生平

即位

劉宏本封解瀆亭侯，為承襲其父劉萇的爵位。母董夫人。他是漢章帝的玄孫，漢桓帝的堂侄。

永康元年桓帝崩，由於桓帝無子，城門校尉竇武主持商討立嗣問題，召侍御史劉儵訪查宗室中有否賢明之人，而劉儵推薦了劉宏。於是竇太后便在皇宮之中決定由劉宏嗣位，使劉儵以光祿大夫身份與中常侍曹節帶領中黃門、虎賁、羽林軍一千多人，前往河間迎接劉宏。建寧元年正月二十日，劉宏來到夏門亭，竇武親自持節用青蓋車把他迎入殿內。第二天，登基稱帝，改元為「建寧」。

漢羌戰爭

建寧元年，護羌校尉段熲率領一萬餘人，從彭陽（今甘肅省慶陽市鎮源縣東）直指高平（今寧夏固原市原州區），在逢義山（今寧夏固原市西北）大破先零諸種。再出橋門谷（今陝西省延安市子長市東北），並在奢延澤（今內蒙古自治區鄂托克前旗東南）、落川（今洛河上游）、令鮮水接連擊敗羌族殘軍，最後在靈武谷（今寧夏銀川市賀蘭縣西北賀蘭山東麓））給予羌族致命打擊。七月，段熲追擊至涇陽（今甘肅省平涼市西北），羌族殘軍只剩四千餘帳，潰逃至漢陽郡群山之中。

建寧二年，段熲在凡亭山（今寧夏固原市彭陽縣西南）大破羌族殘軍，並在射虎谷（今甘肅省天水市西）全殲羌族，於是平定了東方羌亂。

黨錮之禍

建寧元年九月，洛陽發生政變。陳蕃、竇武密謀誅殺宦官，王甫、曹節等反擊，陳蕃、竇武、尚書令尹勳、侍中劉瑜、屯騎校尉馮述、虎賁中郎將劉淑、前尚書魏朗、議郎巴肅等被夷三族。竇太后也被移居南宮。

建寧二年，一隻青蛇在皇帝御座上出現，大司農張奐、郎中謝弼上書平反陳蕃、竇武，宦官大為反感，於是張奐自囚廷尉數日，而謝弼被趕出朝廷，後來被曹節侄兒東郡太守曹紹以其他罪名逮捕處死。

十月，第二次黨錮之禍爆發。大長秋曹節示意有關部門的人上奏要求漢靈帝批准各州郡逮捕審問虞放及李膺、杜宻、朱㝢、荀翌、翟超、劉儒、范滂等鉤黨。漢靈帝問曹節：「什麼是鉤黨？」曹節答：「鉤黨就是亂黨。」漢靈帝再問：「亂黨有何罪？一定要殺嗎？」曹節答：「他們互相勾結，準備有不軌行為。」漢靈帝再問：「什麼是不軌行為？」曹節答：「陰謀推翻政府。」漢靈帝這才批准了上奏。李膺、范滂等最終下獄死。

熹平元年，竇太后病逝，由於竇太后曾參與誅滅宦官，宦官深為痛恨，試圖使其無法配饗桓帝。漢靈帝召集文武百官討論，在太尉李咸、廷尉陳球堅持下，漢靈帝將竇太后安葬宣陵。

有人在朱雀門上寫上詬罵宦官的話語，靈帝命司隸校尉劉猛調查，劉猛不肯加強行動，一個多月都沒有調查到任何結果，引起了宦官不滿。劉猛被貶為諫議大夫，由段熲接任司隸校尉。段熲一上任便雷厲風行，逮捕了太學生一千餘人。

熹平五年，永昌太守曹鸞上書請求結束黨禁。漢靈帝看到奏章後大怒若狂，曹鸞下獄死，漢靈帝更擴大對黨人的打擊。

直到中平元年三月，因為黃巾之亂爆發的緣故，黨禁才被解除。

對外戰爭

建寧三年，涼州刺史孟陀命從事任涉，會同戊己校尉曹寬、西域長史張宴動員焉耆、龜茲、車師前後國共三萬餘人討伐疏勒，攻楨中城四十餘日，不克而退，自此東漢無力幹涉疏勒。

熹平六年（177年），鑒於鮮卑多次侵擾漢朝邊境。夏育建議討伐鮮卑，在朝廷多次商討後，派夏育出高柳（今山西省大同市陽高縣）、田晏出雲中（今內蒙古呼和浩特市托克托縣）、臧旻率南匈奴大軍出雁門（今山西省朔州市東南）三路大軍討伐鮮卑。結果遭檀石槐大敗而歸，夏育、田晏、臧旻被廢為庶人。

