕西商洛市）。另又分遣姚崇进攻洛阳（今河南洛阳），因晋河南太守夏侯宗之守金镛城而未能攻克，于是改攻柏谷，强迁两万多户流民西归。及至皇初九年（399年），姚兴命姚崇及杨佛嵩再攻洛阳，守将辛恭靖坚守一百多日后失守，后秦夺得洛阳。取洛阳后，淮河、汉水以北各城大多都向后秦请降，并送人质。

弘始二年（400年），姚硕德进攻西秦，西秦王乞伏乾归率众抵抗，两军对峙期间姚硕德军中柴草缺乏，姚兴就暗中领兵支援。乞伏乾归知道姚兴派军前来，于是命慕兀率二万中军屯柏杨（今甘肃清水县西南），罗敦率外军屯侯辰谷，自己领数千轻骑等候秦军。不过其夜遇上大风和大雾，乞伏乾归与慕兀的中军失去联络，被逼与外军会合。天亮后，乞伏乾归就与后秦军作战，终大败并逃返苑川（今甘肃榆中县北），后秦军受降共三万六千多人，姚兴则进军枹罕（今甘肃临夏市）。乞伏乾归初降秃发利鹿孤，但因怕不为对方所容，最终决定归降后秦。

弘始三年（401年），姚兴命姚硕德进攻后凉，并兵围后凉首都姑臧（今甘肃武威）。后凉王吕隆被逼请降。而在后秦攻凉时，西凉李暠、南凉秃发利鹿孤及北凉沮渠蒙逊都遣使向后秦请降。直至弘始五年（403年），后凉被南凉和北凉所逼，最终请后秦派军迎来归附，姚兴因而派了齐难等人到姑臧，驻兵当地并送吕氏宗族内徙长安，吞并后凉。另外在攻打后凉姑臧时，连带的将名僧鸠摩罗什请回长安。尔后为鸠摩罗什讲解《法华经》，建造｢长安大寺｣。鸠摩罗什于长安圆寂，其生前将大乘佛教的主要经典(如《中论》、《法华经》、《维摩诘经》等)译为汉文。

柴壁之战

北魏君主拓跋圭曾经送一千匹马到后秦请婚，姚兴原先答应，但知拓跋圭已立了后，于是拒绝并留下使者贺狄干。弘始四年（402年），北魏将领拓跋遵进攻高平（今甘肃固原），没弈干抛弃部众，带著数千骑兵及赫连勃勃逃到秦州。北魏军追击至瓦亭仍未追上，于是尽迁高平的物资回国；及后北魏平阳太守贰尘又进攻河东。北魏的一系列军事行动震动长安，关中各城日间也紧闭城门，姚兴于是在城西阅兵，并做好战争准备。同年，姚兴派姚平及狄伯支等率四万步骑兵进攻北魏，姚兴则亲率大军在后。北魏帝拓跋圭则命拓跋顺及长孙肥统六万骑兵为先锋，自己也率大军在后以作抵抗。姚平用了六十多天攻陷了北魏屯积粮食的乾壁，又派二百精骑侦察魏军，却为长孙肥袭击，所有人都被生擒。姚平因而后撤，又遭拓跋圭追击，并在柴壁（今山西襄汾县西南）被追上；姚平当时据柴壁城固守，北魏军则围困城池。姚兴于是自领四万七千兵营救姚平，并打算占领天渡以运粮支援姚平。不过北魏加强了包围圈，又在汾水建浮桥，在汾水西岸筑围堵截姚兴援军，务求引姚兴取道汾东，经长达三百多里而缺乏小路通行的蒙坑进攻。而姚兴到蒲阪后因怕魏军强盛，很久才正式进攻。及后姚兴在蒙坑以南与拓跋圭所率三万步骑兵作战，后秦军共千多人被杀，姚兴被逼退走四十多里，而姚平亦未能突围。接著拓跋圭分兵各据险要，不让后秦军接近柴壁。姚兴驻屯汾西，在汾水上游放木材打算冲毁北魏浮桥，但木材都被魏军截取。至十月，姚平军需用尽，在夜间试图向西南方突围，姚兴列兵汾西，点起烽火和擂鼓响应，不过姚兴欲救姚平尽力突阵，姚平反望姚兴攻围接应，两军虽然能够以叫喊相通，但始终都没能压逼围城魏军。姚平最终无法成功突围，于是率众投水自杀，然而拓跋圭却都派人潜下水捕捉，赴水诸将与城中狄伯支、唐小方等人及两万多兵众都被俘。姚兴只能见城中军队束手就擒而无力支援，全军都哀伤痛哭，哭声震动山谷。接著姚兴数度派遣使者求和，但都被拒，魏军更乘胜进攻蒲阪。防御蒲阪的姚绪固守不战，又正因柔然要进攻北魏，拓跋圭才撤兵。

