生平經歷

幼年繼位

順治十一年三月十八日（1654年5月4日），玄燁出生於紫禁城景仁宮內，是順治帝的第三子，生母為孝康章皇后佟佳氏。其父親順治帝在位十八年之中沒有冊立過皇太子。順治十八年正月初六（1661年2月4日）順治帝早逝，時年僅23歲。兩年後，康熙二年（1663年）康熙帝的生母孝康章皇后佟佳氏亦病逝。

順治帝染上天花第3天時，接受湯若望的建議，因年幼的玄燁曾得過天花具有免疫力，也因從天花疾病倖存下來而被獲選立為皇太子，1661年2月4日，福臨急召禮部侍郎王熙和原內閣學士麻勒吉，以口述遺詔的形式成立。順治十八年正月初七（1661年2月5日）玄燁登基時，只有八歲，次年正月（1662年2月）改元康熙。

因康熙帝尚年幼，順治帝的遺詔同時指派四大臣輔政大臣索尼、蘇克薩哈、遏必隆、鰲拜，輔佐康熙帝，因此清朝的政局不受康熙帝實際掌控。

執政時期

康熙八年（1669年）五月，康熙帝發動突襲，捉拿了鰲拜之後，掌握朝政。

先前鰲拜掌權時，欽天監官楊光先勾結鰲拜反對西洋學說，發生曆獄案，湯若望被判處死刑。八月，因為楊光先從前依附鰲拜捏詞陷害湯若望，康熙帝並趁此時間給湯若望平反以往不明之冤。

康熙年間，宣布停止圈地，放寬墾荒地的免稅年限。他還著手整頓吏治，恢復了京察、大計等考核制度。為了防止被臣下蒙蔽欺騙，康熙還親自出京巡視，了解民情吏治。其中最著名的是六次南巡，此外還有三次東巡、一次西巡，以及數百次巡查京畿和蒙古，此舉極大的促進了康熙對民情的了解，他還親自巡視黃河河道，督察河工，並下令整修永定河河道。

康熙是清朝歷史上在位時間最長的皇帝。康熙坐鎮北京取得了對三藩、沙俄的戰爭勝利，消滅在台灣的明鄭政權，另一方面，康熙創立「多倫會盟」取代戰爭，聯絡蒙古各部；意圖以條約確保清朝政府在黑龍江的領土控制。文治武功取得巨大成績的康熙帝，群臣一再商議給他上尊號，康熙多次表示「斷不受此虛名」，這在歷朝帝王中十分罕見。

晚年懈怠

康熙晚年懈怠無為，曾說「多一事不如少一事」，「政寬事省」，「凡事不可深究者極多」，不能嚴禁浮費和規銀，寬縱州縣火耗和虧空。同時他還標榜仁政，對官吏盡量以寬鬆待之，導致出現吏治廢弛，官場貪污，國庫虧空，「大小官員，怠玩成習，徇庇尤甚」，個別地區出現暴動和騷亂，統治秩序奏出了不和諧音符。盛世處于衰微的現象，給繼任者雍正帝留下許多隱患。更有甚者指出清朝衰亡，病在康熙。

康熙四十九年（1710年），御史參劾戶部堂官希福納等侵貪戶部內倉銀六十四萬餘兩，牽連的官吏多達一百一十二人。康熙說「朕反覆思之，終夜不寐，若將伊等審問，獲罪之人甚多矣」。最後只把希福納革職，其餘官吏則勒限賠款。康熙末年社會矛盾日趨激化，有江蘇無錫縣人劉三因縣令李牧殘酷成性，聚數百人於山中反抗，後被捕。

康熙的皇太子兩立兩廢，徹底暴露出嫡長子皇位繼承制度的種種弊端，儲位之爭的時間之長，捲入者之多，波及面之廣，以及對皇朝及皇帝本人影響之大，無不超出前代。

去世

康熙六十一年十一月十三日（1722年12月20日），康熙皇帝崩逝于大清順天府（今北京市）暢春園清溪書屋內，享壽六十八歲，結束了長達六十一年的統治。當時八爺黨支持的十四阿哥胤禵遠在西北，四阿哥胤禛留京。康熙近臣步軍統領隆科多奉康熙帝遺詔，命皇四子胤禛繼承皇位，是為雍正皇帝，為康熙帝上廟號聖祖，謚號合天弘運文武睿哲恭儉寬裕孝敬誠信功德大成仁皇帝，安葬于清景陵。

傳位

康熙十三年（1674年），康熙立皇后所生的一歲的皇次子胤礽為太子，並親自撫養。但數十年後由於父子矛盾問題而決定廢嫡。廢太子後，眾皇子覬覦皇位，矛盾更加尖銳，故太子廢而復立，但康熙稱其舊疾未除，三年後再廢太子。康熙六十一年康熙帝駕崩後皇四子胤禛繼位。

目前理由眾說紛紜：有人認為康熙是希望精明幹練的胤禛能大力改革康熙末年的寬縱積弊，而傳位於胤禛。還有傳說是顧命大臣隆科多和胤禛矯篡遺詔，在十字上加一劃、下加一勾，「十」字變成「于」字，故有「傳位十四皇子胤禵」竄改為「傳位于四皇子胤禛」之傳說；但按清宮祕檔分析，康熙帝的遺詔是由滿、漢、蒙三種語文並列寫成，「傳位十四皇子胤禵」改為「傳位于四皇子胤禛」之傳說符合漢字書寫邏輯，但卻無法符合滿文及蒙文書寫邏輯，且遺詔全文並未出現「傳位于」之類的語句。還有傳說真正的遺詔根本不存在，完全由隆科多和胤禛編纂遺詔。

然則傳位奪嫡之說，或因雍正推行攤丁入畝、官紳一體當差納糧之新政、打擊貪腐權貴、重用張廷玉、李衛、田文鏡等漢人，而引來失勢滿人權貴之蓄意誣陷。康熙皇帝豈能將九門提督授予不可信賴之人任之，又豈會不知隆科多與雍正之關係而造成眾皇子傳位紛爭？由此而論，康熙讓隆科多任九門提督，正是意欲傳位於雍親王，並加以保護的實證之一。