宦官亂政

熹平元年，十月，王甫誣殺渤海王劉悝。

光和元年，七月，一道虹蜺出現在玉堂，靈帝深為討厭，召集群臣討論，楊賜和蔡邕上書抨擊當權官員，奏章被曹節偷看得知，於是當權官員對楊賜、蔡邕開啟報復，楊賜以帝師免罪，蔡邕則被放逐到朔方郡。同年，王甫誣陷宋皇后，宋皇后一家被殺。

光和二年，王甫養子沛相王吉，到任五年，誅殺一萬餘人，司隸校尉陽球入宮謝恩時上奏靈帝王甫諸人罪惡，於是王甫、王吉、王萌父子、段熲、袁赦等人皆下獄死。

後來陽球與陳球等謀誅宦官，曹節發現並反擊，陽球、陳球、劉郃、劉納等下獄死。

漢靈帝晚年寵幸「十常侍」，漢靈帝甚至宣稱：「張讓是我爹，趙忠是我娘。」有一次漢靈帝想上永安宮候台，宦官們深怕漢靈帝看到他們的豪華府宅，於是讓中大人尚但進言：「天子不應該登高，登高則百姓星散。」漢靈帝聽了之後便不再上較高的亭台樓閣了。

內亂頻仍

熹平元年，會稽變民許生在句章（今浙江省寧波市餘姚市東南）起兵，自稱陽明皇帝，部眾多達數萬。朝廷派遣揚州刺史臧旻、丹陽太守陳夤前往討伐。直到熹平三年十一月，臧旻等才在會稽斬許生，平定其亂事。

光和元年，正月，合浦、交趾烏滸蠻叛變，和九真、日南等郡變民結合，一連攻陷數郡。到光和四年，交趾人梁龍再聯合變民叛亂，漢靈帝任命蘭陵令朱儁為交州刺史，朱儁斬梁龍，平定了交州的亂事。

中平元年，黃巾之亂爆發。漢靈帝以北中郎將盧植、左中郎將皇甫嵩、右中郎將朱儁等討伐，首腦張角同年病死，大部分的渠帥也被政府軍平定，只留下一些殘部持續作亂。

同年，交趾變民俘虜刺史及合浦太守來達，首領自稱「柱天將軍」，漢靈帝命賈琮當交趾刺史，賈琮到任後安撫民心，擊斬渠帥，平定了亂事。同年七月，巴郡妖巫張脩起兵叛變，政府稱之為「米賊」。

同年，北地先零羌及枹罕、河關變民造反，擁立北宮伯玉、李文侯當將軍。變民又脅迫在西州有重名的邊章、韓遂出任叛軍領袖，四處攻擊郡縣，擊斬護羌校尉泠徵及金城太守陳懿。並包圍涼州刺史左昌於冀城（今甘肅省天水市甘谷縣），並在狐槃（今甘肅省天水市甘谷縣南）大敗蓋勳所率領的政府軍。中平二年，張溫在美陽之戰擊敗了叛軍，但在包圍榆中城（今甘肅省蘭州市東）時被叛軍切斷糧道，只得草草撤退。中平四年時，變民包圍隴西（今甘肅省定西市臨洮縣），太守李相如、司馬馬騰投降，涼州刺史耿鄙、漢陽太守傅燮被殺。變民更擁立王國為統帥，開始劫掠三輔地區。中平五年，王國包圍陳倉（今陝西省寶雞市陳倉區），漢靈帝命左將軍皇甫嵩率前將軍董卓前往迎擊。王國等包圍陳倉八十餘日，無法攻破城池。中平六年，二月，王國解圍撤退，皇甫嵩下令追擊，大破王國。王國因此戰被變民罷黜，另推舉閻忠為首領，不久閻忠逝世，變民等便互相攻伐，開始內鬥，勢力也逐漸消退。