夏国内扰

弘始九年（407年），北魏归还柴壁之战中被俘的唐小方等人，姚兴又以良马千匹赎回狄伯支，与北魏通和。赫连勃勃因后秦与北魏连和而大怒，竟抢夺了柔然送给后秦的八千匹马，并袭杀没弈干叛变，称大夏天王，建夏国。赫连勃勃随后又攻破鲜卑薛干等三部，并进攻后秦三城以北诸戍，后秦将杨丕、姚石生等都被杀，接著又侵掠岭北，令岭北各城城门白天也要紧闭。姚兴此时感叹：「我不听黄儿（姚兴弟姚邕小字）的话，才弄成今天这样子。」

随后秃发傉檀大败于赫连勃勃，名将折损达六七成，接著成七儿及梁裒、边宪等又先后谋反，姚兴见其并受外忧外患夹击，不顾尚书郎韦宗的劝阻和吏部尚书尹昭命北凉及西凉进攻秃发傉檀的建议，坚持分兵两道进攻夏和秃发傉檀。姚兴于弘始十年（408年）派了齐难领二万骑兵攻夏，又派姚弼、敛成及乞伏乾归攻秃发傉檀，更写信给秃发傉檀声称姚弼等其实只是配合齐难进攻夏国的行动，秃发傉檀不作防备。不过姚弼等到姑臧后反被秃发傉檀的奇兵击败，后又特地释放牛羊引诱后秦军掠夺，大败秦军。作为后继的姚显知姚弼兵败，加快赶到姑臧，并命孟钦等五名擅长射击的人于凉风门挑战，却遭南凉材官将军宋益击杀。姚显见此委罪于敛成，派使者向秃发傉檀谢罪，抚慰河西后就撤还。而秃发傉檀亦派使者徐宿向后秦谢罪。不过在当年又再称凉王。

而赫连勃勃知齐难来攻，于是退守河曲。齐难见赫连勃勃仍在很远，于是先行纵兵野略；赫连勃勃因而潜军来袭，俘杀七千多人，齐难逃走但在木城遭赫连勃勃生擒，其馀将士亦被俘。战后岭北共计有数万人归附赫连勃勃。弘始十一年（409年），姚兴再派姚冲及狄伯支率四万骑再攻夏，但姚冲竟图谋反，并杀了不肯支持的狄伯支，姚兴终赐死姚冲。同年，姚兴亲自率军攻夏，至贰城后就派姚详、敛曼嵬及彭白狼分督租运。其时诸军未集合，而赫连勃勃乘虚来袭，姚兴恐惧之下打算逃到姚详那里，但被右仆射韦华劝止。姚兴派姚文宗等迎战，虽将领姚榆生被擒，但在姚文宗力战之下也成功击退赫连勃勃。姚兴唯有留五千禁军助姚详守贰城，自己撤还长安。

赫连勃勃攻破了敕奇堡、黄石固及我罗城。次年又派胡金纂攻平凉，虽然姚兴亲自率军击杀胡金纂，但赫连勃勃侄赫连罗提又攻下定阳，杀四千多人并俘姚广都。当时秦将曹炽、曹云及王肆佛等被逼领数千户内徙，姚兴就让他们住在湟山及陈仓。接著赫连勃勃又进攻陇，攻略阳太守姚寿都守的清水城，姚寿都弃城奔上邽，而赫连勃勃就迁了城中一万六千户人到大城。姚兴试图从安定追击赫连勃勃，但追不上。及后赫连勃勃仍屡屡侵扰后秦，但姚兴都无法消灭夏国。

姚弼争储

姚兴子广平公姚弼得父亲宠爱，任雍州刺史，出镇安定时天水人姜纪接近姚弼，并劝他巴结姚兴左右以望还朝，姚弼于是巴结常山公姚显。至弘始十三年（411年），姚兴就召了姚弼回长安，让他为尚书令、侍中、大将军。姚弼于是担当将相要职，更心引见人才，收结朝士，形成了一股比太子姚泓更大的势力，更有图取其太子之位。后来姚弼因为厌恶姚泓亲信姚文宗，就诬陷他有所怨言，并让侍御史廉桃生作证。姚兴信以为真，一怒之下就赐死姚文宗。朝中大臣于是都不敢再说姚弼不是了。