康熙傳位雍正之徵兆：

• 徵兆一：「康熙六十年正月，命皇四子雍親王胤禛、皇十二子貝子胤祹、世子弘晟以御極六十年，告祭永陵、福陵、昭陵。」康熙登基一甲子六十年之重大祭告先祖非同一般，派遣雍親王胤禛主持，豈能不具備重大意義？為何不是派遣支持皇十四子胤禵、皇八子胤禩、皇九子胤禟、皇十子胤䄉或是皇三子胤祉

• 徵兆二：康熙御極六十年派雍親王胤禛祭祖此舉，讓廢太子胤礽之師王掞看出端倪，故於三月「大學士王掞密奏請建儲，至是監察御史陶彞、任坪、范長發等人曾疏請建儲，帝不悅，並掞切責之。諸王、大臣奏請治大學士王掞罪，帝赦不治。」這亦可視為康熙安排接班人的佈署跡象之一，畢竟皇十四子胤禵尚且領兵在西北，一旦提早公佈，易生事端。

• 徵兆三：「五月壬戌，命撫遠大將軍胤禵移駐甘州。以年羹堯總督四川陝西，色爾圖署四川巡撫。」康熙以皇四子雍親王胤禛之親信年羹堯箝制皇十四子胤禵的軍後補給已然成形。

• 徵兆四：康熙六十一年四月，「命撫遠大將軍胤禵復往軍前。十月，命雍親王胤禛率弘昇、延信、孫渣濟、隆科多、查弼納、吳爾台察閱京師通州倉廒。」康熙指示由雍親王胤禛親率隆科多、查弼納等眾多京師王公重臣，竟然只為「察閱京師通州倉廒」，已有不尋常跡象。

• 徵兆五：「十一月帝不豫，駐蹕暢春園。命皇四子胤禛恭代祀天。」康熙駕崩前祀天仍然未派皇三子胤祉、皇八子胤禩、皇九子胤禟、皇十子胤䄉代祀，更未召皇十四子胤禵返京，此時康熙意欲傳位於雍親王皇四子胤禛已然十分明顯。

曾在國立故宮博物院展出的康熙皇帝遺詔上並無「傳位于四皇子胤禛」，而是寫著：

為政舉措

政治

康熙八年（1669年），康熙帝時常召集小內監在宮中作「布庫」之戲，不過在五月十六日（6月14日）鰲拜進見時，突然下令以大不敬之罪，命少年們將其逮捕。大臣商議鰲拜大罪三十條，請求將他滅族，康熙帝念鰲拜曾救過祖父皇太極的功勞，赦其死罪，改為拘禁，但誅殺了鰲拜的很多弟侄親隨及黨羽。僅存的另一輔政大臣遏必隆因為長期勾結鰲拜，被削去太師、一等公。康熙帝由此完全奪回朝廷大權，開始真正親政的階段。

康熙勤政，堅持每日御臨乾清門會見朝臣處理政務，居住在暢春園、熱河行宮以及在出巡途中仍聽政不惜。黎明時分，部院大臣，起居注官員到位，各部院衙門依次奏事，皇帝與內閣大臣商決裁斷。《起居注》中詳細記載了康熙皇帝御門聽政現場辦公的場景內容。康熙帝晚年還通過趙鳳詔貪污案來抑制漢官。

經濟

1677年，康熙帝開始了整治黃河工程。到1684年，歷時七年的整治黃河工程完成。在康熙五十六年（1717年），出現各地豐收，無災可免的情況。康熙在晚年亦繼續減免天下賦稅，蠲免全國各地省份的錢糧，免除多處地區的欠賦。多種措施令到各地的農民都能夠休養生息，也防止了地方官吏中飽私囊和橫徵暴斂。

康熙帝為了箝制反清復明的活動而致力於打敗明鄭王朝。拿下臺灣之後，康熙開放了海禁，並設立了四個通商口岸。

軍事

平定三藩、明鄭及反清勢力

1673年，因為康熙帝決定削藩，導致平西王吳三桂起兵反清，其他二藩相繼響應，整個天下為之一動。三藩勢力一時不可阻擋，清廷失去江南半壁江山。而康熙帝在孝莊太后的支持下，沉著應對，積極調兵遣將，三藩之亂最終在1681年被完全撲滅，而國家遭受了較大的損失，在四川、雲南以及江西等地有不少人被殺害。

平定台灣

1683年（康熙二十二年），時憲歷五月，康熙採納了安溪大學士李光地的意見，授明鄭降將施琅為福建水師提督，時憲歷八月丙辰，福建水師提督施琅攻克台灣，鄭克塽和劉國軒等上奏歸降。

發展軍備

康熙年間，由於戰爭連年不絕，平定三藩之亂以及抵禦外來侵略的需要大量製造火器，無論是造炮規模、數量、種類，還是火砲的性能和製造技術，都達到了前所未有的水平。同時，清朝所造的大小銅、鐵炮達905門之多，而其中半數以上由南懷仁負責設計監造，就質量而言，其「工藝之精湛，造型之美觀，炮體之堅固，均為後朝所莫及」。康熙三十五年（1696年），在對準噶爾部噶爾丹的昭莫多之戰中，發揮了重要作用。

清朝初年一時間湧現出許多熱心武器裝備、致力於引進和仿造西方火器的技術專家。如戴梓就是一位在中國最早製造出具有較高射擊速度的管形火器專家，這種火器稱為「連珠火銃」。戴梓仿鑄技術比南懷仁更為高超，亦成功地仿造了沖天炮「南懷仁謂沖天炮出其國，造之一年不成。上命先生造，八日成，上大悅，率群臣親試之，即封炮為威遠將軍，鐫治法官名，以示不朽。沖天炮，子在母腹，母送子出，從天而下，片片碎裂，銳不可當。後征噶爾靼，以三砲墜其營，遂大捷」。文獻記載的「連珠火銃」與故宮所藏的一支康熙年間外國進獻的火槍十分相似，然而在因為沖天炮事件中得罪了南懷仁，被誣陷「私通東洋」，康熙將戴梓流放到了盛京（今瀋陽）。