中平二年，自從黃巾之亂之後，各地大小民變不斷，最大的一支是黑山軍，由張燕率領。後來張燕派使節到洛陽請求政府招安，而漢靈帝允許，任命張燕為平難中郎將。

中平三年，二月，江夏民兵趙慈造反，擊斬南陽太守秦頡。同年六月，被荊州刺史王敏平定。

中平四年，前中山相張純因不滿沒有被推薦為將領，夥同前泰山太守張舉及烏桓酋長丘力起兵叛變，劫掠薊中，根據地設在肥如（今河北省唐山市遷安市東北）。張舉自稱皇帝，張純自稱彌天將軍、安定王，宣稱張舉將代漢而起，命漢靈帝下台，百官前來迎接張舉前往洛陽。中平五年，漢靈帝命騎都尉公孫瓚前往討伐，公孫瓉在石門（今遼寧省朝陽市西南）大敗張純，乘勝追擊，卻在管子城反被丘力居包圍，全軍崩潰。直到中平六年，幽州牧劉虞到職，派人出使鮮卑部落等，於是張純、張舉逃亡塞外，丘力居則歸降朝庭，亂事遂平。十月，長沙變民區星自稱將軍，聚眾萬餘，漢靈帝命議郎孫堅為長沙太守，前往平亂，而孫堅順利擊敗區星。

中平五年，黃巾殘黨郭泰於白波谷起兵，世稱「白波賊」。三月，南匈奴屠各叛軍擊斬并州刺史張懿。益州變民馬相、趙祇在綿竹（今四川省德陽市北）起兵，擊斬刺史郤儉，連破巴郡、犍為郡，擁有部眾數萬，於是自稱皇帝。不久，益州從事賈龍率官民反擊，逐走馬相等，迎接新任州牧劉焉上任。冀州刺史王芬密謀趁漢靈帝北返河間故宅時，劫持漢靈帝並誅殺宦官，之後廢漢靈帝而立合肥侯。後漢靈帝打消北返念頭，徵召王芬，王芬逃亡，自殺。

熹平石經

熹平四年（175年），議郎蔡邕認為儒家經典流傳過程中出現許多錯誤，于是聯合中常侍李巡、五官中郎將堂谿典、光祿大夫楊賜、諫議大夫馬日磾、議郎張馴、韓說、太史令單颺等人共同上書要求校勘儒家經典。于是漢靈帝設立熹平石經，將校勘後的儒家經典分別刻在四十六塊石碑之上，並安置在太學門外，作為經典標準，供人學習。

鴻都門學

漢靈帝有辭賦、書法和音樂愛好。光和元年，靈帝建立鴻都門學，最初號稱以研究儒術經義為名，後招集眾多文士從事辭賦及書法等文藝創作活動。因鴻都門學專重文藝而輕儒家經典，引起不少大臣反對。

橫徵暴斂

漢靈帝還是侯爵時，生活貧苦，等到當了皇帝之後，常常譏笑桓帝不懂經營家產，於是大肆賣官鬻爵，將所得做為私房錢使用。光和元年，漢靈帝在西園設官邸，開始賣官鬻爵。

光和三年，漢靈帝興建畢圭苑、靈昆苑。

光和四年（181年），靈帝在皇宮之中擴建西園，修建集市供自己享樂。靈帝和宮女模仿民間市集裡的商人、竊賊、地痞，並駕著白驢在西園中來回穿梭。甚至起裸游館千間，靈帝特別喜歡嬌嫩純潔的幼女，選十四歲以上十八歲以下的宮女于池中裸游，並命令宮女只能穿開檔褲，原因竟是為了方便自己臨幸宮女。又曾于西園弄狗與人獸交。

中平二年，洛陽南宮雲台、樂成門火災，中常侍張讓、趙忠說服漢靈帝將田畝每畝增加十錢，作為「修宮捐」，在修築宮殿的材料上又大為苛刻，並且藉機壓榨各州郡財物，到後來刺史、太守、各級官吏的變動，都得支付「助軍捐」或「修宮捐」。直到鉅鹿太守司馬直上奏指控政府且服毒自殺後，漢靈帝才停止徵收「修宮捐」。同年，崔烈付了五百萬錢擔任了司徒，漢靈帝對左右親信說：「當時真應該堅持下去，這個官可以賣千萬錢啊。」程夫人在旁說：「崔烈是冀州名士，怎麼肯買官，是看在我的份上才出了五百萬錢，你還不滿意啊。」

中平三年，漢靈帝命鉤盾令宋典修建南宮玉堂殿，又命掖庭令畢嵐鑄四個佛像，再鑄四個大鐘。又在平門外鑄獨角獸、蝦蟆狀的噴水器及人工灑水車等。

廢史立牧

中平五年，漢靈帝聽從了太常劉焉的建議，將刺史改成了權力更加龐大的州牧，造成了日後群雄割據的基礎。

西園軍

中平五年八月，漢靈帝自從黃巾之亂後，開始留意軍事，小黃門蹇碩體格健壯，深通兵法武略，於是漢靈帝設立西園八校尉，以蹇碩為上軍校尉，管轄西園軍。西園軍的勢力龐大，連大將軍都得接受其管轄。