因著对姚弼的宠爱，姚兴对姚弼几乎言听计从，于是机要职位都由姚弼亲信出任。当时右仆射梁喜、侍中任谦及京兆尹尹昭就找机会向姚兴表示姚弼有夺嫡的志向，指出姚兴不当的宠爱他，令倾险无赖的人都在其身边，又说民间都说姚兴有废立之意，三人同时表示反对易储。姚兴立即否认有易储计划，三人就是更劝姚兴削减姚弼权力并除去其身边党羽，既保姚弼，亦保国家。姚兴听后就沉默不言。

弘始十六年（414年），姚兴病重，太子姚泓屯兵东华门，并在谘议堂侍疾。当时姚弼却意图作乱，招集了数千人并藏匿在其府中。姚裕当时与任谦、梁喜等人都掌禁军守衞皇宫，而姚裕就派使者将姚弼谋反的行状告知各个外藩，于是驻蒲阪的姚懿、洛阳的姚洸及雍城的姚谌都将要领兵入长安讨伐姚弼。此时姚兴病情好转，召见了群臣，征虏将军刘羌向姚兴泣告姚弼谋反之事，尹昭等都建议姚兴即使不按法处死，也应削其权力，让他散居藩国。姚兴仍然欣赏才兼文武的姚弼，不忍杀他，于是免去其尚书令职位，以大将军、广平公身份还第。

及后姚懿、姚洸、姚宣及姚谌来朝，见面时姚宣哭请姚兴按法处置姚弼，但姚兴拒绝。抚军东曹属姜虬也上书指姚弼虽然被姑息，但其党羽仍然活跃，姚弼变乱的心是不会变的，更请消除姚弼党羽，以绝祸根。姚兴就问梁喜：「天下的人全都以我儿子作为口实，要如何处理？」梁喜则说：「真的如姜虬所言，陛下应该早点有个决定。」姚兴又沉默不言。

弘始十七年（415年），姚弼知姚宣在父亲面前说自己不是，十分愤恨，于是就向姚兴诬陷姚宣。姚兴又相信，并召见当时到了长安的姚宣司马权丕，责怪他没有好好匡辅姚宣并要处死他。但权丕竟然捏造了姚宣的罪状报告姚兴。姚兴于是大怒，收捕了姚宣并派姚弼率兵三万出镇秦州。尹昭知道后向姚兴指让姚弼统大军在外，一旦姚兴去世，就会是太子姚泓的大大威胁，试图劝止姚兴，但姚兴不听。

同年，姚兴食五石散中毒，姚弼却称病不朝，又再次在府中招集兵众。姚兴知道后大怒，杀了姚弼党羽殿中侍御史唐盛及孙元。姚泓却在怪责自己，请姚兴杀了他，或处之外藩。姚兴于是召了姚赞、梁喜、尹昭及敛曼嵬，和他们讨论后囚禁了姚弼并准备杀了他，又要将姚弼党羽全部治罪。不过姚泓请命之下，都将他们寛恕。

弘始十八年（416年），姚兴出行华阴，留姚泓监国。及后姚兴病重回长安，姚弼党羽尹冲等仍想发难，想趁姚泓出迎姚兴而将其杀害，但姚泓只在黄龙门拜迎。其时尚书姚沙弥更意图劫夺姚兴到广平公府，以姚兴招引众人支持，从而从姚泓手中夺去储君之位。尹冲虽不从，但仍然考虑随姚兴乘舆入宫中作乱，只是未知姚兴生死而不敢行动。姚兴则命姚泓录尚书事，并命姚绍及胡翼度掌禁军，又命敛曼嵬收去姚弼府中的武器。

不久，姚兴病情更趋严重，姚兴妹南安长公主去探望他也得不到回应，姚兴幼子姚耕儿就向哥哥姚愔报告姚兴已死，叫他快点做决定。姚愔于是就带其他的士兵攻端门，敛曼嵬领兵抵御，而胡翼度就关上宫中四门。姚愔派壮士爬上门并进入宫内，并走到马道。时在谘议堂侍疾的姚泓命敛曼嵬登武库抵御，而太子右衞率姚和都亦已率东宫士兵在马道南驻屯。姚愔无法前进，只得烧毁端门。姚兴此时竭力走到前殿，并下令赐死姚弼。禁军见到姚兴士气大振，向姚愔军发动进攻，姚和都也在后夹击，最终姚愔军溃败，姚愔逃到骊山，吕隆则逃到雍城，尹冲及尹泓就南奔东晋。