烏蘭布通之戰後，康熙帝更加重視在戰爭中發揮火器的戰鬥威力，使火器營成為清軍八旗兵的新的戰鬥編成。清軍最早裝備火器的是漢軍八旗，隨著戰事頻繁，滿洲、蒙古八旗亦迅速裝備了火器。至康熙二十二年，在每旗專設一營操練鳥槍。康熙三十年始選滿洲、蒙古習火器之兵組建火器營。設鳥槍護軍、鳥槍馬甲和炮甲三種營兵，滿洲、蒙古八旗每佐領下設鳥槍護軍3人，鳥槍馬甲4人，炮甲1人，共7395人。由於西方經典彈道理論在戰鬥人員中逐漸普及，火器命中率的提高，極大地提高了火力武器的殺傷力。因此，火器在康熙以後不僅成為八旗的主要武器裝備，而且清軍還產生了更專門的火器營的戰鬥編成，完全改變了清軍以騎射為主的傳統作戰方式。

文化

崇尚儒學

康熙崇尚儒學，尤其是程朱理學。他曾多次舉辦博學鴻儒科，創建了南書房制度，並親臨曲阜拜謁孔廟。康熙還組織編輯與出版了《康熙字典》、《古今圖書集成》、《曆象考成》、《數理精蘊》、《康熙永年曆法》、《康熙皇輿全覽圖》等圖書、曆法和地圖。

宗教

康熙對於宗教基本上是寬容的，不僅僅是漢傳佛教，或者滿洲的藏傳佛教、薩滿教信仰，還褒封道教白雲觀方丈王常月，並皈依于門下。他甚至也時常聽天主教傳教士講道。直到他發現羅馬教廷試圖幹預中國政治，並且皇子信仰基督後以此作為爭權奪利的工具，遂開始有所抵制天主教，即中國禮儀之爭。

文字獄

康熙也利用戴南山（戴名世）的南山案文字獄事件，株連甚多，來抑制漢族士大夫的反叛思想，甚至桐城派文家方苞都差點遭斬首。

科學

康熙是中國曆史上少有的重視自然科學的皇帝，對西方文化也十分感興趣，自身具有相當高的科學素養，向來華傳教士學習代數、幾何、天文、醫學等方面的知識，並頗有著述。例如：曾從南懷仁學習歐幾里得《幾何原本》並且每天聽講。後來又學習西方的測量、天文、物理和醫學等知識，並在宮中設置了研究化學和藥學的實驗室。康熙因南懷仁督造火炮方面的功績，一直對他優禮有加，而南懷仁等西方傳教士也促進了伽利略的彈道理論在中國的傳播。

康熙除了學習西方科技之外還會應用實踐，其最突出的是用科學方法和西方儀器繪製全國地圖。康熙亦會利用巡行和出兵之便，實地測量，吸取經驗。在康熙四十六年（1707年）委任耶穌會傳教士雷孝思、白晉、社德美及中國學者何國楝、明安圖等人走遍各省，運用當時最先進的經緯圖法、三角測量法、梯形投影技術等在全國大規模實地測量，並於康熙五十七年（1718年）繪製成《康熙皇輿全覽圖》，其作被稱為在當時世界地理學的最高成就，英國李約瑟亦稱之為不但是亞洲當時所有的地圖中最好的一幅，而且比當時的所有歐洲地圖都要好、更精確。

康熙還以巡視之便訪求民間的有才之士，例如將在數學方面有很大成就的梅轂成調進宮中培養深造。梅轂成亦通過學習西方數學知識，重新令在明朝被廢棄的中國古代數學受到重視。

由於康熙帝是中國歷代帝王中最重視科學、最提倡科學和最精通科學的人，故後代有很多評判和標籤加在他身上，他被視為有重大貢獻的「科學家皇帝」，或被視為是「窒塞民智」的「罪魁禍首」。有學者及歷史學家認為，清朝中後期國力開始遠遠落後於西方，跟康熙晚年墨守成規和缺乏創新有關，故他應當為中國科技的落後狀況負責任；此外，亦有學者認為，康熙由于自身的局限性，對當時的科學內容採取又用之又防之的手段，他又擔心先進的西方科技一旦傳開，將會極大的動搖以騎射起家的滿清的統治，另外，康熙亦被批評阻礙了中國火器的發展。

此外，由於傳教士們所宣揚的基督宗教教義與中國的傳統文化觀念之有很大的差異和分歧，故西學受當時中國各階層保守人士竭力反對，清初保守派官員楊光先就強調「寧可使華夏無好曆法，不可使中國有西洋人」，對傳播西學的傳教士表示不滿。面對士大夫的不滿情緒以及羅馬教廷對中國文化禮俗的批評，作為中華文化正統的最高代表，康熙特意對理學名臣李光地、熊賜履等說：「汝等知西洋人漸漸作怪乎？將孔夫子亦罵了。予所以好待他者，不過是用其技藝耳。歷算之學果然好。你們通是讀書人，見外面地方官與知道理者，可俱道朕意。」希望藉助他們剖白他為何使用傳教士及其底線所在。與批評西學為「奇技淫巧」的守舊派官僚不同，願意學習和提倡西學的康熙對西學採取較開明的態度。

民族

康熙對國家的治理中對「漢學」傳統的學習與推崇，從各方面接受並正確執行漢族政策，充分正視和運用「漢家」的傳統意識，為開創鼎盛局面打下基礎。但是康熙作為「天下之主」，為了維護清朝的根本利益，極力標榜「滿漢一體」。但是，受本民族利益的驅使和民族情感的困擾，他往往自覺或不自覺地陷入偏徇滿洲的境地，在噶禮和張伯行互參案中體現出來。

1690年至1697年多次擊敗準噶爾部噶爾丹，史稱三征噶爾丹。在雅克薩戰役，康熙派遣黑龍江將軍薩布素成功驅逐沙俄對黑龍江流域的侵略，收復了雅克薩城（舊稱阿爾巴津；現俄羅斯聯邦斯科沃羅季諾）和尼布楚城（現俄羅斯聯邦涅爾琴斯克）。他在京師東北的熱河營建了避暑山莊，將其作為蒙古、西藏、哈薩克等部王公貴族覲見的場所，為清朝大肆的修建皇家園林開闢了先河。