去世

中平六年，漢靈帝在南宮嘉德殿去世。漢靈帝有兩個兒子，劉辯及劉協。漢靈帝認為劉辯輕佻，多次想立劉協為太子，但一直十分猶豫，後來漢靈帝病重，便把劉協託付給蹇碩。漢靈帝死後引發了東漢最後一次的戚宦相爭，間接導致了東漢的滅亡。

總體而言，漢靈帝統治時期朝政敗壞，賣官鬻爵風氣盛行，民不聊生激起大量民變，從而成為東漢滅亡的導火線。

靈帝朝公卿

太傅

• 陳蕃(168年)

• 胡廣(168年－172年)

大將軍

• 竇武(168年)

• 何進(184年－189年)

太尉

• 周景(－168年)

• 劉矩(168年)

• 聞人襲(168年－169年)

• 劉寵(169年)

• 郭禧(169年－170年)

• 聞人襲(170年－171年)

• 李咸(171年－173年)

• 段熲(173年)

• 陳耽(174年－176年)

• 許訓(176年)

• 劉寬(176年－177年)

• 孟戫(177年－178年)

• 張顥(178年)

• 陳球(178年)

• 橋玄(178年－179年)

• 段熲(179年)

• 劉寬(179年－181年)

• 許戫(181年－182年)

• 楊賜(182年－184年)

• 鄧盛(184年－185年)

• 張延(185年－186年)

• 張溫(186年－187年)

• 崔烈(187年)

• 曹嵩(187年－188年)

• 樊陵(188年)

• 馬日磾(188年－189年)

• 劉虞(189年－)

司徒

• 胡廣(－168年)

• 劉寵(168年－169年)

• 許訓(169年－171年)

• 橋玄(171年)

• 許栩(171年－172年)

• 袁隗(172年－176年)

• 楊賜(176年－177年)

• 袁滂(178年－179年)

• 劉郃(179年)

• 楊賜(179年－181年)

• 陳耽(181年－182年)

• 袁隗(182年－185年)

• 崔烈(185年－187年)

• 許相(187年－188年)

• 丁宮(188年－)

司空

• 宣酆(－168年)

• 王暢(168年)

• 劉寵(168年)

• 許栩(168年－169年)

• 劉囂(169年－170年)

• 橋玄(170年－171年)

• 來豔(171年)

• 宗俱(171年－173年)

• 楊賜(173年)

• 唐珍(173年－174年)

• 許訓(174年－176年)

• 劉逸(176年－177年)

• 陳球(177年)

• 陳耽(177年－178年)

• 來豔(178年)

• 袁逢(178年－179年)

• 張濟(179年－184年)

• 張溫(184年－185年)

• 楊賜(185年)

• 許相(185年－187年)

• 丁宮(187年－188年)

• 劉弘(188年－)

評價

• 范曄《後漢書·孝靈帝紀》：「《秦本紀》說趙高譎二世，指鹿為馬，而趙忠、張讓亦紿靈帝不得登高臨觀，故知亡敝者同其致矣。然則靈帝之為靈也優哉！」、「靈帝負乘，委體宦孽。征亡備兆，《小雅》盡缺。麋鹿霜露，遂棲宮衛。」

• 董卓：「天下之主，宜得賢明，每念靈帝，令人憤毒！」《後漢書·卷七十四上·袁紹劉表列傳第六十四上》

• 蓋勛：「吾仍見上，上甚聰明，但擁蔽于左右耳。」《後漢書·虞傅蓋臧列傳第四十八》

• 張超《靈帝河閒舊廬碑》：赫赫在上．陶唐是承．繼德二祖．四宗是憑．上納鑒乎羲農．中結軌乎夏商．元首既明．股肱惟良．乃因舊宇．福德所基．修飾經構．農隙得時．樹中天之雙闕．崇冠山之華堂．通樓閑道．丹階紫房．金窗鬱律．玉璧內璫．青蒲充庖．朱草棲箱．川魚踊躍．雲鳥舞翔．煌煌大漢．含德乾綱．體效日月．驗化陰陽．格于上下．震暢八荒．三光宣曜．四靈效祥．天其嘉享．豐年穰穰．騶虞奏樂．鹿鳴薦觴．二祝致告．福祿來將．永保萬國．南山無量．（《藝文類聚 卷六十四》）