姚兴召姚绍、姚赞、梁喜、尹昭和敛曼嵬入寝宫，遗命他们为辅政大臣。姚兴即逝世，享年五十一岁。諡文桓皇帝，庙号高祖，下葬偶陵。

为政措施

姚兴曾命各郡国每年都上报一个品行纯洁的孝廉，又留心政事，广纳百言，包容各种意见。即使只是说了一句姚兴认为有益的建言，都会得到特别礼待。如杜瑾、吉默和周宝就曾因向姚兴陈述当时国中大事而获授要职。姚兴又重文教，当时有姜龛、淳于岐及郭高等有大德的老儒士在长安教学，各有数百门生，其中有不少门生更远道而来。而姚兴就在处理政务以外的时间请姜龛等到东堂和他谈论学问和技艺。当时一叫胡辩的人在当时仍是东晋占领的洛阳授学，很多关中人都去拜师，姚兴更下令各关守长尽量方便这些求学的人出入。种种措施都令后秦儒学兴盛。

皇初九年（399年），姚兴以国内天灾频频，于是自降帝号，称秦王；另又下令郡国将因战乱而卖身为奴婢的人变回良人，更将几个贪财官员诛杀，整顿官员风气。及后又在长安建立法律学校，让各郡县散吏入读，学成者就送回郡县以处理形狱事项，又下令郡县无法裁决的都上交廷尉处理。姚兴更经常到谘议堂听讼和作判决，大大减少了冤狱。

弘始三年（401年）吕隆向后秦请降后，姚兴就迎在后凉的僧人鸠摩罗什入长安，并奉其为国师，奉之如神。鸠摩罗什在长安组织了大规模的翻译佛经事业，姚兴亦信了佛，于是群下都跟著信奉佛教，又吸引了五千多个僧人远道而来。姚兴又在永贵里建了佛塔、在中宫建了波若台，佛教兴盛，各州郡都受到佛教影响，至「求佛者十室而九。」

姚兴在位后期，国库不足，曾增加关隘和渡口的税，又向盐、竹、山林和木材徵税。群臣曾劝谏但姚兴认为能够常出入关隘及取利于山水资源的都是富人，现在增税其实只是取富人多馀的而弥补国家不足，并无不妥。

性格特徵

姚兴生性俭约，所乘车马都没有黄金或玉石装饰，以身作则之下，群下都崇尚清正廉洁。不过姚兴却喜欢打猎，常伤及农作物。杜挻及相云曾分别作《丰草诗》及《德猎赋》以作暗示，姚兴虽然明白并以黄金及布帛作赏赐，但始终改变不了打猎的习惯。

每当大臣去世，姚兴都不会只按惯例在东堂发哀，而会亲身去临丧。

姚兴十分看重亲族，更对两名叔叔姚硕德及姚绪十分恭敬。姚兴降号为王时，本为王爵的姚硕德及姚绪应当降为公爵，但姚兴不允，在二人再三辞让下才得允许。姚兴又曾下令所有官员取名时不得犯二人名讳，所有车马、衣服及器玩都先给二人，自己只用次一等的，见面时行家人之礼，朝中大事亦必定先谘询二人。姚冲叛变不遂杀了顾命大臣之一的狄伯支，姚兴仍然顾念他是最小的弟弟，雄武绝人，还想对他宽容一次，不过在敛成规劝下，姚兴想到他杀了狄伯支，就下书赐死姚冲。

家庭

后妃

• 张皇后

• 齐皇后

子女

• 太子姚泓，后秦末主

• 太原公姚懿

• 广平公姚弼，弘始十八年（416年），谋乱失败，赐死

• 陈留公姚洸

• 公爵姚宣

• 公爵姚谌

• 南阳公姚愔，416年被姚泓诛杀

• 平原公姚璞，永和（417年）投降刘裕，被杀

• 公爵姚质

• 公爵姚逵

• 公爵姚裕

• 公爵姚国儿

• 姚耕儿

• 北魏陇西公姚黄眉

• 西平公主

注释

Before and during Yao Changs reign

Yao Xing was born in 366, when his father Yao Chang was a general under the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān. (Who his mother was is open to interpretation; Yao Chang's wife, the later Empress She, was mentioned as his mother, but when Yao Xing later became emperor, he posthumously honored one of Yao Chang's concubines, Consort Sun, as empress dowager, which allows an inference that he could have been born of Consort Sun but raised by Empress She, but there is no conclusive evidence.) Not much is known about his life under Former Qin rule, other than that when he grew older, he served as an assistant to Fu Jiān's crown prince Fu Hong (苻宏).