外交

中西交流

亦有史學家指出，康熙會欣賞和重用有才華的傳教士，西方先進的科學技術也被推崇和應用。康熙曾經委派傳教士返回歐洲招募人才，希望增進中西方科技文化交流。而民間與西方傳教士能夠互相交遊，西學在社會中得以自由傳播，亦指出分別由康乾皇帝敕輯的叢書－《古今圖書集成》和《四庫全書》亦收錄了傳入中國的西方科學技術。

據傳教士張誠（J. F. Gerbillon）的日記記載，康熙為了保護傳教士不被其他官員陷害而不准他們在有漢人和蒙古人的衙門裏翻譯任何科學文獻。18世紀康熙末期，因羅馬教廷發出禁止中國人教徒祭祖的禁令而引發禮儀之爭，促使清廷反制並下令「自今以後，若不遵利瑪竇規矩，斷不准在中國住，必逐回去」。

中俄開始正式接觸是在康熙帝時期，簽訂了《尼布楚條約》以後，兩國貿易逐漸繁榮。1715年，俄國傳教士首次來華，加強了兩國經濟、文化之間的交流。康熙晚年，因為俄商來華人數眾多；更重要的是俄方一些行為違背了康熙關于安全、和平的原則，因而使中俄關係形勢逆轉。

海外貿易

然而有文獻記載指出，在清朝康熙年間，原本閉關鎖國的中國逐漸向外界開放，並維持著國內、近鄰貿易以及歐洲貿易。甚至說「全歐洲的貿易量都無法跟巨大的中國貿易量相比」，並且形容中國的各個省就相當於歐洲的各個王國，它們各自擁有自己豐富且多種多樣的特產進行貿易，而且這傾向於聯盟保護的形式，在所有的城市裡也一樣，以至官員們在商業界裡都擁有自己的股份／分成，他們當中有部分人會將他們的金錢委託給值得信任的人打理以保證他們的資產在商業往來中取得成果，連平民百姓也可以從商業貿易中得益。同時記載了清朝市集的繁華程度和中外商家的貿易情況，又稱中國商人在交易時都很誠實可靠，跟日本、巴達維亞（今印尼雅加達）、馬尼拉以及歐洲也有貿易來往。《全球通史》裡亦指出，康熙時期中國的對外貿易急劇膨脹且發展快速，大量的茶葉、絲綢、棉布、瓷器和漆器經廣州口岸運往歐洲銷售。

評價

《清史稿》：「聖祖仁孝性成，智勇天錫。早承大業，勤政愛民。經文緯武，寰宇一統，雖曰守成，實同開創焉。聖學高深，崇儒重道。幾暇格物，豁貫天人，尤為古今所未覯。而久道化成，風移俗易，天下和樂，克致太平。其雍熙景象，使後世想望流連，至於今不能已。傳曰：『為人君，止於仁。』又曰：『道盛德至善，民之不能忘。』於戲，何其盛歟！」

《嘯亭雜錄》：「仁皇天資純厚，遇事優容，每以寬大為政，不事溪刻。」

《全球通史》：「康熙有理由這樣自信。他統治的大清帝國是世界上最強大、最富庶的國家，就連那些自命不凡的歐洲來訪者都不得不承認這一點。」「他在『康熙』這一年號下，統治中國60多年，並成為17世紀的偉大人物。同時康熙又是一位卓越的軍事家，一位精細的管理者，一位淵博的學者。」「康熙曾有過幾回巡視，他不但視察公共工程、寬赦囚犯、聆聽民間疾苦，而且還親自審閱那些有志向的舉子的科考卷子。一位為此而吃驚的教士寫道：『康熙甚至會召見那些地位低下的勞工和農夫，並以一種友善可親的態度同他們交談，這使他深得人心。』也許是因為經常外出巡行，並能親臨下層，康熙學會了識別18個省中的13個省的方言。」

《劍橋中國清代前中期史》：「玄燁是中華帝國歷史上最偉大的統治者之一，他的統治時間不僅僅是最長的，而且也是最具有活力的，在中華帝國的歷史上更是最複雜的。也許同時他是冷酷而且粗心大意的，在判斷的時候會犯錯誤，但是他卻擁有敏銳的自我分析能力以及對帝國的使命感，這都標誌著他是少有的可以隨心所欲的改變人類歷史進程的人！而且被眾多歷史學家（包括中國，日本和西方的史家）所注意的是，康熙的統治可與俄國的彼得大帝以及法國的路易十四相媲美，而他們三人的共同特點標誌著前工業時代，傳統君主王權的最高階段。」「而且，康熙在很多事上，行事果斷，對於統治和文化做出了許多有益的事，而他的人品與品格則成為理解導致清朝秩序鞏固的眾多因素的入口點。」

南懷仁：「（康熙）親切地接近老百姓，力圖讓所有人都能看見自己，就像在北京時的慣例一樣，他諭令衛兵們不許阻止百姓靠近。所有的百姓，不管男女，都以為他們的皇帝是從天而降的，他們的目光中充滿異常的喜悅。為一睹聖容，他們不惜遠涉跑來此地，因為，對他們來講，皇帝親臨此地是從不曾有過的事情。皇帝也非常高興於臣民們赤誠的感情表露，他盡力撤去一切尊嚴的誇飾，讓百姓們靠近，以此向臣民展示祖先傳下來的樸質精神。」

白晉：「具備天下所有人的優點，在全世界的君主中，康熙帝應列為第一等的英主。」「康熙皇帝的孝順和感恩是如此罕見，他因此獲得了舉國百姓的尊敬和擁戴。」

金昌業：「以康熙之儉約，守汗寬簡之規模，抑商貿以勸農，節財用以愛民，其享五十年太平，宜矣！」

萊布尼茨：「現世皇帝康熙就是這麼一個空前偉大的君主。他對歐洲人頗懷好感，但起初還是不敢違法輔政臣僚的意願，以國家法規形式公開允准基督教在中國自由傳播。直到他親政之後，方才辦到這點。事實證明，正是康熙這一雄才大略才使得歐洲的技藝和科學更換地輸入中國。僅此而言，我認為康熙帝一個人比他所有的臣僚都更具遠見卓識。我之所以視他為英明的偉人，因為他把歐洲的東西與中國的東西結合起來了。」