• 漢靈帝與其前任皇帝漢桓帝的統治時期是東漢最黑暗的時期，諸葛亮的《出師表》中就有蜀漢開國皇帝劉備每次「嘆息痛恨于桓靈」的陳述：「親賢臣，遠小人，此先漢所以興隆也；親小人，遠賢臣，此後漢所以傾頹也。先帝在時，每與臣論此事，未嘗不嘆息痛恨于桓、靈也。」

• 薛瑩：「漢氏中興，至于延平而世業損矣。衝質短祚，孝桓無嗣，母后稱制，奸臣執政。孝靈以支庶而登至尊，由蕃侯而紹皇統，不恤宗緒，不祗天命；上虧三光之明，下傷億兆之望。于時爵服橫流，官以賄成。自公侯卿士降于皂隸，遷官襲級無不以貨，刑戮無辜，摧撲忠良；佞諛在側，直言不聞。是以賢智退而窮處，忠良擯于下位；遂至奸雄蜂起，當防隳壞，夷狄並侵，盜賊糜沸。小者帶城邑，大者連州郡。編戶騷動，人人思亂。當此之時，已無天子矣。會靈帝即世，盜賊相尋，其後宮室。焚滅，郊社無主，危自上起，覃及華夏。使京室為墟，海內蕭條，豈不痛哉！」（《全晉文·卷八十一》）

• 王嘉《拾遺記》：「安、靈二帝，同為敗德。夫悅目快心，罕不淪乎情慾，自非遠鑒興亡，孰能移隔下俗。佣才緣心，緬乎嗜欲，塞諫任邪，沒情于淫靡。至如列代亡主，莫不憑威猛以喪家國，肆奢麗以覆宗祀。詢考先墳，往往而載，僉求歷古，所記非一。販爵鬻官，乖分職之本；露宿郊居，違省方之義。」

• 虞世南：「靈帝承疲民之後，易為善政，黎庶傾耳。咸冀中興，而帝襲彼覆車，毒逾前輩，傾覆宗社，職帝之由。天年厭世，為幸多矣。」（《唐文拾遺·卷十三》）

• 杜牧：「桓、靈四十年間殺千百比幹，毒流其社稷，可以血食乎？可以壇？單父天拜郊乎？」（《樊川文集》）

• 周曇：「榜懸金價鬻官榮，千萬為公五百卿。公瑾孔明窮退者，安知高臥遇雄英。」（《全唐詩·卷七百二十九》）

• 胡三省：「觀靈帝以尚但之言不敢複升台榭，誠恐百姓虛散也，謂無愛民之心可乎！使其以信尚但者信諸君子之言，則漢之為漢，未可知也。」（《資治通鑑·卷第五十八·漢紀五十》）

• 蔡東藩《後漢演義》：「漢季之中常侍，誰不曰可殺？惟庸主如桓靈，方信而用之。」「國家賞罰有明經，宵小讒言怎可聽？功罪不分昏憒甚，從知靈帝本無靈！」「若平樂觀中之講武，設壇張蓋，誇示威風，靈帝自以為耀武，而蓋勛乃以黷武為對，猶非知本之談。黷武二字，惟漢武足以當之，靈帝豈足語此？彼之所信任者，婦寺而已，如皇甫嵩、朱儁諸才，皆不知重用；甚至一病不起，猶視賽碩為忠貞，託孤寄命，《范史》謂靈帝負扆，委體宦孽，征亡備兆，小雅盡缺，其亦所謂月旦之定評也乎？」

家庭

后妃

• 宋皇后

• 何皇后

• 王美人，追尊靈懷皇后

• 馬貴人，僅見于《漢官六種·漢儀》

子女

• 弘農懷王（漢少帝）劉辯，何皇后生

• 漢獻帝劉協，王美人生

• 萬年公主，生母不詳

藝術形象

影視形象

• 香港麗的電視台電視劇《三國春秋》（1976年）：司馬華龍

• 電視劇《曹操》（1999年）：趙炎

• 中國中央電視台電視劇《武聖關公》（2004年）：徐連順

• 電視劇《曹操》（2014年）：林妙可（少年）、嚴琨（成年）

登場作品

• 蒼天航路（王欣太）

Family background and accession to the throne

Liu Hong was a hereditary marquis – the Marquis of Jiedu Village (解瀆亭侯). In the Han dynasty, a village marquis's marquisate usually comprised only one village or, in rarer cases, two or three villages. He was the third person in his family to hold this title; his father Liu Chang and grandfather Liu Shu were also formerly Marquis of Jiedu Village. His great-grandfather, Liu Kai, the Prince of Hejian, was the sixth son of Emperor Zhang, the third emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. His mother, Lady Dong, was Liu Chang's formal spouse.