When Yao Chang declared a rebellion and established Later Qin in 384, Yao Xing was at the Former Qin capital Chang'an, and he immediately fled to his father. For the next several years, as Yao Chang fought with Former Qin and Western Yan, Yao Xing was often entrusted with guarding the base of operations (initially Beidi (北地, in modern Tongchuan, Shaanxi), later Chang'an after Western Yan captured and then abandoned it), while his father engaged in campaigns. In 386, after Yao Chang declared himself emperor, he created Yao Xing crown prince. He was considered to be firm and gracious, and he spent much time studying literature despite the work necessary in maintaining home base. In 392, while Yao Chang was away on a campaign, Yao Xing, at the suggestion of the general Yao Fangcheng (姚方成), executed a number of Former Qin generals whom Yao Chang had taken captive earlier. While Yao Chang was angry on the surface, he appeared to be secretly happy that Yao Xing realized the danger that these generals posed. In 393, when the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng attacked the Later Qin vassal Dou Chong, Yao Chang, at the suggestion of the prime minister Yin Wei (尹纬), sent Yao Xing against Fu Deng, in order to establish Yao Xing's authority over the troops. Yao Xing was able to stop Fu Deng's attack on Dou fairly easily.

Around the new year 393, Yao Chang fell seriously ill. He told Yao Xing, on his death bed, to trust the several officials that he entrusted his administration with—Yin, Yao Huang (姚晃), Yao Damu (姚大目), and Di Bozhi (狄伯支). When Yao Huang asked Yao Chang for strategies to defeat Fu Deng, Yao Chang refused to answer, merely stating that he trusted that Yao Xing would be able to accomplish it. He soon died, and Yao Xing succeeded him, although initially not keeping Yao Chang's death a secret and entrusting the troops to his uncles Yao Xu (姚绪) and Yao Shuode (姚硕德) and his brother Yao Chóng (姚崇), while preparing a campaign against Former Qin.

Early reign: establishment of Later Qin as regional power

Despite Yao Xing's hopes of keeping his father's death a secret, Fu Deng received news of it anyway—and immediately prepared a major attack against Later Qin. Fu Deng had his brother Fu Guang (苻广) defend the base of Yongcheng (雍城, in modern Baoji, Shaanxi) and Fu Chong defend the base of Hu Kong Castle (胡空堡, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), and, in his anxiety, did not make sure that his army had sufficient water supply. Yao Xing set up his army at Mawei (马嵬, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi) to prevent Former Qin forces from reaching the river near Mawei, and Former Qin forces were stricken by thirst, but still fought harder. Yao Xing initially ordered Yin to be cautious, but Yin, realizing the trouble the Former Qin forces were already in and believing that morale would be destroyed if he undertook a cautious strategy, fought back fervently, and the Former Qin forces collapsed. Upon hearing the defeat, Fu Deng's brother Fu Guang (苻广) and son Fu Chong abandoned the two bases that they were holding, and Fu Deng was unable to recapture them. He then sought help from the King of Western Qin, Qifu Gangui, who sent a relief force headed by Qifu Yizhou (乞伏益州). As Fu Deng sought to join up with Qifu Yizhou, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. He disbanded Fu Deng's troops and gave Fu Deng's Empress Li to Yao Huang. Fu Deng's crown prince Fu Chong would assume imperial title and attempt to resist Later Qin a few months longer, but later in the year died in battle against Western Qin after Qifu Gangui turned against him, ending Former Qin. Later Qin assumed nearly all of Former Qin's remaining territory. Around the new year 395, Later Qin established peace with Later Yan, thus obviating likelihood of war on the eastern border—although later in 395, when Later Yan's crown prince Murong Bao carried out a disastrous campaign against Northern Wei's King Tuoba Gui, Later Qin sent a relief force to aid Northern Wei, although Later Qin forces did not actually engage Later Yan. Further, in 397, with Later Yan under heavy attack by Northern Wei after its founding emperor Murong Chui died and was replaced by Murong Bao, Later Qin refused to provide aid to Later Yan.

Later in 397, Empress Dowager She died. Yao Xing was described to be in such great mourning that he was unable to handle matters of state for some time. After that had passed, however, he continued to wear mourning clothes.

Overall, during this period, Yao Xing was described by historians as diligent and willing to listen to different opinions, ruling the empire efficiently. He engaged in a number of campaigns on the various borders, enlarging Later Qin's territories and influence.

In 399, Yao Xing sent his brother Yao Chóng the Duke of Qi and the general Yang Foxong (杨佛嵩) to attack the important Jin city of Luoyang, and in winter 399 captured Luoyang and the surrounding cities.

Also in 399, Yao Xing, in response to astrological signs that were considered signs of disaster, stopped claiming the title of emperor, instead using the title "Heavenly King" (Tian Wang), to show humility to the gods. He also accordingly demoted his officials and noble by one rank.