伏爾泰：「北京的耶穌會教士，由於精通曆算而博得康熙皇帝的歡心，以致這位以善良仁慈、行高德美而馳名遐邇的君主，准許他們在中國傳教，並公開講授基督教義。」

馬嘎爾尼：「時至今日，正如耶穌會的傳教士們所講，康熙皇帝對科技有很濃厚的興趣，但無論如何他的後世子孫並沒有繼承他的這一優點，甚至也沒有繼承他的其他優秀品質與聰明才智；因為現在他們的國家政策與王室的虛榮感正在共同牴觸著我們所表現出的優秀傑出方面的一切事物，儘管他們毫不懷疑我們的卓越，但是他們還是沒有學習會如何利用這些（優秀的科技）。」

曾國藩：「我朝六祖一宗，集大成於康熙。而雍乾以後，英賢輩出，皆若沐聖祖之教，此在愚氓亦似知之。其所以然者，雖大智莫能名也。」「凡前聖所稱至德納行，范無一而不備。上而天象、地輿、歷算、音樂、考禮、行師、刑律、農政，下至射御、醫藥、奇門、王遁，滿蒙、西域、外洋之文書字母，殆無一而不通，且無一不創立新法，別啟律途。後來高才絕藝，終莫能出其範圍。」

梁啓超：「清聖祖尤篤嗜，召西士南懷仁等供奉內廷。風聲所被，嚮慕尤眾。」「康熙帝是比較有自由思想的人。他早年間興文字之獄，大抵都是他未親政之前的事……本身卻是廓達大度的人，不獨政治上常採寬仁之義，對於學問，亦有宏納眾流氣象。試圖他《庭訓格言》，便可以窺見一斑了。所以康熙朝學者，沒有什麼顧忌，對於各種問題，可以自由研究。」

呂思勉：「聖祖是個聰明特達的君主。他樂於求學，勤於辦事。於天文、地理、律歷、算術……學問，多所通曉。又頗能採用西洋的學問。……他能勵精圖治，確是實在的。……他能儉於用財，也確是真的。所以當三藩平後，國內已無戰事，政治亦頗清明，百姓就得以休養生息。」

蔡東藩：」自古藩鎮，鮮有不生變者。撤亦反，不撤亦反；與其遲撤而養旤益深，不若早撤而除患較易。清聖祖力主撤藩，正英斷有為之主。洎乎倉卒告警，舉朝震動，聖祖獨從容遣將，鎮定如恆，且不允索額圖之請，自損主威，聖祖誠可謂大過人者。「

毛澤東：「康熙三征噶爾丹，團結眾蒙古部，把新疆牢牢地守住。他進兵西藏，振興黃教，尊崇達賴喇嘛，護送六世達賴進藏，打敗準噶爾人，為維護西南邊疆的統一，邁出了關鍵性的一步。他進剿台灣，在澎湖激戰，完成統一台灣的大業。他在東北收復雅克薩，組織東北各族人民進行抗俄鬥爭，和沙俄簽訂《尼布楚條約》，保證我永戍黑龍江，取得了獨立自主外交的勝利，為鞏固東北邊疆做出了重大貢獻。」

田淼：「康熙作為一代有作為的封建帝王，在政務之餘，花費了大量時間和精力研習西方數學和天文學知識，為西方數學在中國的傳播和中國數學的發展做出了非常大的貢獻，不能不說是非常可貴的。」

柏楊：「玄燁大帝，這個中國歷史上最英明的君主之一，年輕氣壯，有劉邦豁達大度的胸襟和李世民知人善任的智慧。」

高陽：「與唐太宗均是第一流的君主，其個人修養和道德言行也是無可挑剔。論述缺點時，謂其晚年因傳位而至吏治漸壞。」

錢宗范：「他一生勤奮好學，博覽群書。自然科學方面的數學、天文、曆法、物理、地理、農學、醫學、工程技術；人文方面的經、史、子、集；藝術方面的聲律、書法、詩畫。他幾乎都有所研究。他寫出了八九十篇關於自然科學方面的論著，他親自審定了多種歷史方面的書籍，他還精通多種民族語言。」

邵力子：「康熙本人儘管對西方科技感興趣，但他卻絲毫不打算將這種興趣向官員和民眾推廣。對於西洋傳來的學問，他似乎只想利用，只知欣賞，而從不注意造就人才，更不注意改變風氣。

楊啟樵：「康熙寬大，乾隆疏闊，要不是雍正的整飭，清朝恐早衰亡。」

軼事典故

刻苦學習

康熙帝幼年繼位，立志「為治天下而學」，終身好學不倦，同時勤習騎射，弓馬嫻熟，體格健壯。其中，刻苦的學習精神和良好的讀書方法對他治國理政具有不可替代的作用。康熙從少年時代開始直到晚年，對古代書家作品的學習都不曾間斷。《石渠寶笈》和《佩文齋書畫譜》著錄了較多康熙對古代書跡的題跋。

養生與美食

康熙帝也是一位重視自然科學、精通醫道的養生家，相傳，八寶豆腐和康熙帝也有淵源。但是康熙晚年多病纏身，還患有高脂血症，這多少與他的飲食失衡有關。

家族

兄弟姐妹

兄弟

姊妹

堂姊妹（父親養女）

后妃

順治時期，已有冊封封號妃的妃子，如：順治世祖曾冊封號立董鄂氏賢妃，甚至尊上為皇貴妃、皇后；博爾濟吉特氏悼妃；博爾濟吉特氏靜妃。

從康熙登極初，封先朝順治皇帝已逝的貞妃，可看出：《康熙朝實錄》順治十八年（1661年）二月：「康熙諭禮部、皇考（順治）大行皇帝御宇時。妃董鄂氏……遂爾薨逝芳烈難泯，典禮宜崇，特進名封，以昭淑德，追封為貞妃。所有應行禮儀，爾部察例具奏」。

康熙初冊封號禮的妃嬪，有努爾哈赤太祖、順治世祖皇帝的妃嬪：皇曾祖壽康太妃（順治十八年十月）、皇考貞妃（順治十八年二月）、皇考恪妃（康熙六年）、皇考淑惠妃（康熙十二年）、皇考恭靖妃、皇考端順妃、皇考寧愨妃，……：著會同禮部，詳議典禮。

康熙於前期皆未冊立自己的妃嬪的基本徽號禮（例如：孝昭仁皇后、榮妃…諸多妃嬪康熙初期頂多隻冊到妃）。

康熙前半生，只隆重冊立第一任孝誠仁皇后（康熙四年大婚），孝誠仁皇后逝世唯一幼齡兒子胤礽立即被康熙立為皇太子，兩年之後，於康熙十六（1677年）開始，才逐一有成批冊立妃嬪基本的徽號禮。

皇后

皇貴妃

雍正上位期，未晉尊康熙妃嬪太妃之位，只晉封一批先朝妃嬪妃位。如：雍正元年，追封允祥母敏妃章佳氏為敬敏皇貴妃（已薨逝），並首開皇貴妃能祔葬康熙主陵的先例。雍正二年，雍正養母孝懿仁皇后還在世之妹封為皇考皇貴妃，與諸位康熙妃嬪同時冊封。

乾隆朝之後，尊皇祖四太妃位。包括撫養乾隆為皇子時的慈母兩位，各加徽號和晉升太妃之位為：壽祺皇貴太妃、溫惠貴太妃。

貴妃

妃

嬪

貴人

庶妃

庶妃泛指未經冊封的嬪御，有些嬪御雖未經正式冊封，但在宮內被稱為嬪，甚至貴妃。如順懿密妃在奏摺內被稱為王嬪，平妃赫舍里氏被清初重臣王熙稱為貴妃。一些庶妃應能擁有嬪位，甚至妃位的待遇。因為康熙三十六年的《康熙朝滿文硃批》顯示妃位有六人，而當時正式冊封為妃者僅有四人。

常在

答應

康熙帝有大小答應二百多人為謬誤，康熙四十六年時，康熙帝的妃子僅有乾清宮主位十六人，大答應十人。康熙朝的乾清宮主位，即指皇后以下，大答應以上的妃子。因此景陽宮主位應非為康熙帝的后妃，或為以景陽宮為主的附屬建築群內的宮女子，如乾清宮主位實際上居住在東六宮、西六宮。另外，毓慶宮主位應為皇太子的妻妾。

格格

乾隆十九年二月，曹八里屯塋地安葬的格格已有144位，地壇後塋地安葬格格1位，以上共145位。未知當中有多少為康熙帝的格格。

子女

康熙共有三十五子、二十女。其中只有20個兒子、8個女兒活到成年。康熙諸子初隨「承」、「保」、「長」等字、後均隨「胤」字。之後雍正帝胤禛即位後為避帝王諱，諸皇子名中「胤」字改為「允」字。唯怡親王允祥逝後，雍正帝將其名改回胤祥。

子（按出生順序）

女

養女

影視形象

註釋

Early reign

Born on 5 February 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing, the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the personal name Xuanye (玄燁 Xuanye; Manchu transliteration: hiowan yei). He was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning), on 7 February 1661. However, his era name "Kangxi", only started to be used on 18February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year.

Sinologist Herbert Giles, drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox."

Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang (in the name of Shunzhi Emperor) had appointed the powerful men Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as regents. Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement.

In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong, also titled Koxinga.

In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Dowager Empress Xiaozhuang, who had raised him. and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River; repair of the Grand Canal; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688.

Kangxi's relatives from the Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor.

Military achievements

Army

The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor; however, it was larger than in the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao.

The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle.

By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns. This was because commanders' statuses had become hereditary; a general gained his position based on the contributions of his forefathers.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories

After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin. Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt.

Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.

Taiwan

In 1683, the naval forces of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan—organized under the Zheng dynasty as the Kingdom of Tungning—were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang. Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng", and was inducted into the Eight Banners as a member of the Han Plain Red Banner. His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops (, tengpaiying)—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin.

A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan (朱弘桓), the son of Zhu Yihai. The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" ( Tianhou) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" ( Tianfei). Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with Guanyin and the Virgin Mary.

The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the Fujian and Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the Hakka, who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning Punti people for the next few centuries.

Russia

In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin.

The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China.

Mongolia

The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni.

Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Tümen Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor.

In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in the following year.

Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing

In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui, modern Inner Mongolia, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.

Tibet

In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade.

The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet (翊法恭順汗 Yìfǎ Gōngshùn Hán, literally Buddhism Respecting, Deferential Khan). The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.

Muslims

Manchu emperor Kangxi incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai (Kokonor) were plotting with Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.

Chinese nobility

The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi (五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì) to the descendants of Shao Yong, Zhu Xi, Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (Ran Qiu, Ran Geng, Ran Yong), Bu Shang, Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius), and the Duke of Zhou's offspring.

Economic achievements

The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were:

:1668 (7th year of Kangxi): 14,930,000 taels

:1692: 27,385,631 taels

:1702–1709: approximately 50,000,000 taels with little variation during this period

:1710: 45,880,000 taels

:1718: 44,319,033 taels

:1720: 39,317,103 taels

:1721 (60th year of Kangxi, second last of his reign): 32,622,421 taels

The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor) advice on how to make the economy more efficient.

Cultural achievements

During his reign, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters, which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary. This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty. However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials.

In 1705, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, a compilation of Tang poetry, the Quan Tangshi, was produced.

The Kangxi Emperor also was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries, such as Ferdinand Verbiest, whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček, who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order.

From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe, which would later develop to become the Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University.

The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. Thomas Pereira taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet; later the emperor would play on it himself. He also invented a Chinese calendar. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during the Kangxi Emperor's reign.

Christianity

In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy, they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing and artillery, the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning.

The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite. In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized Catholicism, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people.

However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "idolatry". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI, who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of the Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years.

On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die, which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble".

Succession disputes

A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne – the Nine Lords' War.

In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren, died while giving birth to his second surviving son Yinreng, who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be a perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince.

Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods.

Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707, the emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi, in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest. Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son, knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended the eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused the Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness.

In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing the Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing. However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat, and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity, which would only be opened after his death.

Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" and "Fourth Lord Party".

Death and succession

Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in the political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang, was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng. The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti, whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with the ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti.

In the evening of 20 December 1722 before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, 16th and 17th princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua, Hebei.

A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor, has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang, the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang, though this is never treated seriously by scholars.

Personality and achievements

The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the Qing dynasty. The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng, then to the Manchus in 1644, and the installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived the central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications.

The Kangxi Emperor was a workaholic, rising early and retiring late, reading and responding to numerous memorials every day, conferring with his councilors and giving audiences – and this was in normal times; in wartime, he might be reading memorials from the warfront until after midnight or even, as with the Dzungar conflict, away on campaign in person.

The Kangxi Emperor devised a system of communication that circumvented the scholar-bureaucrats, who had a tendency to usurp the power of the emperor. This Palace Memorial System involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes that only he and the official had access to. This started as a system for receiving uncensored extreme-weather reports, which the emperor regarded as divine comments on his rule. However, it soon evolved into a general-purpose secret "news channel." Out of this emerged a Grand Council, which dealt with extraordinary, especially military, events. The council was chaired by the emperor and manned by his more elevated Han Chinese and Manchu household staff. From this council, the mandarin civil servants were excluded – they were left only with routine administration.

The Kangxi Emperor managed to woo the Confucian intelligentsia into co-operating with the Qing government, despite their deep reservations about Manchu rule and loyalty to the Ming. He appealed to this very sense of Confucian values, for instance, by issuing the Sacred Edict in 1670. He encouraged Confucian learning and made sure that the civil service examinations were held every three years even during times of stress. When some scholars, out of loyalty to the Ming, refused to take the exams, he hit upon the expedient of a special exam to be taken by nomination. He personally sponsored the writing of the Ming Official History, the Kangxi Dictionary, a phrase-dictionary, a vast encyclopedia and an even vaster compilation of Chinese literature. To promote his image as a "sage ruler," he appointed Manchu and Chinese tutors with whom he studied the Confucian classics and worked intensively on Chinese calligraphy.

In the one military campaign in which he actively participated, against the Dzungar Mongols, the Kangxi Emperor showed himself an effective military commander. According to Finer, the emperor's own written reflections allow one to experience "how intimate and caring was his communion with the rank-and-file, how discriminating and yet masterful his relationship with his generals".

As a result of the scaling down of hostilities as peace returned to China after the Manchu conquest, and also as a result of the ensuing rapid increase of population, land cultivation and therefore tax revenues based on agriculture, the Kangxi Emperor was able first to make tax remissions, then in 1712 to freeze the land tax and corvée altogether, without embarrassing the state treasury (although the dynasty eventually suffered from this fiscal policy).

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Xiaochengren, of the Hešeri clan (孝誠仁皇后 赫舍里氏; 3 February 1654 – 6 June 1674)皇后

　• Chenghu (承祜; 4 January 1670 – 3 March 1672), second son

　• Yunreng, Prince Limi of the First Rank (理密親王 允礽; 6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), seventh (second) son

• Empress Xiaozhaoren, of the Niohuru clan (孝昭仁皇后 鈕祜祿氏; 1653 – 18 March 1678), second cousin皇后

• Empress Xiaoyiren, of the Tunggiya clan (孝懿仁皇后 佟佳氏; d. 24 August 1689), first cousin貴妃→皇貴妃→皇后

　• Eighth daughter (13 July 1683 – 6 August 1683)

　• Miscarriage (August 1689)

• Empress Xiaogongren, of the Uya clan (孝恭仁皇后 烏雅氏; 28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723)德嬪→德妃..仁壽皇太后

　• Yinzhen, the Yongzheng Emperor (世宗 胤禛; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), 11th (fourth) son

　• Yinzuo (胤祚; 5 March 1680 – 15 June 1685), 14th (sixth) son

　• Seventh daughter (5 July 1682 – September 1682)

　• Princess Wenxian of the First Rank (; 10 November 1683 – August/September 1702), ninth daughter

　　• Married Shun'anyan (舜安顏; d. 1724) of the Manchu Tunggiya clan in October/November 1700, and had issue (one son)

　• 12th daughter (14 June 1686 – February/March 1697)

　• Yunti, Prince Xunqin of the Second Rank (; 10 February 1688 – 16 February 1755), 23rd (14th) son

• Imperial Noble Consort Quehui, of the Tunggiya clan (; September/October 1668 – 24 April 1743), first cousin

• Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin, of the Janggiya clan (; d. 20 August 1699)敏妃

　• Yinxiang, Prince Yixian of the First Rank (; 16 November 1686 – 18 June 1730), 22nd (13th) son

　• Princess Wenke of the Second Rank (; 31 December 1687 – 27 July 1709), 13th daughter

　　• Married Cangjin (蒼津) of the Onnigud Borjigit clan in August/September 1706

　• Princess Dunke of the Second Rank (; 3 February 1691 – 2 January 1710), 15th daughter

　　• Married Dorji (多爾濟; d. 1720) of the Khorchin Borjigit clan in January/February 1709, and had issue (one daughter)

• Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi, of the Gūwalgiya clan (; 3 December 1683 – 30 April 1768)

　• 18th daughter (17 November 1701 – November 1701)

• Noble Consort Wenxi, of the Niohuru clan (; d. 19 December 1694), second cousin貴妃

　• Yun'e, Duke of the Second Rank (; 28 November 1683 – 18 October 1741), 18th (tenth) son

　• 11th daughter (24 October 1685 – June/July 1686)

• Consort Hui, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (; d. 30 May 1670), first cousin twice removed

• Consort Rong, of the Magiya clan (; d. 26 April 1727)

　• Chengrui (承瑞; 5 November 1667 – 10 July 1670), first son

　• Saiyinchahun (; 24 January 1672 – 6 March 1674), fourth son

　• Princess Rongxian of the First Rank (; 20 June 1673 – 29 May 1728), third daughter

　　• Married Örgen (烏爾袞; d. 1721) of the Barin Borjigit clan in June/July 1691

　• Changhua (; 11 May 1674), sixth son

　• Changsheng (長生; 10 September 1675 – 27 April 1677), eighth son

　• Yunzhi, Prince Chengyin of the Second Rank (; 23 March 1677 – 10 July 1732), tenth (third) son

• Consort Hui, of the Yehe Nara clan (; d. 1 May 1732)

　• Chengqing (承慶; 21 March 1670 – 26 May 1671), third son

　• Yunzhi, Prince of the Fourth Rank (; 12 March 1672 – 7 January 1735), fifth (first) son

• Consort Yi, of the Gorolo clan (; d. 2 October 1733)

　• Yunqi, Prince Hengwen of the First Rank (恆溫親王 允祺; 5 January 1680 – 10 July 1732), 13th (fifth) son

　• Yuntang, Prince of the Fourth Rank (; 17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), 17th (ninth) son

　• Yinzi (胤禌; 8 June 1685 – 22 August 1696), 20th (11th) son

• Consort Ping, of the Hešeri clan (平妃 赫舍里氏; d. 18 July 1696)

　• Yinji (; 23 February 1691 – 30 March 1691), 24th son

• Consort Liang, of the Wei clan (; d. 29 December 1711), personal name Shuangjie

　• Yunsi, Prince Lian of the First Rank (廉親王 允禩; 29 March 1681 – 5 October 1726), 16th (eighth) son

• Consort Cheng, of the Daigiya clan (成妃 戴佳氏; d. 18 December 1740)

　• Yunyou, Prince Chundu of the First Rank (淳度親王 允佑; 19 August 1680 – 18 May 1730), 15th (seventh) son

• Consort Xuan, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (; d. 12 September 1736), third cousin

• Consort Ding, of the Wanlioha clan (; January/February 1661 – 24 May 1757), personal name Niuniu (妞妞)定嬪..定妃

　• Yuntao, Prince Lüyi of the First Rank (; 18 January 1686 – 1 September 1763), 21st (12th) son

• Consort Shunyimi, of the Wang clan (; d. 19 November 1744)

　• Yunxu, Prince Yuke of the Second Rank (; 24 December 1693 – 8 March 1731), 25th (15th) son

　• Yunlu, Prince Zhuangke of the First Rank (; 28 July 1695 – 20 March 1767), 26th (16th) son

　• Yinxie (胤祄; 15 May 1701 – 17 October 1708), 28th (18th) son

• Consort Chunyuqin, of the Chen clan (; d. 12 January 1754)

　• Yunli, Prince Guoyi of the First Rank (; 24 March 1697 – 21 March 1738), 27th (17th) son

• Concubine An, of the Li clan (安嬪 李氏)

• Concubine Jing, of the Wanggiya clan (敬嬪 王佳氏)

• Concubine Duan, of the Dong clan (端嬪 董氏; d. 1702)

　• Second daughter (17 April 1671 – March/April 1673)

• Concubine Xi, of the Hešeri clan (僖嬪 赫舍里氏; d. 31 October 1702)

• Concubine Tong, of the Ula Nara clan (通嬪 那拉氏; d. 1 August 1744), personal name Yanjimai (檐吉迈)貴人..通嬪

　• Princess Chunque of the First Rank (固倫純慤公主; 20 March 1685 – 22 April 1710), tenth daughter

　　• Married Ts'ering (策棱; d. 1750) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in June/July 1706, and had issue (one son)

• Concubine Xiang, of the Gao clan (襄嬪 高氏; d. 14 August 1746), personal name Zaiyi (在仪)秀貴人..襄嬪

　• Yinji (胤禝; 25 October 1702 – 28 March 1704), 29th (19th) son

　• 19th daughter (30 March 1703 – February/March 1705)

　• Yunyi, Prince Jianjing of the Third Rank (簡靖貝勒 允禕; 1 September 1706 – 30 June 1755), 30th (20th) son

• Concubine Xi, of the Chen clan (熙嬪 陳氏; April/May 1690 – 1 February 1737)倩貴人..熙嬪

　• Yunxi, Prince Shenjing of the Second Rank (慎靖郡王 允禧; 27 February 1711 – 26 June 1758), 31st (21st) son

• Concubine Jin, of the Sehetu clan (謹嬪 色赫圖氏; d. 23 April 1739)綺貴人..謹嬪

　• Yunhu, Prince Gongqin of the Third Rank (恭勤貝勒 允祜; 10 January 1712 – 12 February 1744), 32nd (22nd) son

• Concubine Jing, of the Shi clan (靜嬪 石氏; 13 December 1689 – 10 July 1758)貴人..靜嬪

　• Yunqi, Prince Cheng of the Third Rank (誠貝勒 允祁; 14 January 1714 – 31 August 1785), 33rd (23rd) son

• Concubine Mu, of the Chen clan (穆嬪 陳氏; d. 1727)貴人

　• Yunbi, Prince Xianke of the First Rank (; 5 July 1716 – 3 December 1773), 34th (24th) son

• Noble Lady Bu, of the Joogiya clan (; d. 21 February 1717)

　• Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank (; 9 June 1674 – March/April 1710), fifth daughter

　　• Married Ga'erzang (; 1675–1722) of the Kharchin Ulanghan clan in November/December 1692, and had issue (one daughter)

• Noble Lady, of the Nara clan

　• Wanfu (; 4 December 1675 – 11 March 1679), ninth son

　• Yinzan (; 10 April 1679 – 30 April 1680), 12th son

• Noble Lady, of the Gorolo clan

　• Princess Kejing of the First Rank (; 4 July 1679 – March/April 1735), sixth daughter

　　• Married Dondob Dorji (敦多布多爾濟; d. 1743) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in December 1697 or January 1698 and had issue (three sons)

　• Yinju (胤䄔; 13 September 1683 – 17 July 1684), 19th son

• Noble Lady, of the Yuan clan (; d. 25 September 1719)常在

　• Princess Quejing of the Second Rank (; 16 January 1690 – 1736), 14th daughter

　　• Married Sun Chengyun (; d. 1719) in 1706

• Noble Lady, of the Chen clan (貴人 陳氏)

　• Yinyuan (胤禐; 2 March 1718), 35th son

• Mistress, of the Zhang clan

　• First daughter (23 December 1668 – November 1671)

　• Fourth daughter (16 March 1674 – January/February 1679)

• Mistress, of the Wang clan (王氏)

　• 16th daughter (27 November 1695 – October/November 1707)

• Mistress, of the Liu clan

　• 17th daughter (12 January 1699 – December 1700 or January 1701)

• Mistress, of the Niohuru clan

　• 20th daughter (20 November 1708 – January/February 1709)

Ancestry