When Emperor Huan died in 168 without a son to succeed him, his empress, Empress Dou, became empress dowager, and she examined the genealogy of the imperial clan to choose a candidate to be the next emperor. For reasons unknown, her assistant Liu Shu recommended Liu Hong, the Marquis of Jiedu Village. After consulting with her father Dou Wu and the Confucian scholar-official Chen Fan, Empress Dowager Dou installed a 12-year-old Liu Hong on the throne, and continued ruling on his behalf as regent. The newly enthroned Emperor Ling bestowed posthumous titles on his grandfather, father and grandmother, honouring them as emperors and an empress respectively. His mother, Lady Dong, did not become empress dowager and instead received the title of an Honoured Lady.

Early reign

Dou Wu and Chen Fan, who became the most important officials in the central government, sought to purge the eunuch faction. Later in 168, they even proposed to exterminate all the powerful eunuchs, a proposal that Empress Dowager Dou rejected. However, word of the plot was leaked, and the eunuchs, after kidnapping the empress dowager and taking the young emperor into custody (after persuading him that it was for his own protection) arrested and executed Chen Fan. Dou Wu resisted but was eventually defeated and forced to commit suicide. The Dou clan was slaughtered. The powerful eunuchs, led by Cao Jie (曹節) and Wang Fu (王甫), became the most powerful individuals in the central government.

After the destruction of the Dou clan, in 169, Emperor Ling promoted his mother to the position of empress dowager, though he continued honouring Empress Dowager Dou, now under house arrest, as empress dowager as well. Members of the Dong clan began to enter government, but did not have substantial influence. Later that year, the eunuchs persuaded Emperor Ling that the "partisans" (i.e., Confucian officials and those who supported them) were plotting against him, and a large number of partisans were arrested and killed; the others had their civil liberties stripped completely, in an event historically known as the second Disaster of Partisan Prohibitions.

Empress Dowager Dou died in 172. Despite suggestions by eunuchs to have her only buried as an imperial consort and not be honoured as Emperor Huan's wife, Emperor Ling had her buried with full honours befitting an empress dowager in Emperor Huan's mausoleum. In the aftermaths of her death, a vandal wrote on the palace gate: "All that is under the heaven is in upheaval. Cao and Wang murdered the empress dowager. The key officials only know how to be officials and had nothing faithful to say."

The angry eunuchs ordered an investigation which led to over 1,000 arrests, but nothing conclusive was found. In that year, the eunuchs also falsely accused Emperor Huan's brother, Liu Kui, the Prince of Bohai, of treason and forced him to commit suicide. The members of his entire household, including his wife, concubines, children, assistants and principality officials, were all rounded up and executed. As the Han government became more corrupt, the people received heavier tax burdens. As Emperor Ling grew older, he not only took no remedial action, but continued to tolerate the eunuchs' corruption for the most part. A major defeat of the Han army by the Xianbei tribes in 177 further drained the imperial treasury.

In 178, Emperor Ling's wife Empress Song, whom he made empress in 171 but did not favour, fell victim to the eunuchs' treachery. Her aunt, Lady Song, was Liu Kui's wife, so the eunuchs were worried that she would seek vengeance on them. Thus, by collaborating with other imperial consorts who wanted to replace the empress, the eunuchs falsely accused Empress Song of using witchcraft to curse Emperor Ling. The emperor believed them and deposed the empress, who was imprisoned and died in despair. Her father, Song Feng (宋酆), and the rest of her family were exterminated.

Middle reign

In 178, Emperor Ling introduced the practice of selling political offices for money – a practice which severely damaged the Han civil service system (chajuzhi, Chinese: 察举) and led to widespread corruption. The people who paid for these positions perpetuated corruption upon taking office. That was exactly what Emperor Ling had in mind: he allowed the officials to pay by instalments after taking office if they could not afford the initial amount.

In 180, Emperor Ling instated Lady He as the new empress and appointed her brother, He Jin, as a key official in his government. (According to legends, she managed to enter Emperor Ling's imperial harem because her family bribed the eunuchs in charge of selecting women for the emperor.) She received the position of empress because she bore Emperor Ling a son, Liu Bian; the emperor had other sons but they died prematurely before Liu Bian's birth.

During these years, Emperor Ling became interested in building imperial gardens so he ordered the commandery and principality officials throughout the Han Empire to pay their tributes to him directly, so he could use the money to finance his construction projects. This, in turn, created pressures on the officials to resort to corrupt practices so they could extract a larger tribute from their jurisdictions for the emperor. In spite of all his flaws, Emperor Ling occasionally heeded good advice from his subjects but was not consistent in doing so. His subjects often found it frustrating to try to convince him on policy issues because he only listened to them when he wanted to.

The Yellow Turban Rebellion

Sometime before 183, a major Taoist rebel movement had started in Ji Province – the Taiping Sect (太平教), led by Zhang Jiao, who claimed he had magical powers to heal the sick. By 183, his teachings and followers had spread to eight of the empire's thirteen provinces – Ji, Qing, Xu, You, Jing, Yang, Yan, and Yu. Several key imperial officials became concerned about Zhang Jiao's hold over his followers, and suggested that the Taiping Sect be disbanded. Emperor Ling did not listen to them.

Zhang Jiao had in fact planned a rebellion. He commissioned 36 military commanders, set up a shadow government, and wrote a declaration: "The blue heaven is dead. The yellow heaven will come into being. The year will be jiazi. The world would be blessed." (Under the traditional Chinese sexagenary cycle calendar method, 184 would be the first year of the cycle, known as jiazi.) Zhang Jiao had his supporters write jiazi in large characters with white talc everywhere they could – including on the doors of government offices in the imperial capital and other cities. One of Zhang Jiao's followers, Ma Yuanyi, plotted with two eunuchs to start an uprising inside the palace.

Early in 184, this plot was discovered, and Ma Yuanyi was immediately arrested and executed. Emperor Ling ordered that Taiping Sect members be arrested and executed, and Zhang Jiao immediately declared a rebellion. Every member of the rebellion wore a yellow turban or headscarf as their symbol – and therefore the rebellion became known for it. Within a month, Zhang Jiao controlled large areas of territory. Under suggestion by the eunuch Lü Qiang, who was sympathetic to the partisans, Emperor Ling pardoned the partisans to ward off the possibility they would join the Yellow Turbans. (Lü Qiang himself became a victim, however, when the other eunuchs, in retaliation, falsely accused him of wanting to depose the emperor, and he committed suicide later that year.)

Emperor Ling sent out a number of military commanders against the Yellow Turbans, and in these campaigns several of them distinguished themselves –

including Huangfu Song, Cao Cao, Fu Xie (傅燮), Zhu Jun, Lu Zhi, and Dong Zhuo. A key military development with great implications later was that the Yellow Turbans fought mainly with troops deployed from the battle-tested Liang Province who had been accustomed to suppressing rebellions by the Qiang tribes. In late 184, Zhang Jiao was killed, and while the rest of the Yellow Turbans were not defeated immediately, they gradually dissipated by the following year. Because of the Liang Province forces' contributions to the campaign, they began to be feared and began to look down on troops from all other provinces. During and in the aftermaths of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, many people from other provinces, in order to ward off pillaging by Yellow Turbans or governmental forces, also organised themselves into military groups, and a good number resisted government forces, and even after the Yellow Turbans were defeated, the central government's control of the provinces was no longer what it used to be.

Late reign

Even after the Yellow Turban Rebellion was suppressed, Emperor Ling did not change his wasteful and corrupt ways. He continued to levy heavy taxes and continued to sell offices. As a result, other agrarian and military rebellions multiplied. In 185, when a fire broke out in the southern part of the imperial palace, the Ten Attendants suggested to Emperor Ling to levy a tax of ten maces from every mu of farmland to raise funds for rebuilding the palace. Emperor Ling then ordered the officials in Taiyuan (太原), Hedong and Didao (狄道) commanderies to transport wood and patterned rocks to Luoyang (the imperial capital) as construction materials. When the shipments reached the palace, the eunuchs who received them scolded the labourers for delivering materials of poor quality, and insisted on paying them far below market prices – to as low as a tenth of the market price. They then resold the materials to other eunuchs, who refused to buy. Over time, the accumulated piles of wood started decaying. The construction works were thus delayed for years. In order to please Emperor Ling, some regional officials levied heavier taxes and forced the people to produce greater quantities of construction materials – this led to greater resentment from the common people.

Emperor Ling appointed cavalry officers to serve as his messengers whenever he issued orders for things to be delivered to Luoyang. These officers, known as zhongshi (中使; "central emissaries"), abused their power by forcing the regional officials, who were afraid of them, to give them bribes. The appointment of officials below the position of Inspector (刺史) was decided by the amount of money they could pay to fund the army and palace construction. Before assuming office, these officials had to undergo an assessment to determine their "value". Some who could not afford the required amount committed suicide, while others who refused to take up their appointments were forced into accepting.

Around the time, there was one Sima Zhi, who had been newly appointed as the Administrator (太守) of Julu Commandery (鉅鹿郡). As he had a reputation for being an honest official, he was required to pay less – three million maces. Upon receiving the order, he lamented, "I should be like a parent to the common people, but I have been forced to exploit them to satisfy (the Emperor's) needs. I can't bear to do this." He attempted to resign, claiming that he was ill, but his request was denied. When he reached Meng Ford (孟津) near Luoyang, he wrote a memorial to point out all the problems with the government and cite historical examples to warn the emperor. He then committed suicide by consuming poison. After reading Sima Zhi's memorial, Emperor Ling temporarily stopped collecting funds for rebuilding the palace, but quickly resumed his construction projects later. He built a hall within the western gardens and filled it with treasures and silk taken from the agriculture department. He also visited his birthplace in Hejian Commandery, where he acquired land and used it to build mansions and towers. As Emperor Ling came from a relatively poor background as a lesser marquis, he had a strong desire to accumulate as much personal wealth as possible – especially after he saw that his predecessor, Emperor Huan, did not leave behind a large family fortune for him. He drew his wealth not just from the imperial treasuries, but also from the low-ranking eunuchs who attended to him.

Emperor Ling often said, "Regular Attendant Zhang (Rang) is my father, Regular Attendant Zhao (Zhong) is my mother." As the eunuchs were highly trusted and favoured by Emperor Ling, they behaved lawlessly and abused their power. They even built lavish mansions for themselves in the same design as the imperial palace. When Emperor Ling once visited Yong'anhou Platform (永安侯臺), a high viewing platform, the eunuchs were worried that he would see their mansions and become suspicious. Thus, they told him, "Your Majesty shouldn't put yourself on higher ground. If you do so, the people will scatter." The emperor believed them and stopped visiting high towers and viewing platforms.

In 186, Emperor Ling tasked the eunuchs Song Dian (宋典) and Bi Lan (畢嵐) with overseeing new construction projects, including a new palace hall, four large bronze statues, four giant bronze bells and water-spouting animal sculptures, among others. He also ordered coins to be minted and widely circulated. Many people perceived this to be a display of the emperor's extravagance, and pointed to signs showing that the coins will eventually scatter everywhere. This turned out to be true when chaos broke out in Luoyang after Emperor Ling's death. Emperor Ling appointed Zhao Zhong as "General of Chariots of Cavalry" (車騎將軍) but removed him from office after some 100 days.

In 188, under the suggestions of Liu Yan, Emperor Ling greatly increased the political and military power of the provincial governors and selected key officials to serve as provincial governors.

In 189, as Emperor Ling became critically ill, a succession issue came into being. Emperor Ling had two surviving sons – Liu Bian, the son of Empress He, and Liu Xie, the son of Consort Wang. Because Emperor Ling had, earlier in his life, frequently lost sons in childhood, he later believed that his sons needed to be raised outside the palace by foster parents. Therefore, when Liu Bian was born, he was entrusted to Shi Zimiao (史子眇), a Taoist, and referred to "Marquis Shi." Later, when Liu Xie was born, he was raised by Emperor Ling's mother, Empress Dowager Dong, and was known as "Marquis Dong." Liu Bian was born of the empress and was older, but Emperor Ling viewed his behaviour as being insufficiently solemn and therefore considered making Liu Xie crown prince, but hesitated and could not decide.

When Emperor Ling died later that year, a powerful eunuch whom he trusted, Jian Shuo, wanted to first kill Empress He's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, and then make Liu Xie emperor, and therefore set up a trap at a meeting he was to have with He Jin. He Jin found out, and peremptorily declared Liu Bian emperor.

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress, of the Song clan (皇后 宋氏; d. 178)

• Empress Lingsi, of the He clan (靈思皇后 何氏; d. 189)

　• Liu Bian, Prince Huai of Hongnong (弘農懷王 劉辯; 176–190), first son

• Empress Linghuai, of the Wang clan (靈懷皇后 王氏; d. 181), personal name Rong (榮)

　• Liu Xie, Emperor Xiaoxian (孝獻皇帝 劉協; 181–234), second son

• Unknown

　• Princess Wannian (萬年公主), first daughter

Ancestry