In 400, Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode the Duke of Longxi to launch a major attack against Western Qin. Despite Western Qin's initial success in cutting of Yao Shuode's supply line, Yao Xing himself led a force to aid yao Shuode, defeating Western Qin's king Qifu Gangui in battle, nearly capturing Qifu Gangui's entire army and proceeding to take most of Western Qin's cities. Qifu Gangui himself surrendered to Southern Liang's king Tufa Lilugu, thus temporarily ending Western Qin's existence. In fall 400, believing that he was being suspected by Tufa Lilugu, Qifu Gangui fled from Southern Liang and surrendered to Later Qin. Yao Xing created him the Marquess of Guiyi and, in 401, took the unusual action of giving Qifu Gangui his army back and ordering him to defend his old capital Wanchuan (苑川, in modern Baiyin, Gansu), and while Qifu Gangui was in name a Later Qin general, he acted independently at times.

Later in 401, Yao Xing, under suggestion from Yao Shuode, launched a major attack against Later Liang. To avoid conflict, Tufa Lilugu ordered Southern Liang forces to yield a path for Later Qin forces, and Yao Shuode therefore easily reached the Later Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu), putting the city under siege. Southern Liang, Northern Liang, and Western Liang all sent messengers submitting as vassals. After two months of siege, Later Liang's emperor Lü Long also submitted as a vassal, and was given the title Duke of Jiankang, although he remained in control of Guzang and continued to use the Heavenly King title internally as well. Northern Liang's duke Juqu Mengxun became so apprehensive that he offered to yield his territory and relocate his entire army into Later Qin proper, but later reneged on the promise, although he remained Later Qin vassal for years. (Despite their status as Later Qin vassals, however, the various Liang states continued to battle against each other.)

Middle reign: entrenchment and stagnation

Around the new year 402, Northern Wei attacked the Later Qin vassal Mo Yigan (没奕干), and this led to the breakdown of relations between Northern Wei and Later Qin. When Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu (Tuoba Gui) sought marriage with Later Qin, Yao Xing, because of this and because he heard that Emperor Daowu already had Empress Murong as his wife, refused. In summer 402, Yao Xing personally led a major attack against Northern Wei, which had by this point taken over nearly all of Later Yan's territory north of the Yellow River. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping (姚平) the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi (柴壁, in modern Linfen, Shanxi), and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.

Also in 402, Yao Xing created his concubine Consort Zhang empress. He also created his son Yao Hong as crown prince and other sons as dukes. (Yao Xing had long wanted to create Yao Hong, described as kind, loving, and studious, as crown prince, but hesitated because Yao Hong was also regarded as having a weak personality and prone to illnesses.)

Around this time, Yao Xing also appeared to have become a devout Buddhist, under the influence of the monk Kumarajiva. This appeared to have a major influence on his actions later on—as he appeared to avoid decisive actions that may lead to many deaths, while trying to act gently toward his enemies. This had an unfortunately deleterious effect on his empire, which, for the most part, stopped expanding. In 405, he gave Kumaraijiva an honorific title, treating him like a god, and often led his officials in listening to Kumaraijiva's sermons. At his request, Kumarajiva translated more than 300 sutras into Chinese. Yao Xing also built many towers and temples. Because of his influence, it was described that 90% of the population became Buddhists.

In 403, with his Later Liang state continuously under attack by Northern Liang and Southern Liang, Lü Long surrendered the Guzang region—the only territory still remaining under Later Liang control—to Later Qin, thus ending Later Liang. Yao Xing moved Lü Long and his clan to Chang'an and made him and his brother Lü Chao (吕超) officials. However, because Northern Liang and Southern Liang were only nominal vassals, Guzang was effectively a lone island of Later Qin control. In 404, Southern Liang's king Tufa Rutan (Tufa Lilugu's brother) stopped claiming kingly title and using his own era name, in a further showing of submission to Later Qin, although internally he remained effectively independent.

In 405, at the request of the Jin general Liu Yu, Yao Xing returned 12 commanderies that had switched their allegiance from Jin to Later Qin during the Jin civil war from 398 to 405, despite his officials' opposition. (This gesture, however, would not be reciprocated by Liu, who would destroy Later Qin after Yao Xing's death.)

In 406, in response to Tufa Rutan's tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 sheep, Yao Xing became so touched that he yielded Guzang to Tufa Rutan, thus ending Later Qin's actual control of the Guzang region.

In 407, believing that Qifu Gangui was becoming difficult to control, when Qifu Gangui arrived in Chang'an for an official visit, he detained Qifu Gangui to be a civilian official, while giving command of Qifu Gangui's army to Qifu Gangui's heir apparent, Qifu Chipan.

Later in 407, Later Qin and Northern Wei agreed to peace—returning previously captured generals to each other. The Later Qin general Liu Bobo (who would later change his name to Helian Bobo), who was then in charge of Shuofang (朔方, in modern Ordos, Inner Mongolia), because his father Liu Weichen (刘卫辰) had been killed by Northern Wei forces in 391, became angry and declared a rebellion, establishing Xia. Liu Bobo used guerrilla tactics against Later Qin, wearing Later Qin's armies and cities down. From this point on, Later Qin began to decline.

Late reign: gradual weakening of Later Qin

In 407, Murong Chao, the emperor of Southern Yan, whose mother and wife were then in Later Qin, requested to have them delivered to Southern Yan. Yao Xing agreed to do so if Murong Chao would agree to be a vassal and either deliver Former Qin palatial musicians (who were taken by Western Yan and eventually passed through Later Yan and then Southern Yan) or 1,000 Jin citizens to Later Qin, before his request would be agreed. Murong Chao agreed to yield as vassal, and delivered the musicians to Later Qin. Yao Xing then delivered his mother and wife to him, along with gifts.

Also in 407, Qiao Zong, who had taken control of Jin's Yi Province (modern Chongqing and Sichuan) and declared himself the King of Chengdu, became a Later Qin vassal.

In 408, noticing that Southern Liang was under severe attack by its neighbors (including having suffered a terrible defeat to Xia in 407), Yao Xing launched a campaign to try to destroy Southern Liang, despite opposition by his official Wei Zong (韦宗), who felt that Tufa Rutan would not be defeated easily. He commissioned his son Yao Bi (姚弼) the Duke of Guangping along with Qifu Gangui and Lian Cheng (敛成) to attack Southern Liang, while simultaneously commission Qi Nan (齐难) to attack Xia. Both ventures ended badly. Yao Bi and later Yao Xian (姚显) the Duke of Changshan were defeated by Tufa Rutan, and Yao Xing was forced to agree to a new peace with Southern Liang while having lost prestige based on the defeat. Even more disastrous was the Qi's mission, however, as Qi fell into a trap laid by Liu Bobo and was captured with his entire army, causing all of modern northern Shaanxi to fall into Xia hands. Later in 408, Tufa Rutan effectively repudiated his vassal status by again claiming the title King of Liang (instead of the Later Qin-created title of Duke of Guangwu) and changing era name.

Around this time, there also began to be increasing tendencies by Yao Xing's brothers and sons to plot to take over power. For example, in 409, his brother Yao Chōng (姚冲, note different tone than another brother) tried to force Di Bozhi to join him in a plot to attack Chang'an, and when Di refused, poisoned Di to death, but was discovered later and forced to commit suicide.

Also in 409, Qifu Gangui escaped and returned to Wanchuan to join his son Qifu Chipan. He soon redeclared independence and reestablished Western Qin as its king. He soon launched several campaigns against Later Qin and inflicted substantial damage, although he would apologize in 411 and again declared himself a Later Qin vassal. Later that year, however, he resumed his attacks.

Later in 409, the Jin general Liu Yu launched a major attack on Southern Yan, which sought aid from Later Qin. Initially, Yao Xing sent messengers to try to persuade Liu Yu to withdraw, and also sent a relief force commanded by Yao Qiang (姚强), but was forced to withdraw Yao Qiang's force when he suffered a major loss at Liu Bobo's hands and was nearly captured. Without aid from Later Qin, Southern Yan fell to Jin in early 410.

Later in 410, at Qiao Zong's request, Yao Xing sent an army commanded by Gou Lin (苟林) to join Qiao Zong's army, commanded by Huan Qian (桓谦) and Qiao Daofu (谯道福) to attack Jin's Jing Province (荆州, modern Hunan and central Hubei). However, Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui (刘道规) defeated both armies, killing Huan Qian and forcing Gou to flee.

As of 411, Yao Bi, who was greatly favored by Yao Xing, was deep into a conspiracy to try to undermine the crown prince Yao Hong.

In 412, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by his nephew Qifu Gongfu (乞伏公府), the son of the founding king Qifu Guoren. Many Later Qin officials try to persuade Yao Xing to take the opportunity, as Qifu Gongfu and Qifu Chipan battled for control of the state, to attack Western Qin. Yao Xing refused, believing it improper to attack a state that was still mourning.

Also in 412, Yao Xing created his concubine Consort Qi empress. (No historical record gave the date when Yao Xing's first empress Empress Zhang died, but presumably she had by this point.)

In 413, Liu Yu's general Zhu Lingshi (朱龄石) attacked Qiao Zong's Western Shu state and destroyed it, reannexing it to Jin. Yao Xing, although Western Shu's suzerain, was unable to aid it.

In 414, Yao Bi made several attempts to be made crown prince by having officials close to him suggesting Yao Xing to replace Yao Hong with him. Yao Xing refused, but did not rebuke Yao Bi. Yao Xing grew seriously ill that year, and Yao Bi planned a coup to take over. His brother Yao Yu revealed his plot to the other brothers Yao Yi, Yao Huang, Yao Chen, and Yao Xuan, who mobilized their own forces to be ready to attack Yao Bi if necessary. Yao Xing was forced to relieve Yao Bi of his posts, and the other sons demobilized and arrived at Chang'an for an official visit. The sons accused Yao Bi of many crimes, but Yao Xing took no further action. Indeed, in 415, Yao Bi retaliated by falsely accusing Yao Xuan of crimes, and Yao Xing arrested Yao Xuan.

In summer 415, the Jin general Sima Xiuzhi (司马休之), having been forced to escape after Liu Yu attacked him, fled to Later Qin. Yao Xing commissioned Sima Xiuzhi with an army to let him harass Jin borders, despite warnings by his officials of a prophecy that the Simas would regain Guanzhong and the Luoyang region.

In fall 415, Yao Xing fell ill again, and Yao Bi secretly gathered forces again to plan a coup. Yao Xing found out and arrested Yao Bi, but at Yao Hong's urging did not execute him but instead released him.

In winter 415, Yao Xing sent his daughter, the Princess Xiping, to Northern Wei to be married to Emperor Daowu's son Emperor Mingyuan, in order to affirm the alliance between the two states. Emperor Mingyuan welcomed her with the ceremony due an empress. However, Princess Xiping was unable to forge a golden statue, as required by Tuoba Tribe traditions to be a sign of divine favor, to become an empress, so she was only created an imperial consort, but she was treated with the honors due an empress.

In 416, Yao Xing went on a trip to Huayin (华阴), near Chang'an, and fell ill on the trip and headed back to Chang'an. His attendant Yin Chong (尹冲) -- one of Yao Bi's supporters—planned to then assassinate Yao Hong as Yao Hong would come out of the city to welcome Yao Xing. Yao Hong's supporters received news of this and persuaded Yao Hong not to come out to welcome Yao Xing. Yin's assistant Yao Shami (姚沙弥) then tried to persuade Yin to take Yao Xing and join with Yao Bi to seize power, but Yin hesitated and did not do so. Once Yao Xing returned to the Chang'an palace, he transferred power to Yao Hong and ordered Yao Bi arrested. Meanwhile, Yao Xing's son Yao Geng'er (姚耕儿), believing that Yao Xing had died, persuaded his brother Yao Yin (姚愔) the Duke of Nanyang to start a coup, and Yao Yin joined with Yin Chong (perhaps in anticipatory support of Yao Bi's claims) to attack the palace, battling with Yao Hong's troops. Yao Xing, despite his illness, made an appearance and announced an edict ordering Yao Bi to commit suicide. As soon as Yao Yin's troops saw Yao Xing, they abandoned Yao Yin. That night, Yao Xing entrusted Yao Hong's administration to his brother Yao Shao (姚绍) the Duke of Dongping, Liang Xi (梁喜), Yin Zhao (尹昭), and Lian Manwei (敛曼嵬), and he died the next day. Yao Hong succeeded him, but he soon had to face even more challenges from his brothers and cousins as well as attacks by Xia and Jin, and by 417 Later Qin had fallen to Jin.

Era names

• Huangchu (皇初 huáng chū) 394–399

• Hongshi (弘始 hóng shǐ) 399–416

Personal information

• Father

　• Yao Chang (Emperor Wucheng)

• Mother

　• Empress She (but might be Consort Sun)

• Wives

　• Empress Zhang (created 402)

　• Empress Qi (created 412)

• Children

　• Yao Hong (姚泓), the Crown Prince (created 402), later emperor

　• Yao Yi (姚懿), the Duke of Taiyuan (created 402)

　• Yao Bi (姚弼), the Duke of Guangping (created 402, forced to commit suicide 416)

　• Yao Huang (姚洸), the Duke of Chenliu (created 402)

　• Yao Xuan (姚宣), Duke (created 402, executed by Yao Shao 416)

　• Yao Chen (姚谌), Duke (created 402)

　• Yao Yin (姚愔), the Duke of Nanyang (created 402, executed by Yao Hong 416)

　• Yao Pu (姚璞), the Duke of Pingyuan (created 402, executed by Liu Yu 417)

　• Yao Zhi (姚质), Duke (created 402)

　• Yao Kui (姚逵), Duke (created 402)

　• Yao Yu (姚裕), Duke (created 402)

　• Yao Guoer (姚国儿), Duke (created 402)

　• Yao Geng'er (姚耕儿)

　• Yao Huangmei (姚黄眉), Duke of Longxi of Northern Wei

　• Princess Xiping, concubine of Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei