| | 食貨志上: |
洪範八政，一曰食，二曰貨。食謂農殖嘉穀可食之物，貨謂布帛可衣，及金刀龜貝，所以分財布利通有無者也。二者，生民之本，興自神農之世。「斲木為耜，煣木為耒，耒鲈之利以教天下」，而食足；「日中為市，致天下之民，聚天下之貨，交易而退，各得其所」，而貨通。食足貨通，然後國實民富，而教化成。黃帝以下「通其變，使民不倦」。堯命四子以「敬授民時」，舜命后稷以「黎民祖飢」，是為政首。禹平洪水，定九州，制土田，各因所生遠近，賦入貢棐，楙遷有無，萬國作乂。殷周之盛，詩書所述，要在安民，富而教之。故易稱「天地之大德曰生，聖人之大寶曰位；何以守位曰仁，何以聚人曰財。」財者，帝王所以聚人守位，養成群生，奉順天德，治國安民之本也。故曰：「不患寡而患不均，不患貧而患不安；蓋均亡貧，和亡寡，安亡傾。」是以聖王域民，築城郭以居之，制廬井以均之，開市肆以通之，設庠序以教之；士農工商，四民有業。學以居位曰士，闢土殖穀曰農，作巧成器曰工，通財鬻貨曰商。聖王量能授事，四民陳力受職，故朝亡廢官，邑亡敖民，地亡曠土。 |
| | Hongfan Ba Zheng: first is food, second is goods. "Shi" refers to cultivating good grains and edible things from agriculture; "huo" refers to cloth and silk for clothing, as well as gold, knives, turtles, and shells, which are used to distribute wealth, allocate benefits, and facilitate the exchange of goods. These two aspects form the foundation for sustaining the people and have been in practice since the time of Shen Nong. "Cutting wood to make a si, bending wood to make a lei; using the sharpness of the leilu to teach the world"—thus ensuring sufficient food; "At midday, a market was established to gather the people from all over the world and collect goods from across the land; after trading, everyone returned with what they needed"—thus ensuring the circulation of goods. With sufficient food and circulating goods, a nation becomes strong and its people prosperous, thus enabling successful moral education and cultural influence. From Huang Di onward, "they adapted to changes, ensuring the people remained tireless." Yao appointed his four sons "to respectfully instruct the people on the seasons," and Shun appointed Hou Ji to "prevent the common people from suffering hunger"—these were the first priorities of governance. Yu controlled the great floods, stabilized the Nine Provinces, regulated land and fields, assigning taxes and tributes according to the distance and resources of each region; he facilitated the exchange of surplus and shortages, thus bringing order to all nations. During the flourishing periods of Yin and Zhou dynasties, as described in the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents, the key was to ensure the people's peace, enrich them, and then educate them. Therefore, the Yijing states: "The greatest virtue of heaven and earth is life; the greatest treasure of a sage is his position; How to maintain one's position? Through benevolence. How to gather people? Through wealth." lineno Wealth is what emperors and kings use to gather the people, maintain their positions, nurture all living beings, honor heavenly virtue, and thus form the foundation for governing the state and ensuring the people's peace. Therefore it is said: "Do not fear scarcity but inequality; do not fear poverty but instability; For when distribution is fair, there is no true poverty; where harmony exists, there is no real shortage; and where peace prevails, there is no danger of collapse." Therefore, sage kings established boundaries for the people: they built city walls to house them, regulated homes and wells to ensure equality among them, opened markets to facilitate trade, and established schools to educate them; Scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants—the four classes of people each had their occupations. Those who studied to hold positions were called "shi"; those who cultivated land and grew grain were called "nong"; those who crafted skillfully into tools or objects were called "gong"; and those who circulated wealth and sold goods were called "shang." Sage kings assigned tasks according to people's abilities; the four classes of people contributed their strength and accepted their roles, so there were no idle officials in court, no idlers in the towns, and no uncultivated land.
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| | 食貨志上: |
理民之道，地著為本。故必建步立畝，正其經界。六尺為步，步百為畝，畝百為夫，夫三為屋，屋三為井，井方一里，是為九夫。八家共之，各受私田百畝，公田十畝，是為八百八十畝，餘二十畝以為廬舍。出入相友，守望相助，疾病則救，民是以和睦，而教化齊同，力役生產可得而平也。 |
| | The way to govern the people lies fundamentally in securing a stable connection between them and their land. Therefore, it was essential to establish measured plots of land and define clear boundaries. Six chi made one bu, 100 bu made one mou, 100 mou made one fu, three fu made one wu, three wu made one jing, and a square li in size contained nine fu. Eight families shared one jing; each family received 100 mou of private land and 10 mou of public land, totaling 880 mou. The remaining 20 mou were used for houses and dwellings. When entering or leaving, they supported one another as friends; when guarding and watching, they helped each other. In times of illness, they provided aid. Thus the people lived in harmony, moral education was uniform, and labor duties and production could be fairly managed.
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| | 食貨志上: |
民受田，上田夫百畝，中田夫二百畝，下田夫三百畝。歲耕種者為不易上田；休一歲者為一易中田；休二歲者為再易下田，三歲更耕之，自爰其處。農民戶人己受田，其家眾男為餘夫，亦以口受田如比。士工商家受田，五口乃當農夫一人。此謂平土可以為法者也。若山林藪澤原陵淳鹵之地，各以肥磽多少為差。有賦有稅。稅謂公田什一及工商衡虞之入也。賦共車馬甲兵士徒之役，充實府庫賜予之用。稅給郊社宗廟百神之祀，天子奉養百官祿食庶事之費。民年二十受田，六十歸田。七十以上，上所養也；十歲以下，上所長也；十一以上，上所強也。種穀必雜五種，以備災害。田中不得有樹，用妨五穀。力耕數耘，收穫如寇盜之至。還廬樹桑，菜茹有畦，瓜瓠果蓏殖於疆易。雞豚狗彘毋失其時，女修蠶織，則五十可以衣帛，七十可以食肉。 |
| | When the people received land, superior land amounted to 100 mou per fu, medium land to 200 mou per fu, and inferior land to 300 mou per fu. Land cultivated year after year was called "bubian shangtian," or superior land that did not change; Land left fallow for one year was termed "yiyi zhongtian," or medium land with a one-year rotation; Land left fallow for two years was termed "zaiyi xiatian," or inferior land with a two-year rotation; every three years, the fields were rotated and cultivated anew, allowing people to manage their plots as they wished. For each household of farmers already granted land, additional male members in the family were considered "yufu," and they also received land according to their number of mouths, following the same standard. Scholars, artisans, and merchants' families who were granted land required five people to equal one farmer in terms of land allocation. This is what is meant by the equitable distribution of land that can serve as a model. As for lands such as mountains, forests, marshes, lakes, highlands, and saline or barren areas, their allocation varied according to the degree of fertility or infertility. Taxes were levied accordingly. "Taxes" referred to the one-tenth produce from public fields, as well as revenues from commerce, handicrafts, and state-controlled resources such as forests and fisheries. "Assignments" were used to support military service, including vehicles, horses, armor, weapons, soldiers, and attendants, as well as for filling the state treasury and covering expenses for grants and gifts. Taxes provided offerings for ancestral temples, altars to the gods of land and grain, and all deities; they also supported the emperor's maintenance, salaries for officials, food supplies, and other expenses. Peasants began receiving land at twenty years of age and returned it upon reaching sixty. Those over seventy were to be supported by the state; Children under ten were those whom the state nurtured; Those aged eleven and above were subject to the state's authority. Cultivating grains required planting five different types, in order to prepare for disasters. Trees were not allowed within farmland, as they would hinder the growth of the five grains. With diligent farming and frequent weeding, harvests should be gathered with the urgency as if thieves were approaching. Returning to their homes, people planted mulberry trees; vegetables and herbs were grown in plots, while melons, gourds, fruits, and other crops were cultivated along the field boundaries. Raising chickens, pigs, dogs, and boars should not miss their proper seasons; women engaged in sericulture and weaving so that by fifty they could wear silk, and by seventy they could eat meat.
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| | 食貨志上: |
在野曰廬，在邑曰里。五家為鄰，五鄰為里，四里為族，五族為黨，五黨為州，五州為鄉。鄉，萬二千五百戶也。鄰長位下士，自此以上，稍登一級，至鄉而為卿也。於里有序而鄉有庠。序以明教，庠則行禮而視化焉。春令民畢出在野，冬則畢入於邑。其詩曰：「四之日舉止，同我婦子，饁彼南具。」又曰：「十月蟋蟀，入我床下，嗟我婦子，聿為改歲，入此室處。」所以順陰陽，備寇賊，習禮文也。春，秋出民，里胥平旦坐於右塾，鄰長坐於右塾，畢出然後歸，夕亦如之。入者必持薪樵，輕重相分，班白不提挈。冬，民既入，婦人同巷，相從夜績，女工一月得四十五日。必相從者，所以省費燎火，同巧拙而合習俗也。男女有不得其所者，因相與歌詠，各言其傷。 |
| | In the countryside it was called "lu," while within a town it was termed "li." Five households formed a lin, five lins formed a li, four lis formed a zu, five zus formed a dang, five dangs formed a zhou, and five zhou formed a xiang. A xiang consisted of 12,500 households. The head of a lin held the rank of Xiaoshi; from this position upward, each level was one rank higher, reaching the rank of Qing at the xiang level. Schools were established in lis as "xu," and in xiangs they were called "xiang." Xu schools focused on clarifying instruction, while xiang schools emphasized performing rituals to observe moral transformation. In spring, the people were required to be entirely in the fields; in winter, they returned completely to the towns. The poem says: "On the fourth day of the month, we gather with our wives and children to send food provisions to those working in the southern fields." It also says: "In the tenth month, the cricket enters beneath my bed. Alas, my wife and children, it is time to change the year; let us enter this house for shelter." This was done to follow the principles of yin and yang, prepare against bandits, and cultivate ritual propriety. In spring and autumn, the people of each li were required to gather. At dawn, the li xu sat in the right xu school, while the lin zhang sat in the left xu school; all had to be present before they could return home, and this was repeated at dusk as well. Those entering must carry firewood or kindling; the loads were divided according to weight so that elderly people with white hair did not have to carry them. In winter, after the people had returned to town, women from the same alley gathered together and worked at spinning by night; thus, a woman's monthly labor amounted to forty-five days. They were required to work together in order to save on firewood and lighting expenses, to share skills regardless of ability, and to foster a sense of shared custom. If there were men or women who had not found their proper place in life, they would sing together and each express their sorrow.
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| | 食貨志上: |
是月，餘子亦在于序室。八歲入小學，學六甲五方書計之事，始知室家長幼之節。十五入大學，學先聖禮樂，而知朝廷君臣之禮。其有秀異者，移鄉學于庠序；庠序之異者，移國學于少學。諸侯歲貢少學之異者於天子，學于大學，命曰造士。行同能偶，則別之以射，然後爵命焉。 |
| | During this month, the younger members of the household also gathered at the xu school. At eight years old, children entered primary school to study the Six Jia, knowledge of the Five Directions, writing, and arithmetic; they began learning the etiquette of respecting elders and juniors within their families. At fifteen, students entered higher schools to study the rites and music of past sages, thus learning the proper conduct between ruler and subject in court. Those who showed exceptional talent were transferred from their local schools to xiang or xu schools; Among those in the xiang and xu schools, outstanding individuals were moved to national schools for further education. Each year, feudal lords would recommend exceptional students from their local schools to the Son of Heaven, who would study at the imperial university; these individuals were called "zaoshi." When people had similar conduct and abilities, they were distinguished by archery contests. Only after this would ranks and appointments be given.
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| | 食貨志上: |
孟春之月，群居者將散，行人振木鐸徇于路，以采詩，獻之大師，比其音律，以聞於天子。故曰王者不窺牖戶而知天下。 |
| | In the first month of spring, when people living in groups were about to disperse, officials carrying wooden bells traveled along roads, collecting folk songs. These poems were presented to the Grand Master, who compared their melodies and rhythms before reporting them to the Son of Heaven. Therefore it is said that a sovereign need not look out from his window or door to know what happens throughout the realm.
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| | 食貨志上: |
此先王制土處民富而教之之大略也。故孔子曰：「道千乘之國，敬事而信，節用而愛人，使民以時。」故民皆勸功樂業，先公而後私。其詩曰：「有渰淒淒，興雲祁祁，雨我公田，遂及我私。」民三年耕，則餘一年之畜。衣食足而知榮辱，廉讓生而爭訟息，故三載考績。孔子曰「苟有用我者，期月而已可也，三年有成」，成此功也。三考黜陟，餘三年食，進業曰登；再登曰平，餘六年食；三登曰泰平，二十七歲，遺九年食。然後鲈德流洽，禮樂成焉。故曰「如有王者，必世而後仁」，繇此道也。」 |
| | This was the general plan of past kings for regulating land, settling the people, enriching them, and then educating them. Therefore Confucius said: "To govern a state with a thousand chariots, one must be respectful in duties and trustworthy, use resources frugally, love the people, and employ them according to the seasons." Thus the people were all encouraged to work diligently and take joy in their occupations, prioritizing public duties before personal interests. The poem says: "Dark clouds gather heavily, and rain falls in abundance; may it nourish my public fields, and then reach my private land." After three years of farming, the people would have a surplus for one year's consumption. With sufficient clothing and food, people came to understand honor and disgrace; integrity and courtesy arose, disputes ceased, hence performance was evaluated every three years. Confucius said: "If there is one who would employ me, within a month or so things could be set in order; after three years, results would be achieved," referring to the accomplishment of this kind of governance. After three evaluations, officials were either promoted or demoted based on their performance; if they had an additional three years' worth of provisions and advanced in their duties, it was called "deng." Two such advancements were termed "ping," indicating a surplus for six more years; Three such advancements were called "Taiping," meaning thirty-six years of governance, with enough provisions to last nine additional years. Only then would virtue and benevolence spread widely, and rites and music be fully established. Therefore it is said: "If a true ruler were to arise, he would need one generation before benevolence could prevail"—this was the path.
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| | 食貨志上: |
周室既衰，暴君污吏慢其經界，繇役橫作，政令不信，上下相詐，公田不治。故魯宣公「初稅畝」，春秋譏焉。於是上貪民怨，災害生而禍亂作。 |
| | After the Zhou dynasty declined, tyrannical rulers and corrupt officials neglected land boundaries. Arbitrary levies of labor arose; government orders lacked credibility; superiors and inferiors deceived one another, and public fields were left untended. Therefore, Duke Xuan of Lu implemented "Chushui Mu" (initial taxation by the mou), which was criticized in the Spring and Autumn Annals. At that time, officials became greedy and the people resented them; disasters arose and calamities followed.
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| | 食貨志上: |
陵夷至於戰國，貴詐力而賤仁誼，先富有而後禮讓。是時，李悝為魏文侯作盡地力之教，以為地方百里，提封九萬頃，除山澤邑居參分去一，為田六百萬畝，治田勤謹則畝益三升，不勤則損亦如之。地方百里之增減，輒為粟百八十萬石矣。又曰糴其貴傷民，甚賤傷農；民傷則離散，農傷則國貧。故甚貴與甚賤，其傷一也。善為國者，使民毋傷而農益勸。今一夫挾五口，治田百畝，歲收畝一石半，為粟百五十石，除十一之稅十五石，餘百三十五石。食，人月一石半，五人終歲為粟九十石，餘有四十五石。石三十，為錢千三百五十，除社閭嘗新春秋之祠，用錢三百，餘千五十。衣，人率用錢三百，五人終歲用千五百，不足四百五十。不幸疾病死喪之費，及上賦斂，又未與此。此農夫所以常困，有不勸耕之心，而令糴至於甚貴者也。是故善平糴者，必謹觀歲有上中下孰。上孰其收自四，餘四百石；中孰自三，餘三百石；下孰自倍，餘百石。小飢則收百石，中飢七十石，大飢三十石。故大孰則上糴三而舍一，中孰則糴二，下孰則糴一，使民適足，賈平則止。小飢則發小孰之所斂，中飢則發中孰之所斂，大飢則發大孰之所斂，而糶之。故雖遇饑饉水旱，糴不貴而民不散，取有餘以補不足也。行之魏國，國以富彊。 |
| | Gradually declining into the Warring States period, rulers valued deceit and strength while despising benevolence and righteousness; they prioritized wealth and abundance over courtesy and humility. At that time, Li Kui created a system for Duke Wen of Wei to maximize land productivity. He calculated that within an area of one hundred li in each direction, the total land measured nine million qing. After subtracting mountains, lakes, and inhabited areas—accounting for one-third—the remaining farmland totaled six million mou. If cultivated diligently, each mou could yield three sheng more; if neglected, it would lose a similar amount. Thus, an increase or decrease in productivity within a hundred-li territory could result in a difference of 1.8 million dan of grain. It was also said that purchasing grain at high prices harms the people, while buying it too cheaply injures farmers; When the people are harmed, they disperse; when farmers suffer, the state becomes poor. Therefore, both excessively high and low prices cause harm—equally detrimental. A wise ruler of the state ensures that the people suffer no harm while encouraging farmers to work more diligently. Now, one man with five dependents cultivating 100 mou would yield an average of 1.5 dan per mou annually, totaling 150 dan. After paying a tax of one-tenth (15 dan), there would remain 135 dan. For food, each person consumes 1.5 dan monthly; for five people over a year, this totals 90 dan, leaving an excess of 45 dan. At thirty qian per dan, this surplus amounts to 1,350 qian. After deducting 300 qian for communal and ancestral sacrifices during the spring and autumn festivals, there remains 1,050 qian. For clothing, each person spends an average of 300 qian; for five people in a year, this totals 1,500 qian, leaving a shortfall of 450 qian. Unforeseen expenses for illness, death, or mourning, as well as imperial levies and taxes, have not yet been accounted for in this calculation. This is why farmers often remain impoverished, lose motivation to farm, and why grain prices rise sharply. Therefore, those skilled in regulating grain prices must carefully observe whether the harvest is abundant, moderate, or poor. In an excellent harvest year, production quadruples, leaving 400 dan as surplus; in a moderate harvest year, it triples, leaving 300 dan in surplus; in a poor harvest year, the yield doubles, leaving only 100 dan as surplus. In times of minor famine, the harvest is reduced to 100 dan; in moderate famine, it drops to 70 dan; and in severe famine, only 30 dan are harvested. Therefore, in a bountiful harvest year, the state should purchase three parts and leave one part for the people; in an average harvest year, purchase two parts; and in a poor harvest year, purchase only one part. This ensures that the people have just enough, and when prices stabilize, grain purchases should cease. In times of minor famine, release the grain stored from a small harvest; in moderate famine, release that from an average harvest; and in severe famine, release that accumulated during bountiful years, then sell it. Thus, even in the face of famine or drought, grain prices remain stable and the people do not scatter; surplus is taken to make up for shortages. Implementing this policy in the State of Wei brought wealth and strength to the nation.
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及秦孝公用商君，壞井田，開仟伯，急耕戰之賞，雖非古道，猶以務本之故，傾鄰國而雄諸侯。然王制遂滅，僭差亡度。庶人之富者累鉅萬，而貧者食糟糠；有國彊者兼州域，而弱者喪社稷。至於始皇，遂并天下，內興功作，外攘夷狄，收泰半之賦，發閭左之戍。男子力耕不足糧饟，女子紡績不足衣服。竭天下之資財以奉其政，猶未足以澹其欲也。海內愁怨，遂用潰畔。 |
| | When Duke Xiao of Qin employed Shang Yang, he abolished the well-field system and opened up farmland in grid patterns. He emphasized rewards for farming and warfare; although this was not in line with ancient principles, it still brought prosperity through focusing on fundamentals, enabling Qin to surpass neighboring states and dominate among the feudal lords. Yet thus the system of royal regulations was gradually abolished, and social hierarchies became disorderly without limits. The wealthy commoners accumulated tens of thousands in wealth, while the poor subsisted on bran and chaff; powerful states annexed entire regions, while weak ones lost their ancestral altars and kingdoms. By the time of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, he had unified all under heaven. Internally, he launched grand construction projects; externally, he repelled the Yi and Di tribes. He levied heavy taxes, taking two-thirds of people's produce, and conscripted even the lowest commoners for military service. Men toiled in farming yet still lacked enough food for their rations; women spun and wove but still could not provide sufficient clothing. The state drained all the wealth of the land to support its policies, yet it was still insufficient to satisfy its desires. Dissatisfaction and resentment spread throughout the realm, leading ultimately to rebellion and collapse.
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漢興，接秦之敝，諸侯並起，民失作業，而大饑饉。凡米石五千，人相食，死者過半。高祖乃令民得賣子，就食蜀漢。天下既定，民亡蓋臧，自天子不能具醇駟，而將相或乘牛車。上於是約法省禁，輕田租，什五而稅一，量吏祿，度官用，以賦於民。而山川園池市肆租稅之入，自天子以至封君湯沐邑，皆各為私奉養，不領於天子之經費。漕轉關東粟以給中都官，歲不過數十萬石。孝惠、高后之間，衣食滋殖。文帝即位，躬修儉節，思安百姓。時民近戰國，皆背本趨末，賈誼說上曰： |
| | When the Han dynasty rose to power, it inherited the exhaustion left by Qin. Feudal lords arose simultaneously, and the people lost their livelihoods, leading to a great famine. At that time, grain prices soared to 5,000 qian per dan; people resorted to cannibalism, and more than half the population died. Emperor Gaozu then allowed people to sell their children in order to seek sustenance in Shu and Hanzhong. After the empire was pacified, the people had no possessions left; even the Son of Heaven could not afford a team of purebred horses, while generals and ministers sometimes traveled in ox-drawn carts. The emperor then simplified laws, reduced restrictions, and lowered land taxes to one-fifteenth. He measured officials' salaries and calculated government expenditures before levying them on the people. Revenue from mountain forests, parks, ponds, markets, and shops was used for private support by the Son of Heaven down to feudal lords in their fiefdoms designated as sources of bath and food supplies; these were not included in the central government's budget. Grain was transported via canals from Guandong to supply the central capital, but the annual amount did not exceed several hundred thousand dan. During the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lu, food and clothing became more abundant. When Emperor Wen ascended the throne, he personally practiced frugality and sought to bring peace and stability to the people. At that time, the people were still influenced by the Warring States era; many abandoned farming for commerce. Jia Yi advised the emperor, saying:
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| | 食貨志上: |
筦子曰「倉廩實而知禮節」。民不足而可治者，自古及今，未之嘗聞。古之人曰：「一夫不耕，或受之飢；一女不織，或受之寒。」生之有時，而用之亡度，則物力必屈。古之治天下，至孅至悉也，故其畜積足恃。今背本而趨末，食者甚眾，是天下之大殘也；淫侈之俗，日日以長，是天下之大賊也。殘賊公行，莫之或止；大命將泛，莫之振救。生之者甚少而靡之者甚多，天下財產何得不蹶！漢之為漢幾四十年矣，公私之積猶可哀痛。失時不雨，民且狼顧；歲惡不入，請賣爵、子。既聞耳矣，安有為天下阽危者若是而上不驚者！ |
| | Guanzi said, "When granaries are full, people know propriety and restraint." There has never been a case in history, from ancient times to the present, where a people lacking basic necessities could be governed well. The ancients said: "If one man does not farm, someone may suffer from hunger; if one woman does not weave, someone may endure the cold." Production has its seasons, but if consumption is without limits, then material resources will inevitably be exhausted. In ancient times, those who governed the world were extremely meticulous and thorough; thus, their reserves of grain and supplies were sufficient to rely upon. Nowadays, people abandon farming for commerce; there are many who consume without producing—this is a great harm to the world; extravagant and wasteful customs grow day by day, which constitutes a grave threat to the realm. These destructive practices spread openly, with no one daring to stop them; the great order of the state is on the verge of collapse, and no one can rescue it. The number of producers is very small while the number of consumers is great—how could the wealth of the world not be exhausted! The Han dynasty has ruled for nearly forty years, yet both public and private reserves remain pitifully scarce. If rain does not fall at the proper season, the people will look around in panic; in times of poor harvest and insufficient income, they would even request to sell their official ranks or children. This has already been heard with one's ears—how could a ruler remain unmoved when the realm is in such peril!
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| | 食貨志上: |
世之有飢穰，天之行也，禹、湯被之矣。即不幸有方二三千里之旱，國胡以相恤？卒然邊境有急，數十百萬之眾，國胡以餽之？兵旱相乘，天下大屈，有勇力者聚徒而衡擊，罷夫羸老易子而沦其骨。政治未畢通也，遠方之能疑者並舉而爭起矣，乃駭而圖之，豈將有及乎？ |
| | Famine and abundance are natural occurrences, as inevitable as the course of heaven; even Yu the Great and King Tang experienced them. If an unfortunate drought were to strike a region spanning two or three thousand li, how could the state provide relief? Should sudden emergencies arise on the frontier requiring hundreds of thousands of troops, what resources would the state have to supply them? If military conflicts and droughts occur simultaneously, the realm will face great hardship. Those with strength will gather followers to rebel violently; exhausted men and frail elders may exchange their children for burial. If governance is not yet fully restored, distant regions harboring doubts will rise up in unison. If the court becomes alarmed and attempts to deal with them at that point, would it still be too late?
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| | 食貨志上: |
夫積貯者，天下之大命也。苟粟多而財有餘，何為而不成？以攻則取，以守則固，以戰則勝。懷敵附遠，何招而不至？今毆民而歸之農，皆著於本，使天下各食其力，末技游食之民轉而緣南畝，則畜積足而人樂其所矣。可以為富安天下，而直為此廩廩也，竊為陛下惜之！ |
| | Accumulating reserves is vital to the stability of the realm. If grain is abundant and wealth sufficient, what goal cannot be achieved? With such resources, one can conquer in attack, hold firm in defense, and win in battle. To subdue enemies and bring distant regions under submission—what call would not be answered? Now, if we encourage the people to return to farming and settle in agriculture, all will be rooted in their fundamental occupation. If everyone throughout the land sustains themselves through their own labor, those engaged in minor trades or idleness will turn instead toward tilling fields. Then reserves will be sufficient, and people will find joy in their place of residence. This would bring wealth and stability to the realm; yet it is merely for this precarious situation, which I secretly lament on behalf of Your Majesty!
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| | 食貨志上: |
於是上感誼言，始開籍田，躬耕以勸百姓。晁錯復說上曰： |
| | Thus moved by Jia Yi's words, the emperor began to establish a royal field for farming and personally tilled it in order to encourage the people. Chao Cuo then advised the emperor again, saying:
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| | 食貨志上: |
聖王在上而民不凍飢者，非能耕而食之，織而衣之也，為開其資財之道也。故堯、禹有九年之水，湯有七年之旱，而國亡捐瘠者，以畜積多而備先具也。今海內為一，土地人民之眾不避湯、禹，加以亡天災數年之水旱，而畜積未及者，何也？地有遺利，民有餘力，生穀之土未盡墾，山澤之利未盡出也，游食之民未盡歸農也。民貧，則姦邪生。貧生於不足，不足生於不農，不農則不地著，不地著則離鄉輕家，民如鳥獸，雖有高城深池，嚴法重刑，猶不能禁也。 |
| | Sage kings in power ensured the people did not suffer from cold or hunger—not because they personally farmed to feed them or wove clothes for them, but because they opened up ways for the people to generate wealth. Thus, during Yao and Yu's reigns there were floods lasting nine years; under King Tang, a drought lasted seven. Yet no one in the state perished from starvation or disease because reserves had been accumulated and preparations made beforehand. Now, the realm is unified; its land and population are no less than those of King Tang or Yu. Moreover, there have been no years of prolonged droughts or floods, yet reserves remain insufficient—why is this so? There are still untapped resources in the land, and people have remaining strength. Fertile fields remain uncultivated; benefits from mountains and lakes remain unexploited; and idlers who do not work have yet to return to farming. When the people are poor, corruption and wickedness arise. Poverty arises from lack of resources, and lack of resources stems from not engaging in farming. Without farming, people are not rooted to the land; without being rooted to the land, they abandon their hometowns and undervalue their families. The people become like birds and beasts—no matter how high the walls or deep the moats, no matter how strict the laws or severe the punishments, such conditions cannot be controlled.
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| | 食貨志上: |
夫寒之於衣，不待輕煖；飢之於食，不待甘旨；飢寒至身，不顧廉恥。人情，一日不再食則飢，終歲不製衣則寒。夫腹飢不得食，膚寒不得衣，雖慈母不能保其子，君安能以有其民哉！明主知其然也，故務民於農桑，薄賦斂，廣畜積，以實倉廩，備水旱，故民可得而有也。 |
| | Regarding cold and the need for clothing, people do not wait until it is slightly warm; regarding hunger and food, they do not wait for delicacies; When hunger and cold afflict the body, people no longer care about integrity or shame. Human nature is such that if one does not eat twice a day, they will feel hungry; and if clothes are not made for an entire year, cold will follow. When the belly is hungry and food cannot be obtained, when the skin is cold and clothes are lacking—even a kind mother cannot protect her child; how then can a ruler claim to possess his people! A wise ruler understands this, so he encourages the people to focus on farming and sericulture, reduces taxes, accumulates reserves, fills granaries, prepares for droughts and floods—thus ensuring that the people can be truly governed.
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| | 食貨志上: |
民者，在上所以牧之，趨利如水走下，四方亡擇也。夫珠玉金銀，飢不可食，寒不可衣，然而眾貴之者，以上用之故也。其為物輕微易臧，在於把握，可以周海內而亡飢寒之患。此令臣輕背其主，而民易去其鄉，盜賊有所勸，亡逃者得輕資也。粟米布帛生於地，長於時，聚於力，非可一日成也；數石之重，中人弗勝，不為姦邪所利，一日弗得而飢寒至。是故明君貴五穀而賤金玉。 |
| | The people are like livestock in the hands of their ruler, who must guide them. They seek profit as water flows downward, without regard for direction or choice. Jade, pearls, gold, and silver cannot be eaten when hungry nor worn for warmth in the cold. Yet they are highly valued by many because rulers use them. These items are light, easy to store, and can be held in one's hand; they allow one to travel across the realm without fear of hunger or cold. This causes ministers to easily betray their lords and people to abandon their hometowns. Bandits are encouraged, and those fleeing can carry away light valuables with ease. Grain, cloth, and silk grow from the land, mature over time, and are gathered through labor—they cannot be produced in a single day; a few dan of grain is heavy enough that an ordinary person cannot carry it easily, and it holds no value for thieves or evildoers. A single day without it brings hunger and cold. Therefore, wise rulers value grain highly but regard gold and jade as of little worth.
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| | 食貨志上: |
今農夫五口之家，其服役者不下二人，其能耕者不過百畝，百畝之收不過百石。春耕夏耘，秋穫冬臧，伐薪樵，治官府，給繇役；春不得避風塵，夏不得避暑熱，秋不得避陰雨，冬不得避寒凍，四時之間亡日休息；又私自送往迎來，弔死問疾，養孤長幼在其中。勤苦如此，尚復被水旱之災，急政暴虐，賦斂不時，朝令而暮改。當具有者半賈而賣，亡者取倍稱之息，於是有賣田宅鬻子孫以償責者矣。而商賈大者積貯倍息，小者坐列販賣，操其奇贏，日游都市，乘上之急，所賣必倍。故其男不耕耘，女不蠶織，衣必文采，食必梁肉；亡農夫之苦，有仟伯之得。因其富厚，交通王侯，力過吏勢，以利相傾；千里游敖，冠蓋相望，乘堅策肥，履絲曳縞。此商人所以兼并農人，農人所以流亡者也。 |
| | Now, a farming household with five members has at least two people conscripted for labor service; the remaining can cultivate no more than 100 mou of land. The harvest from 100 mou does not exceed 100 dan. They till in spring, weed in summer, harvest in autumn, and store grain in winter; they cut firewood, serve government offices, and fulfill corvée labor duties; they cannot avoid spring dust storms, summer heat, autumn rains, or winter cold; there is no day of rest throughout the four seasons; in addition, they personally bear the costs of sending off and welcoming guests, mourning the dead, visiting the sick, and raising orphans while caring for children—all these responsibilities fall upon them. They toil so hard, yet still suffer from droughts and floods, oppressive policies, brutal governance, irregular taxation, and orders that change overnight. When they have goods to sell, they must do so at half price; when in debt, they are charged exorbitant interest. Thus, some are forced to sell their land and homes or even their descendants to repay debts. Meanwhile, wealthy merchants hoard goods and double their profits; small traders sit in the market selling wares, seizing opportunities for profit. They roam daily through cities, taking advantage of urgent needs, always doubling prices on what they sell. Thus, these merchants do not till the land or raise silkworms; their men do no farming and women weave nothing. Yet they wear embroidered clothes and eat refined grains and meat; they suffer none of the farmer's hardships yet reap profits like those from a hundred mou of farmland. With their wealth, they establish connections with kings and marquises; their influence surpasses that of officials, as they compete for profit through manipulation. They travel thousands of li, with carriages and hats visible on the road; riding strong horses and wearing silk shoes and fine gowns. This is why merchants can absorb farmers, and why farmers become displaced and wander.
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| | 食貨志上: |
今法律賤商人，商人已富貴矣；尊農夫，農夫已貧賤矣。故俗之所貴，主之所賤也；吏之所卑，法之所尊也。上下相反，好惡乖迕，而欲國富法立，不可得也。方今之務，莫若使民務農而已矣。欲民務農，在於貴粟；貴粟之道，在於使民以粟為賞罰。今募天下入粟縣官，得以拜爵，得以除罪。如此，富人有爵，農民有錢，粟有所渫。夫能入粟以受爵，皆有餘者也；取於有餘，以供上用，則貧民之賦可損，所謂損有餘補不足，令出而民利者也。順於民心，所補者三：一曰主用足，二曰民賦少，三曰勸農功。今令民有車騎馬一匹者，復卒三人。車騎者，天下武備也，故為復卒。神農之教曰：「有石城十仞，湯池百步，帶甲百萬，而亡粟，弗能守也。」以是觀之，粟者，王者大用，政之本務。令民入粟受爵至五大夫以上，乃復一人耳，此其與騎馬之功相去遠矣。爵者，上之所擅，出於口而亡窮；粟者，民之所種，生於地而不乏。夫得高爵與免罪，人之所甚欲也。使天下入粟於邊，以受爵免罪，不過三歲，塞下之粟必多矣。 |
| | Now, although the law deems merchants lowly, they have already achieved wealth and status; although farmers are honored, they remain poor and despised. Thus, what society values is precisely what the ruler deems lowly; old what officials look down upon is exactly what the law holds in high esteem. When the values of rulers and subjects are opposite, when preferences and dislikes conflict, it will be impossible to achieve national wealth or establish sound laws. The most urgent task at present is nothing more than encouraging the people to return to agriculture. To encourage the people to engage in farming lies in valuing grain; The way to value grain lies in using it as a basis for rewards and punishments. Now, if we call upon people throughout the land to contribute grain to the county officials, they may be granted noble ranks or have their crimes pardoned. In this way, wealthy individuals will receive noble titles, farmers will gain money, and grain reserves will be distributed. Those who can contribute grain in exchange for a title are all those with surplus; Taking from the surplus to supply imperial needs will allow us to reduce the taxes imposed on poor people, which is what is meant by "taking from those with more and giving to those in need," a policy that benefits the people when implemented. This aligns with the will of the people and addresses three areas: first, sufficient imperial resources; second, reduced taxes for the common people; third, encouragement of agricultural production. Now, if a civilian owns one horse suitable for cavalry, he is exempted from military service for three men. Cavalry and horses are the nation's military resources; therefore, they are granted exemption from conscription. The teachings of Shen Nong say: "Even with a stone city ten ren high, boiling moats a hundred bu long, and a million armed soldiers, if there is no grain, it cannot be defended." From this we can see that grain is the most essential resource for rulers and the fundamental duty of governance. Now, when people contribute grain to receive a noble title up to the rank of Wudafu or higher, they are only exempted from conscription for one person; this is far less significant than the contribution made by providing horses for cavalry. Noble titles are controlled entirely by the ruler, and can be granted endlessly at will; Grain is what people cultivate from the land, growing continuously without depletion. To obtain a high noble title or to be pardoned of crimes are things that people greatly desire. If we encourage the entire population to contribute grain at the frontier in exchange for noble titles or pardons of crimes, within no more than three years, there will certainly be a surplus of grain in the border regions.
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| | 食貨志上: |
於是文帝從錯之言，令民入粟邊，六百石爵上造，稍增至四千石為五大夫，萬二千石為大庶長，各以多少級數為差。錯復奏言：「陛下幸使天下入粟塞下以拜爵，甚大惠也。竊恐塞卒之食不足用大渫天下粟。邊食足以支五歲，可令入粟郡縣矣；足支一歲以上，可時赦，勿收農民租。如此，德澤加於萬民，民俞勤農。時有軍役，若遭水旱，民不困乏，天下安寧；歲孰且美，則民大富樂矣。」上復從其言，乃下詔賜民十二年租稅之半。明年，遂除民田之租稅。 |
| | Thus, Emperor Wen followed Cuo's advice and issued an order for the people to contribute grain to the frontier: 600 dan of grain would grant the title Shangzhao, increasing gradually up to 4,000 dan for Wudafu, and 12,000 dan for Dashuzhang. The ranks were assigned according to varying amounts in a step-by-step manner. Cuo again submitted a memorial stating: "Your Majesty has kindly allowed the people throughout the land to offer grain at the frontier in return for noble titles; this is a great act of grace. I secretly fear that the food supply for the garrison troops may not be sufficient to fully utilize the grain contributed from across the land. If the frontier provisions are enough to last five years, then it would be possible to allow people to contribute grain directly to the commanderies and counties; if they can support one year or more, a temporary pardon could be issued, and farmers' taxes could be waived. In this way, the virtue and grace of Your Majesty will reach all the people, encouraging them to work even harder in agriculture. At such times when there are military campaigns or if floods and droughts occur, the people will not suffer from hardship, ensuring peace throughout the realm; when harvests are abundant and favorable, then the people will become greatly wealthy and happy." The emperor once again followed his advice and issued an edict granting half of the twelfth year's land tax to the people. The following year, he abolished the land taxes for farmers altogether.
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| | 食貨志上: |
後十三歲，孝景二年，令民半出田租，三十而稅一也。其後，上郡以西旱，復修賣爵令，而裁其賈以招民；及徒復作，得輸粟於縣官以除罪。始造苑馬以廣用，宮室列館車馬益增修矣。然婁敕有司以農為務，民遂樂業。至武帝之初七十年間，國家亡事，非遇水旱，則民人給家足，都鄙廩庾盡滿，而府庫餘財。京師之錢累百鉅萬，貫朽而不可校。太倉之粟陳陳相因，充溢露積於外，腐敗不可食。眾庶街巷有馬，仟伯之間成群，乘牸牝者擯而不得會聚。守閭閻者食粱肉；為吏者長子孫；居官者以為姓號。人人自愛而重犯法，先行誼而黜媿辱焉。於是罔疏而民富，役財驕溢，或至并兼豪黨之徒以武斷於鄉曲。宗室有土，公卿大夫以下爭於奢侈，室廬車服僭上亡限。物盛而衰，固其變也。 |
| | Thirteen years later, in the second year of Emperor Jing's reign (148 BC), an order was issued for farmers to pay half their land tax, amounting to a levy of one part out of thirty. Later, when drought struck the Shangjun region and areas westward, the decree allowing noble titles to be purchased was once again implemented, but with reduced prices to attract people; and for convicts released from exile or labor service, they could also contribute grain to the county authorities in exchange for pardoning their crimes. At that time, horse breeding farms were first established to expand military and administrative needs, and the palaces, pavilions, carriages, and horses were increasingly expanded and renovated. Nevertheless, repeated imperial decrees emphasized agriculture as the priority, and thus the people gradually found joy in their work. For the seventy years at the beginning of Emperor Wu's reign, there were no major national crises; except for occasional floods or droughts, people had sufficient food and resources in their households. Granaries in both capitals and outlying areas were full to capacity, and government treasuries overflowed with wealth. The money stored in the imperial capital accumulated into hundreds of millions; so many strings of coins had rotted that they could no longer be counted accurately. The grain in the Grand Granary was piled up layer upon layer, overflowing and left exposed outdoors until it rotted and became inedible. Even on the streets and alleys, common people had horses; in every hundred households there were groups of them. Even those who rode female cattle or cows were excluded from gatherings due to their scarcity. Even the guards at the gates and lanes ate millet and meat; officials could ensure their descendants' future security; those in office used their positions to elevate the family name. People loved themselves and valued law-abiding behavior, prioritizing righteousness while rejecting shame and disgrace. At that time, the law was lenient and the people were wealthy; with excessive wealth came arrogance. Some even became powerful local factions or gangs who used violence to dominate their hometowns. Members of the imperial clan held land, and officials from the ranks of grandees down competed in extravagance; their houses, carriages, clothing, and other possessions increasingly imitated those of the emperor without restraint. When things reach a peak, decline follows—this is an inevitable transformation.
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| | 食貨志上: |
是後，外事四夷，內興功利，役費並興，而民去本。董仲舒說上曰：「春秋它穀不書，至於麥禾不成則書之，以此見聖人於五穀最重麥與禾也。今關中俗不好種麥，是歲失春秋之所重，而損生民之具也。願陛下幸詔大司農，使關中民益種宿麥，令毋後時。」又言：「古者稅民不過什一，其求易共；使民不過三日，其力易足。民財內足以養老盡孝，外足以事上共稅，下足以畜妻子極愛，故民說從上。至秦則不然，用商鞅之法，改帝王之制，除井田，民得賣買，富者田連仟伯，貧者亡立錐之地。又顓川澤之利，管山林之饒，荒淫越制，踰侈以相高；邑有人君之尊，里有公侯之富，小民安得不困？又加月為更卒，已復為正，一歲屯戍，一歲力役，三十倍於古；田租口賦，鹽鐵之利，二十倍於古。或耕豪民之田，見稅什五。故貧民常衣牛馬之衣，而食犬彘之食。重以貪暴之吏，刑戮妄加，民愁亡聊，亡逃山林，轉為盜賊，赭衣半道，斷獄歲以千萬數。漢興，循而未改。古井田法雖難卒行，宜少近古，限民名田，以澹不足，塞并兼之路。鹽鐵皆歸於民。去奴婢，除專殺之威。薄賦斂，省繇役，以寬民力。然後可善治也。」仲舒死後，功費愈甚，天下虛耗，人復相食。 |
| | After this period, external military campaigns against the Four Barbarians were launched and internal projects for profit-driven development initiated; both labor conscription and expenses increased simultaneously, causing people to abandon their agricultural pursuits. Dong Zhongshu advised the emperor: "In the Spring and Autumn Annals, other grains are not recorded; only when wheat or millet failed to mature were they noted. From this we see that sages placed greatest importance on wheat and millet among the five grains. Now, in Guanzhong, it is customary not to grow wheat; this means that each year the people neglect what the Spring and Autumn Annals emphasize most, thereby harming the essential resources for sustaining life. I respectfully request that Your Majesty issue an order to the Grand Administrator of Agriculture, instructing the people in Guanzhong to plant more winter wheat and ensure they do not miss the proper season." He also said: "In ancient times, taxes on the people did not exceed one-tenth; their demands were easy to meet; and labor conscription for no more than three days a year was sufficient. Their strength could easily be mustered. With their resources, the people had enough internally to support their elders and fulfill filial duties, externally to serve officials and pay taxes, and below to provide for their spouses and children with utmost care. Thus, the people were content and followed the ruler's lead. But in the Qin dynasty, this was not the case. They adopted Shang Yang's laws and altered the systems of previous emperors by abolishing the well-field system, allowing people to buy and sell land. The wealthy owned vast tracts of farmland spanning hundreds of mu, while the poor had no place even to stick a cone. They also monopolized profits from rivers and lakes, controlled the abundance of mountains and forests, indulged in wastefulness beyond regulation, and competed with each other in extravagance; Towns had people who enjoyed the status of rulers, while villages housed those as wealthy as marquises and dukes. How could ordinary people avoid hardship? In addition, monthly conscription for garrison duties was imposed; after being discharged, they were again assigned to regular military service. For one year they served in frontier garrisons and for another year performed labor services—this burden was thirty times greater than in ancient times; land taxes, poll levies, and profits from salt and iron monopolies were twenty times higher than in the past. Some peasants tilled land owned by wealthy landlords, paying a tax of one-fifth or even more. Therefore, poor people often wore clothes fit only for oxen and horses, and ate food suitable for dogs and pigs. Added to this were corrupt and brutal officials who arbitrarily imposed punishments, causing the people great suffering. Desperate and without hope, they fled into the mountains and forests, turning into bandits; convicts in red prison uniforms could be seen along roadsides, with tens of thousands of court cases being processed each year. When the Han dynasty rose to power, it followed these practices without making any changes. Although the ancient well-field system may be difficult to implement immediately, it would still be advisable to approach its principles somewhat by limiting land ownership per household. This would help address shortages and block the path for land consolidation and monopolization. Salt and iron production should all be returned to private hands. Abolish the ownership of slaves and concubines, removing the oppressive power of arbitrary killing. Reduce taxes and levies, cut down on corvée labor, to ease the burden on the people's strength. Only then can good governance be achieved." After Zhongshu's death, the costs and expenditures became even more excessive; the realm was drained of resources, and people once again resorted to cannibalism.
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武帝末年，悔征伐之事，乃封丞相為富民侯。下詔曰：「 |
| | In his later years, Emperor Wu regretted the wars he had waged; thus, he bestowed a marquis title of "Fumin Hou" (Marquis for Enriching the People) upon the prime minister. He issued an edict stating: "
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方今之務，在於力農。」以趙過為搜粟都尉。過能為代田，一畝三甽。歲代處，故曰代田，古法也。后稷始甽田，以二耜為耦，廣尺深尺曰甽，長終畝。一畝三甽，一夫三百甽，而播種於甽中。苗生葉以上，稍耨隴草，因隤其土以附根苗。故其詩曰：「或芸或芓，黍稷儗儗。」芸，除草也。刭，附根也。言苗稍壯，每耨輒附根，比盛暑，隴盡而根深，能風與旱，故儗儗而盛也。其耕耘下種田器，皆有便巧。率十二夫為田一井一屋，故具五頃，用耦犁，二牛三人，一歲之收常過縵田具一斛以上，善者倍之。過使教田太常、三輔，大農置工巧奴與從事，為作田器。二千石遣令長、三老、力田及里父老善田者受田器，學耕種養苗狀。民或苦少牛，亡以趨澤，故平都令光教過以人輓犁。過奏光以為丞，教民相與庸輓犁。率多人者田日三十畝，少者十三畝，以故田多墾闢。過試以離宮卒田其宮壖地，課得穀皆多其旁田畝一斛以上。令命家田三輔公田，又教邊郡及居延城。是後邊城、河東、弘農、三輔、太常民皆便代田，用力少而得穀多。 |
| | The most urgent task now is to focus on agriculture." He appointed Zhao Guo as the Commander of Grain Collection. Zhao Guo was skilled in implementing the "daitian" method, cultivating three furrows per mu (about 0.15 acres). Each year, the fields were rotated; hence it was called "daitian," an ancient method of farming. After Ji first introduced furrow cultivation, he paired two hoes for plowing; a furrow was one chi wide and one chi deep, extending the entire length of a mu. One mu had three furrows; for each man's field (about ten mu), there were 300 furrows, and seeds were sown within the furrows. Once the seedlings had grown leaves, weeds in the ridges between furrows were gradually removed, and soil was loosened and used to cover the roots of the crops. Hence, in their poetry it is said: "Some weed the fields, some cultivate them; millet and grain grow lushly." "Yun" means weeding. "Jing" refers to covering the roots with soil. It means that as the seedlings grew stronger, after each weeding session, soil was added to reinforce their roots. By the height of summer, when all ridges were removed and the roots deeply embedded, they could withstand wind and drought; thus, the crops thrived luxuriantly. The farming tools used for plowing, cultivating, sowing, and tending fields were all designed with convenience and efficiency in mind. Generally, twelve men cultivated one well-field and one house lot, totaling five qing of land. Using paired plows with two oxen and three workers, the annual harvest often exceeded that of ordinary fields by at least one hu per mu; in good years, it could double this yield. Zhao Guo had these methods taught to the Tai Chang and Sanfu regions, while the Grand Administrator of Agriculture employed skilled artisans and officials to manufacture farming tools. Prefects at the rank of 2,000 dou dispatched magistrates, senior elders, agricultural officers, and village elders skilled in farming to receive these tools and learn techniques for plowing, planting, and nurturing crops. Some peasants found it difficult to obtain enough oxen, making it hard for them to plow the fields in time. Therefore, Guang, the magistrate of Pingdu, taught Zhao Guo a method using human power to pull the plows. Zhao Guou recommended Guang as an assistant and instructed the people to work together, hiring laborers to operate the manually drawn plows. With more workers, a day's farming could cover thirty mu; with fewer, thirteen mu. Because of this, much previously uncultivated land was brought into production. Zhao Guo tested the method by having palace attendants cultivate the vacant land around imperial palaces. The yield per mu exceeded that of surrounding fields by more than one hu. The emperor ordered these methods to be implemented on state-owned farmland in the Sanfu region, and also taught them to border commanderies and Juyan City. After this, the people of Biancheng, Hedong, Hongnong, Sanfu, and Tai Chang all found the daitian method convenient; it required less labor yet yielded more grain.
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至昭帝時，流民稍還，田野益闢，頗有畜積。宣帝即位，用吏多選賢良，百姓安土，歲數豐穰，穀至石五錢，農人少利。時大司農中丞耿壽昌以善為算能商功利得幸於上，五鳳中奏言：「 |
| | By Emperor Zhao's reign, displaced people gradually returned to their homes, fields were increasingly cultivated, and there was a noticeable increase in stored grain. When Emperor Xuan ascended the throne, he appointed many capable and virtuous officials. The people felt secure in their land; for several years there were abundant harvests, with grain prices dropping to five qian per dan, leaving farmers little profit. At that time, Zhongcheng Geng Shouchang of the Grand Administration of Agriculture was favored by the emperor for his skill in calculation and ability to assess commercial profits. In the Wufeng period, he submitted a proposal stating: "
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故事，歲漕關東穀四百萬斛以給京師，用卒六萬人。宜糴三輔、弘農、河東、上黨、太原郡穀足供京師，可以省關東漕卒過半。」又白增海租三倍，天子皆從其計。御史大夫蕭望之奏言：「故御史屬徐宮家在東萊，言往年加海租，魚不出。長老皆言武帝時縣官嘗自漁，海魚不出，後復予民，魚乃出。夫陰陽之感，物類相應，萬事盡然。今壽昌欲近糴漕關內之穀，築倉治船，費直二萬萬餘，有動眾之功，恐生旱氣，民被其災。壽昌習於商功分銖之事，其深計遠慮，誠未足任，宜且如故。」上不聽。漕事果便，壽昌遂白令邊郡皆築倉，以穀賤時增其賈而糴，以利農，穀貴時減賈而糶，名曰常平倉。民便之。上乃下詔，賜壽昌爵關內侯。而蔡癸以好農使勸郡國，至大官。 |
| | According to established practice, four million hu of grain from Guandong were annually transported by waterway to supply the capital, requiring 60,000 laborers. We should purchase grain from the commanderies of Sanfu, Hongnong, Hedong, Shangdang, and Taiyuan to be sufficient for supplying the capital; this would allow us to reduce by more than half the number of laborers needed for transporting grain from Guandong." He also proposed tripling the rent on sea salt, and the emperor accepted all his proposals. The Grand Censor Xiao Wangzhi submitted a memorial stating: "Formerly, the subordinate official Xu Gong of the Office of the Grand Censor, whose family resides in Donglai, stated that in previous years when sea rents were increased, fish did not appear. Elders all said that during Emperor Wu's reign, when the government itself fished in the sea, no fish emerged; later, after it was returned to the people, fish began to appear again. The mutual influence of yin and yang causes things in nature to respond accordingly; this is true for all matters. Now, Shouchang wants to purchase and transport grain from within the Guan region nearby, building granaries and ships at a cost of over twenty million. This large-scale mobilization may provoke dry weather, bringing disaster upon the people. Shouchang is skilled in commercial matters and meticulous calculations, but his long-term planning and foresight are truly insufficient. He should continue as before." The emperor did not listen. The grain transport system indeed proved convenient. Shouchang then proposed that all border commanderies build granaries, purchasing grain when prices were low by raising the price slightly to encourage farmers, and selling it at a reduced rate when prices rose; this was called the Changping Cang (Constant Price Granary) system. The people found this convenient. The emperor then issued an edict, bestowing Shouchang with the title of Guannei Hou (Inner Pass Marquis). Cai Gui, who was known for his love of agriculture and encouragement of commanderies and states to promote farming, rose to a high official position.
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元帝即位，天下大水，關東郡十一尤甚。二年，齊地飢，穀石三百餘，民多餓死，琅邪郡人相食。在位諸儒多言鹽鐵官及北假田官、常平倉可罷，毋與民爭利。上從其議，皆罷之。又罷建章、甘泉宮衛，角抵，齊三服官，省禁苑以予貧民，減諸侯王廟衛卒半。又減關中卒五百人，轉穀振貸窮乏。其後用度不足，獨復鹽鐵官。 |
| | When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, there was a great flood across the empire, with eleven commanderies in Guandong suffering especially severely. In the second year, there was famine in Qi, with grain prices reaching over 300 qian per dan. Many people starved to death, and cannibalism occurred among the people of Langya commandery. Many Confucian scholars in office argued that the salt and iron offices, as well as the northern farmland administration and Changping granaries, should be abolished to avoid competing with the people for profit. The emperor followed their advice and abolished them all. He also disbanded the guards of Jianzhang and Ganzhuang Palaces, as well as the jia di (gladiatorial) entertainments and the Sanfu officials in Qi. He reduced imperial hunting reserves to be given to poor peasants and cut the number of temple guards for feudal lords by half. He also reduced 500 soldiers in Guanzhong, redirecting grain to provide relief and loans to the poor and destitute. Later, when state expenditures became insufficient, the salt and iron offices were reestablished alone.
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成帝時，天下亡兵革之事，號為安樂，然俗奢侈，不以畜聚為意。永始二年，梁國、平原郡比年傷水災，人相食，刺史守相坐免。 |
| | During Emperor Cheng's reign, there was no war or military conflict in the empire; it was known as a time of peace and ease. Yet customs had become extravagant, with people paying little attention to saving and accumulating resources. In the second year of Yongshi, Liangguo and Pingyuan commanderies suffered consecutive years of flood damage; people resorted to cannibalism, and magistrates and regional governors were dismissed for their failure.
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哀帝即位，師丹輔政，建言：「古之聖王莫不設井田，然後治乃可平。孝文皇帝承亡周亂秦兵革之後，天下空虛，故務勸農桑，帥以節儉。民始充實，未有并兼之害，故不為民田及奴婢為限。今累世承平，豪富吏民訾數鉅萬，而貧弱俞困。蓋君子為政，貴因循而重改作，然所以有改者，將以救急也。亦未可詳，宜略為限。」天子下其議。丞相孔光、大司空何武奏請：「諸侯王、列侯皆得名田國中。列侯在長安，公主名田縣道，及關內侯、吏民名田皆毋過三十頃。諸侯王奴婢二百人，列侯、公主百人，關內侯、吏民三十人。期盡三年，犯者沒入官。」時田宅奴婢賈為減賤，丁、傅用事，董賢隆貴，皆不便也。詔書且須後，遂寢不行。宮室苑囿府庫之臧已侈，百姓訾富雖不及文景，然天下戶口最盛矣。 |
| | When Emperor Ai ascended the throne, Shi Dan assisted in governance and proposed: "Ancient sage kings all established well-field systems; only then could order be achieved. Emperor Wen, inheriting the aftermath of the collapse of Zhou and the chaos of Qin's wars, found the empire in a state of exhaustion; therefore, he focused on encouraging agriculture and sericulture, leading by example with frugality. The people began to prosper, without yet suffering from the harm of land consolidation; therefore, no limits were imposed on private farmland or slaves and concubines. Now, after successive generations of peace, wealthy officials and commoners possess assets in the tens of thousands, while the poor and weak grow increasingly impoverished. Indeed, when virtuous men govern, they value continuity and are cautious about making changes; yet the reason for change is to address urgent crises. It may not be possible to regulate in great detail at present; we should only roughly set limits." The emperor referred the proposal for discussion. The Chancellor Kong Guang and the Grand Works Commissioner He Wu submitted a memorial requesting: "Feudal lords and marquises may all hold named farmland within their fiefs. Marquises residing in Chang'an, princesses holding named farmland at the county level, as well as Guannei Hou and officials or commoners holding named farmland, may not exceed thirty qing. Feudal lords may possess 200 slaves and concubines; marquises and princesses, 100; Guannei Hou, officials, or commoners, thirty. The deadline is three years; those who violate this shall have their property confiscated by the state." At that time, land, houses, slaves, and concubines were valued at reduced prices. The families Ding and Fu held power, while Dong Xian was in high favor; all found this regulation inconvenient. The imperial edict postponed the matter for later consideration, and it was ultimately abandoned without implementation. Palaces, parks, government treasuries had already become extravagant; although the wealth of commoners did not match that under Emperors Wen and Jing, the population was at its highest level in the empire.
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平帝崩，王莽居攝，遂篡位。王莽因漢承平之業，匈奴稱藩，百蠻賓服，舟車所通，盡為臣妾，府庫百官之富，天下晏然。莽一朝有之，其心意未滿，骥小漢家制度，以為疏闊。宣帝始賜單于印璽，與天子同，而西南夷鉤町稱王。莽乃遣使易單于印，貶鉤町王為侯。二方始怨，侵犯邊境。莽遂興師，發三十萬眾，欲同時十道並出，一舉滅匈奴；募發天下囚徒丁男甲卒轉委輸兵器，自負海江淮而至北邊，使者馳傳督趣，海內擾矣。又動欲慕古，不度時宜，分裂州郡，改職作官，下令曰：「漢氏減輕田租，三十而稅一，常有更賦，罷癃咸出，而豪民侵陵，分田劫假，厥名三十，實什稅五也。富者驕而為邪，貧者窮而為姦，俱陷於辜，刑用不錯。今更名天下田曰王田，奴婢曰私屬，皆不得賣買。其男口不滿八，而田過一井者，分餘田與九族鄉黨。」犯令，法至死，制度又不定，吏緣為姦，天下謷謷然，陷刑者眾。 |
| | After Emperor Ping died, Wang Mang assumed regency power and eventually usurped the throne. Wang Mang inherited the Han dynasty's era of peace; the Xiongnu submitted as vassals, and all southern tribes paid homage. Wherever ships and carriages traveled, people became subjects. The wealth of government treasuries and officials was abundant, and the empire enjoyed tranquility. Wang Mang possessed all this in a single reign, yet his ambitions were never satisfied; he considered the Han dynasty's institutions to be narrow and insufficient. Emperor Xuan first bestowed a seal of authority upon the Chanyu, making it identical to that of the Son of Heaven; at the same time, the Guoteng people in the southwest barbarian regions declared their leader as king. Wang Mang then sent envoys to replace the Chanyu's seal and demoted the Guoteng King to a marquis. Both sides began to harbor resentment, leading to border incursions. Wang Mang then raised an army, mobilizing 300,000 troops, intending to launch a simultaneous ten-pronged offensive in one decisive campaign against the Xiongnu; He conscripted convicts, able-bodied men, and armored soldiers from across the empire to transport weapons, with supplies moving by themselves from the sea and along the Yangtze and Huai rivers all the way to the northern frontier. Envoys rode in haste to supervise and urge progress, causing unrest throughout the realm. He also yearned to emulate antiquity without considering the appropriateness of the times, dividing and reorganizing commanderies and states, altering official positions. He issued an edict stating: "The Han dynasty reduced land taxes, levying one-thirtieth; yet there was always additional corvée labor, with even the elderly and infirm required to contribute. Meanwhile, wealthy commoners encroached upon others' lands and seized property through force or fraud. Though named as a tax of one in thirty, it actually amounted to five in ten. The rich became arrogant and engaged in wrongdoing; the poor, destitute, resorted to crime. Both fell into guilt, and punishments were applied without error. Now I rename all land in the empire as Wangtian (royal fields), and slaves and concubines shall be called Sishu, neither of which may be bought or sold. If a household has fewer than eight male members yet holds more than one well-field, the excess land must be divided and given to relatives or neighbors in the village." Those who violated these orders faced punishments up to death. The regulations were also inconsistent, and officials exploited the system for corruption; as a result, many people across the empire were confused and fell into legal trouble.
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後三年，莽知民愁，下詔諸食王田及私屬皆得賣買，勿拘以法。然刑罰深刻，它政誖亂。邊兵二十餘萬人仰縣官衣食，用度不足，數橫賦歛，民俞貧困。常苦枯旱，亡有平歲，穀賈翔貴。 |
| | Three years later, Wang Mang realized that the people were distressed and issued an edict allowing all royal fields and private property to be bought and sold without legal restrictions. Nevertheless, punishments remained severe, and other policies were chaotic and contradictory. Over 200,000 frontier troops relied on government-provided clothing and food. With insufficient funds, the state frequently imposed arbitrary levies, making the people increasingly impoverished. Frequent droughts plagued the land, with no years of normal harvest; grain prices soared to exorbitant levels.
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末年，盜賊群起，發軍擊之，將吏放縱於外。北邊及青徐地人相食，雒陽以東米石二千。莽遣三公將軍開東方諸倉振貸窮乏，又分遣大夫謁者教民煮木為酪；酪不可食，重為煩擾。流民入關者數十萬人，置養澹官以稟之，吏盜其稟，飢死者什七八。莽恥為政所致，乃下詔曰：「予遭陽九之阨，百六之會，枯旱霜蝗，饑饉荐臻，蠻夷猾夏，寇賊姦軌，百姓流離。予甚悼之，害氣將究矣。」歲為此言，以至於亡。 |
| | In his later years, bandits rose in large numbers. The government sent armies to suppress them, but generals and officials acted recklessly outside the capital. In the northern frontier regions and Qingzhou and Xuzhou, people resorted to cannibalism; in Luoyang and areas east of it, rice prices reached 2,000 qian per dan. Wang Mang dispatched the Three Dukes and generals to open granaries in eastern regions to provide relief for the poor, while also sending officials and envoys to teach people how to make a kind of porridge from boiled wood. This "porridge" was inedible, causing further hardship and unrest. Tens of thousands of displaced people entered Guan, where officials established Yangdan offices to provide them with food. However, corrupt officials stole the provisions, and about seven or eight out of ten starving refugees died. Wang Mang was ashamed of the consequences of his governance and issued an edict saying: "I have encountered the calamity of Yangjiu, a time of great misfortune. Droughts, frosts, locusts, and famines have repeatedly struck; barbarians have disturbed China, bandits have violated order, and the people have been displaced and suffering. I deeply lament this situation; these calamities will soon reach their end." Each year he made such statements, yet they continued until his downfall.
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凡貨，金錢布帛之用，夏殷以前其詳靡記云。太公為周立九府圜法：黃金方寸，而重一斤；錢圜函方，輕重以銖；布帛廣二尺二寸為幅，長四丈為匹。故貨寶於金，利於刀，流於泉，布於布，束於帛。 |
| | All goods and commodities, such as gold, money, cloth, and silk, were used; before Xia and Yin dynasties, their detailed records are not available. Tai Gong established the system of nine treasuries for the Zhou dynasty: one cubic cun of gold weighed one jin; coins were round with square holes, and their weights were measured in zhu; the width of cloth or silk was two chi and two cun per fu, and the length was four zhang per pi. Therefore, goods were valued in gold, convenient with knives, circulated as coins, measured by cloth, and counted in bolts of silk.
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太公退，又行之于齊。至管仲相桓公，通輕重之權，曰：「歲有凶穰，故穀有貴賤；令有緩急，故物有輕重。人君不理，則畜賈游於市，乘民之不給，百倍其本矣。故萬乘之國必有萬金之賈，千乘之國必有千金之賈者，利有所并也。計本量委則足矣。然而民有飢餓者，穀有所臧也。民有餘則輕之，故人君斂之以輕；民不足則重之，故人君散之以重。凡輕重斂散之以時，則準平。使萬室之邑必有萬鍾之臧，臧繈千萬；千室之邑必有千鍾之臧，臧繈百萬。春以奉耕，夏以奉耘，耒耜器械，種饟糧食，必取澹焉。故大賈畜家不得豪奪吾民矣。」桓公遂用區區之齊合諸侯，顯伯名。 |
| | After Tai Gong retired, the system was also implemented in Qi. It was not until Guan Zhong served as prime minister to Duke Huan that he regulated the balance of prices, saying: "There are years of famine and abundance; therefore, grain has high and low prices; there are times of ease and urgency in governance; therefore, goods have varying values." If a ruler does not manage this properly, then speculators will roam the markets, taking advantage of the people's shortages and multiplying their profits by a hundredfold. Therefore, in a great state with ten thousand chariots there must be merchants with wealth of ten thousand jin of gold; and in a medium-sized state with a thousand chariots, there must be merchants with a thousand jin of gold—this is because profits are concentrated. It is sufficient to calculate the capital and assess the supply. Nevertheless, there are still people who suffer from hunger and starvation—this is because grain is hoarded somewhere. When the people have a surplus, they undervalue it; therefore, the ruler collects it at low prices; when the people lack supplies, goods become valuable; thus, the ruler distributes them at high prices. In general, if the collection and distribution of goods are adjusted according to the right timing, then prices will stabilize. lık Thus, even a town with ten thousand households must have grain reserves of ten thousand zhong, and stores of silk and money in the tens of thousands; a town with a thousand households must have reserves of a thousand zhong of grain, and stores of silk and coin in the hundreds of thousands. In spring they provide for plowing, in summer for weeding; hoes, plows, tools and implements, seed grain and provisions must all be available without difficulty. Therefore, great merchants and hoarders cannot recklessly exploit the people." Duke Huan then used the small state of Qi to unite the feudal lords and became prominent as a hegemon.
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其後百餘年，周景王時患錢輕，將更鑄大錢，單穆公曰：「不可。古者天降災戾，於是乎量資幣，權輕重，以救民。民患輕，則為之作重幣以行之，於是有母權子而行，民皆得焉。若不堪重，則多作輕而行之，亦不廢重，於是乎有子權母而行，小大利之。今王廢輕而作重，民失其資，能無匱乎？民若匱，王用將有所乏；乏將厚取於民；民不給，將有遠志，是離民也。且絕民以實王府，猶塞川原為潢洿也，竭亡日矣。王其圖之。」弗聽，卒鑄大錢，文曰「寶貨」，肉好皆有周郭，以勸農澹不足，百姓蒙利焉。 |
| | More than a hundred years later, during the reign of King Jing of Zhou, there was concern that coins were too light in value. The court planned to cast larger coins, but Duke Dan Mu Gong said: "This is not advisable." In ancient times, when heaven sent disasters and misfortunes, the state would assess resources and coinage, regulate prices, in order to rescue the people. When the people were troubled by light currency, the state created heavier coins for circulation; thus there was a system of mother and subsidiary coins in use, and all the people benefited. If they could not bear the weight of heavy coins, then more light ones were made for circulation, but the heavier ones were not abolished; thus there was a system where subsidiary coins regulated the mother coin, and both large and small benefited. Now Your Majesty is abolishing light coins in favor of heavy ones; this causes the people to lose their capital—can there not be a shortage? If the people face shortages, then the king's expenditures will also suffer from lack. When there is a shortage, heavy demands will be placed on the people; If the people cannot meet these demands, they will develop distant thoughts—that is to alienate them. Moreover, depriving the people of their resources to enrich the royal treasury is like blocking rivers and plains to create stagnant pools—it will lead to exhaustion and ruin in no time. Your Majesty should think this over carefully." The king did not listen, and eventually cast large coins. They were inscribed with the words "Bao Hua," and both their central hole (rou) and outer rim (hao) had surrounding borders (zhou guo), in order to encourage agriculture and alleviate shortages; thus the common people benefited from them.
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秦兼天下，幣為二等：黃金以溢為名，上幣；銅錢質如周錢，文曰「半兩」，重如其文。而珠玉龜貝銀錫之屬為器飾寶臧，不為幣，然各隨時而輕重無常。 |
| | When Qin unified the empire, currency was divided into two categories: gold measured in yin and served as the higher-ranking coin; bronze coins were of a quality similar to Zhou dynasty coins, inscribed with "Ban Liang," and weighed as stated. Jade, pearls, tortoise shells, cowrie shells, silver, and tin were used as ornaments or treasures for storage, not as currency; however, their values fluctuated with time and had no fixed standard.
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漢興，以為秦錢重難用，更令民鑄莢錢。黃金一斤。而不軌逐利之民畜積餘贏以稽市物，痛騰躍，米至石萬錢，馬至匹百金。天下已平，高祖乃令賈人不得衣絲乘車，重稅租以困辱之。孝惠、高后時，為天下初定，復弛商賈之律，然市井子孫亦不得宦為吏。孝文五年，為錢益多而輕，乃更鑄四銖錢，其文為「半兩」。除盜鑄錢令，使民放鑄。賈誼諫曰： |
| | When the Han dynasty rose to power, it considered Qin coins too heavy for convenient use, so it ordered the people to cast "jia qian" (slender coin). One jin of gold. Yet lawless and profit-seeking people hoarded surpluses to manipulate the market, causing prices to soar wildly; rice reached ten thousand coins per shi, and horses reached a hundred jin of gold per horse. After the empire was pacified, Emperor Gaozu issued an order that merchants were not allowed to wear silk or ride in carriages, and imposed heavy taxes and rents to humiliate and oppress them. During the reigns of Emperor Xiaohui and Empress Dowager Gao, when the empire had just been stabilized, commercial laws were once again relaxed; however, descendants of market traders still could not serve as officials. In the fifth year of Emperor Xiaowen's reign, because there were more coins and their value had become lighter, he ordered a new casting of four-zhu coins, with the inscription "Ban Lian." The decree against illegal coin casting was abolished, allowing the people to freely mint coins. Jia Yi advised:
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法使天下公得顧租鑄銅錫為錢，敢雜以鉛鐵為它巧者，其罪黥。然鑄錢之情，非殽雜為巧，則不可得贏；而殽之甚微，為利甚厚。夫事有召禍而法有起姦，今令細民人操造幣之勢，各隱屏而鑄作，因欲禁其厚利微姦，雖黥罪日報，其勢不止。乃者，民人抵罪，多者一縣百數，及吏之所疑，榜笞奔走者甚眾。夫縣法以誘民，使入陷阱，孰積於此！曩禁鑄錢，死罪積下；今公鑄錢，黥罪積下。為法若此，上何賴焉？ |
| | The law allowed the people throughout the empire to rent and cast copper and tin into coins; anyone daring to mix in lead or iron for other deceptions would be punished by facial branding. However, the reality of coin casting is that without adulterating and using inferior materials, one cannot make a profit; yet even slight adulteration can yield substantial profits. There are actions that invite disaster, and laws that encourage corruption. Now the law allows ordinary people to control the power of coin production; each hides away and casts coins secretly. Attempting to ban their small but profitable deceptions, even if daily reports of 黥 crimes are made, such tendencies cannot be stopped. Recently, many common people have been punished for crimes; in one county alone, over a hundred were involved. And among those suspected by officials, there are even more who suffer beatings and run about in distress. To use laws to entice the people into traps is a grave accumulation of injustice! In the past, when coin casting was prohibited, cases of capital punishment piled up; now that public coin casting is permitted, cases of 黥 crimes have also accumulated. With laws like this, on what can the ruler rely?
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又民用錢，郡縣不同：或用錢輕，百加若干；或用重錢，平稱不受。法錢不立，吏急而壹之虖，則大為煩苛，而力不能勝；縱而弗呵虖，則市肆異用，錢文大亂。苟非其術，何鄉而可哉！ |
| | Moreover, in the use of coins among the people, there were differences between commanderies and counties: some used lighter coins, adding several units to make up a hundred; others used heavier coins, refusing to accept them at equal weight. If there is no established standard for coinage and officials hastily enforce uniformity, it will create great bureaucratic burdens that they cannot manage; if left unchecked, then different usages in the markets will arise and coinage standards will fall into great disorder. If there is no proper method, how can one possibly proceed?
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今農事棄捐而采銅者日蕃，釋其耒耨，冶鎔炊炭，姦錢日多，五穀不為多。善人怵而為姦邪，愿民陷而之刑戮，刑戮將甚不詳，奈何而忽！國知患此，吏議必曰禁之。禁之不得其術，其傷必大。令禁鑄錢，則錢必重；重則其利深，盜鑄如雲而起，棄市之罪又不足以禁矣。姦數不勝而法禁數潰，銅使之然也。故銅布於天下，其為禍博矣。 |
| | Now farmers are abandoning their fields to collect copper, and each day more people leave behind their hoes and plows to smelt and burn charcoal; as a result, the number of counterfeit coins increases daily, while grain production does not increase. Good people are frightened into becoming corrupt; the innocent fall into criminal punishment, and such punishments will bring great misfortune—how can this be ignored! The state is aware of these problems, and officials must argue that it should be prohibited. If prohibition is carried out without the proper method, its damage will surely be great. If we issue an order to ban coin casting, then coins will become scarce and valuable; when they are valuable, the profits are great, so illegal coin casting will rise like clouds, and even capital punishment by public execution will not be sufficient to stop it. Corruption cannot be controlled while laws repeatedly collapse—this is caused by copper. Therefore, when copper spreads throughout the land, its potential for disaster is great indeed.
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今博禍可除，而七福可致也。何謂七福？上收銅勿令布，則民不鑄錢，黥罪不積，一矣。偽錢不蕃，民不相疑，二矣。采銅鑄作者反於耕田，三矣。銅畢歸於上，上挾銅積以御輕重，錢輕則以術斂之，重則以術散之，貨物必平，四矣。以作兵器，以假貴臣，多少有制，用別貴踐，五矣。以臨萬貨，以調盈虛，以收奇羨，則官富實而末民困，六矣。制吾棄財，以與匈奴逐爭其民，其敵必懷，七矣。故善為天下者，因禍而為福，轉敗而為功。今久退七福而行博禍，臣誠傷之。 |
| | Now this widespread calamity can be eliminated, and seven blessings may yet be achieved. What are the Seven Blessings? If the state collects all copper and prevents its circulation, then people will not cast coins, and crimes of 黥 will no longer accumulate—this is the first blessing. Counterfeit coins will not proliferate, and the people will trust one another—this is the second blessing. Those who collect copper for casting will return to farming—the third blessing. All copper will return to the state, and the ruler can then control its accumulation to regulate prices. When coins are light in value, he uses methods to collect them; when they are heavy, he disperses them accordingly—thus goods and prices remain stable—the fourth blessing. Copper can be used to make weapons, or lent to high-ranking officials, with quantities strictly regulated; this distinguishes the noble from the common—the fifth blessing. Using copper to oversee all goods, regulate surpluses and shortages, and collect excess profits will enrich the state while making merchants suffer—the sixth blessing. Controlling our discarded wealth to compete with the Xiongnu for their people will surely make them submit—this is the seventh blessing. Therefore, a wise ruler of the world can transform calamity into blessings and turn failure into success. Now we have long abandoned these seven blessings in favor of widespread disaster; I truly grieve over this.
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上不聽。是時，吳以諸侯即山鑄錢，富埒天子，後卒叛逆。鄧通，大夫也，以鑄錢財過王者。故吳、鄧錢布天下。 |
| | The emperor did not listen. At that time, Wu, as a feudal lord, cast coins in the mountains and became as wealthy as the Son of Heaven; later he eventually rebelled. Deng Tong was an official who, through coin casting, amassed wealth surpassing that of kings. Thus, Wu and Deng's coins circulated throughout the land.
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武帝因文、景之畜，忿胡、粵之害，即位數年，嚴助、朱買臣等招徠東甌，事兩粵，江淮之間蕭然煩費矣。唐蒙、司馬相如始開西南夷，鑿山通道千餘里，以廣巴蜀，巴蜀之民罷焉。彭吳穿穢貊、朝鮮，置滄海郡，則燕齊之間靡然發動。及王恢謀馬邑，匈奴絕和親，侵優北邊，兵連而不解，天下共其勞。干戈日滋，行者齎，居者送，中外騷擾相奉，百姓抏敝以巧法，財賂衰耗而不澹。入物者補官，出貨者除罪，選舉陵夷，廉恥相冒，武力進用，法嚴令具，興利之臣自此而始。 |
| | Emperor Wu, building upon the accumulated wealth of Emperors Wen and Jing, was enraged by the threats from the Hu and Yue peoples. In his first few years on the throne, officials such as Yan Zhu and Zhu Maichen lured Dong'ou into submission and engaged in military campaigns against the two Yue states, causing great turmoil and expense between the Yangtze and Huai rivers. Tang Meng and Sima Xiangru began opening up the southwestern Yi regions, carving roads through mountains for over a thousand li to expand Ba-Shu territory. The people of Ba and Shu were exhausted by this effort. Peng Wu penetrated the Huimo and Chaoxian peoples, establishing Canghai Commandery; as a result, regions between Yan and Qi were stirred into unrest. Later, when Wang Hui plotted the Ma Yi campaign, the Xiongnu broke off peace talks and invaded northern borders. Continuous warfare ensued without resolution, burdening all under heaven with its toil. Warfare grew daily; travelers carried provisions, and those at home saw them off. The whole realm was in turmoil as people supported the war effort. The common people were drained by cunning laws, their wealth and bribes dwindling without relief. Those who contributed goods received official appointments; those who paid money had their crimes pardoned. Merit-based selection declined, and shame was trampled upon as people competed recklessly. Military power rose in importance, laws became strict, and decrees were fully enforced—thus began the rise of officials focused on profit-making.
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其後，衛青歲以數萬騎出擊匈奴，遂取河南地，築朔方。時又通西南夷道，作者數萬人，千里負擔餽饟，率十餘鍾致一石，散幣於邛僰以輯之。數歲而道不通，蠻夷因以數攻吏，吏發兵誅之。悉巴蜀租賦不足以更之，乃募豪民田南夷，入粟縣官，而內受錢於都內。東置滄海郡，人徒之費疑於南夷。又興十餘萬築衛朔方，轉漕甚遠，自山東咸被其勞，費數十百鉅萬，府庫並虛。乃募民能入奴婢得以終身復，為郎增秩，及入羊為郎，始於此。 |
| | Later, Wei Qing led tens of thousands of cavalry annually to attack the Xiongnu, eventually seizing the Yellow River region and building Shuofang. At that time, the southern route to the western Yi was also opened; tens of thousands were mobilized for construction. People carried provisions over a thousand li, with more than ten zhong transported to deliver one shi. Coins were distributed in Qiong and Bi to pacify them. After several years, the road remained unfinished; as a result, barbarian tribes repeatedly attacked officials, who then sent troops to punish them. The taxes and levies from Ba and Shu were insufficient to cover the costs, so officials recruited wealthy civilians to cultivate land in Nan Yi. These individuals delivered grain to county offices and received money from the central treasury in return. In the east, Canghai Commandery was established; the cost of relocating people there was comparable to that of the southern Yi region. More than 100,000 people were mobilized to build Weishuofang; the transportation of grain was extremely long. People from Shandong and beyond all bore this burden, with expenditures reaching tens or even hundreds of millions, draining state treasuries completely. The government then recruited civilians who could contribute slaves and servants to receive lifelong tax exemptions, promoted officials with higher ranks for their contributions, and began appointing men as attendants in exchange for sheep. This practice started at this time.
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此後四年，衛青比歲十餘萬眾擊胡，斬捕首虜之士受賜黃金二十餘萬斤，而漢軍士馬死者十餘萬，兵甲轉漕之費不與焉。於是大司農陳臧錢經用，賦稅既竭，不足以奉戰士。有司請令民得買爵及贖禁錮免臧罪；請置賞官，名曰武功爵。級十七萬，凡直三十餘萬金。諸買武功爵官首者試補吏，先除；千夫如五大夫；其有罪又減二等；爵得至樂卿，以顯軍功。軍功多用超等，大者封侯卿大夫，小者郎。吏道雜而多端，則官職秏廢。 |
| | In the four years following this, Wei Qing led more than 100,00 troops annually to attack the Hu. Those who captured or killed enemy soldiers received over 200,000 jin of gold in rewards; meanwhile, Han soldiers and horses lost in battle numbered over 100,00—without even counting the costs of weapons, armor, and grain transportation. At this time, the Grand Minister of Agriculture reported that state reserves of money were exhausted; taxes had already been drained and were insufficient to support the soldiers. Officials requested permission for civilians to purchase noble ranks or redeem themselves from prohibitions, imprisonment, or concealed crimes; They also proposed the establishment of a reward system with an official title called "Wugong Jue." Each rank cost 170,000 coins, totaling over three million jin in value. Those who purchased the Wugong Jue and served as officials were to be tested for appointment, given priority for removal of their status; one thousand fu ranked as a wu daifu; those with crimes could have their punishment reduced by two ranks; the rank could reach the level of Yueqing, in order to highlight military achievements. Military merits were often awarded ranks beyond their due; those with great contributions were enfeoffed as marquises, qing, or dafu, while lesser ones became lang. If the path to officialdom was mixed and had many avenues, then government positions would be wasted and neglected.
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自孫弘以春秋之義繩臣下取漢相，張湯以峻文決理為廷尉，於是見知之法生，而廢格沮誹窮治之獄用矣。其明年，淮南、衡山、江都王謀反跡見，而公卿尋端治之，竟其黨與，坐而死者數萬人，吏益慘急而法令察。當是時，招尊方正賢良文學之士，或至公卿大夫。公孫弘以宰相，布被，食不重味，為下先，然而無益於俗，稍務於功利矣。 |
| | Since Sun Hong used the principles of Chunqiu to govern his subordinates and became a Han prime minister, Zhang Tang served as Tingwei by applying severe legal interpretations. From then on, laws regarding "knowing but not reporting" emerged, and cases involving obstruction, suppression, false accusations, and harsh punishment were put into practice. The following year, signs of rebellion by the kings of Huainan, Hengshan, and Jiangdu were revealed. The Grand Ministers and senior officials pursued leads to investigate them, rooting out their accomplices; as a result, tens of thousands were executed for involvement. Officials became increasingly harsh and strict in enforcing laws. At that time, the court honored upright, virtuous, and learned scholars of literature and morality; some were even appointed as Grand Ministers or senior officials. Gong Sunhong, as prime minister, slept on a coarse cloth quilt and ate simple meals without variety, setting an example for his subordinates. However, this had no effect in improving customs; gradually, people became more focused on utilitarianism instead.
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其明年，票騎仍再出擊胡，大克獲。渾邪王率數萬眾來降，於是漢發車三萬兩迎之。既至，受賞，賜及有功之士。是歲費凡百餘鉅萬。 |
| | The following year, Pieliqi led another campaign against the Hu and achieved great victories and captures. Hunye Wang led tens of thousands of his people to surrender, so the Han dynasty dispatched 30,000 carts to welcome them. After their arrival, they were rewarded; rewards and grants were also given to those who had rendered meritorious service. The total expenditure for that year amounted to over one hundred million.
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先是十餘歲，河決，灌梁、楚地，固已數困，而緣河之郡隄塞河，輒壞決，費不可勝計。其後番係欲省底柱之漕，穿汾、河渠以為溉田；鄭當時為渭漕回遠，鑿漕直渠自長安至華陰；而朔方亦穿溉渠。作者各數萬人，歷二三期而功未就，費亦各以鉅萬十數。 |
| | In the previous ten or so years, a Yellow River breach had flooded Liang and Chu regions; these areas were already repeatedly distressed. Moreover, along the river, the dikes built by bordering commanderies to block the river would frequently collapse, with costs too great to calculate. Later, Fan Xi wished to reduce the grain transport through Dizhu, so he excavated channels in Fen and He rivers for irrigation of farmland; Zheng Dangshi considered the Wei River grain route to be too roundabout, so he dug a direct canal from Chang'an to Huayin; and Shuofang also excavated irrigation channels. Each project employed tens of thousands of workers, and after two or three years the works were still unfinished; expenditures for each reached dozens of millions.
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天子為伐胡故，盛養馬，馬之往來食長安者數萬匹，卒掌者關中不足，乃調旁近郡。而胡降者數萬人皆得厚賞，衣食仰給縣官，縣官不給，天子乃損膳，解乘輿駟，出御府禁臧以澹之。 |
| | Because the emperor was waging war against the Hu, he maintained a large number of horses. Tens of thousands of horses were transported to and from Chang'an for feeding; eventually, the personnel in Guanzhong could not manage them all, so nearby commanderies had to be mobilized as well. Moreover, the tens of thousands of surrendered Hu people all received generous rewards; their clothing and food were provided by the county government. When local governments could no longer afford it, the emperor reduced his own diet, dissolved his four-horse carriage, and released treasures from the imperial palace to subsidize them.
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| | 食貨志下: |
其明年，山東被水災，民多飢乏，於是天子遣使虛郡國倉廩以振貧。猶不足，又募豪富人相假貸。尚不能相救，乃徙貧民於關以西，及充朔方以南新秦中，七十餘萬口，衣食皆仰給於縣官。數歲，貸與產業，使者分部護，冠蓋相望，費以億計，縣官大空。而富商賈或墆財役貧，轉轂百數，廢居居邑，封君皆氐首仰給焉。冶鑄煮鹽，財或累萬金，而不佐公家之急，黎民重困。 |
| | The following year, Shandong suffered from a flood disaster and many people faced hunger. Therefore, the emperor sent envoys to open granaries in commanderies and states to relieve the poor. It was still insufficient; therefore, they also recruited wealthy individuals to lend money or grain to each other. Still unable to provide relief, the government relocated poor people from east of the Passes and filled new settlements in southern Shuofang and New Qinzhong west of the Pass; over 700,000 mouths were moved, with all their clothing and food provided by county governments. For several years, loans and property were distributed to them; envoys were dispatched in groups to oversee the process. Officials traveled back and forth continuously, with expenses reaching hundreds of millions; local governments became completely drained. Meanwhile, wealthy merchants hoarded wealth and exploited the poor; hundreds of carriages moved about, while idle people gathered in towns. Even marquises and enfeoffed nobles bowed to them and relied on their support. Those engaged in smelting, casting, or salt boiling accumulated wealth amounting to tens of thousands of jin, yet did not assist the government during times of crisis; as a result, common people suffered even more.
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| | 食貨志下: |
於是天子與公卿議，更造錢幣以澹用，而摧浮淫并兼之徒。是時禁苑有白鹿而少府多銀錫。自孝文更造四銖錢，至是歲四十餘年，從建元以來，用少，縣官往往即多銅山而鑄錢，民亦盜鑄，不可勝數。錢益多而輕，物益少而貴。有司言曰：「 |
| | At this time, the emperor and senior officials discussed reforming currency to ease financial strain and curb greedy and monopolistic individuals. At that time, there were white deer in the imperial parks, while the Shao Fu had abundant silver and tin. Since Emperor Xiaowen had introduced the four-zhu coins, over forty years had passed. Since the Jianyuan era, coin usage was low; local governments often cast money using copper-rich mountains, while common people also engaged in illegal casting, which could not be counted. The more coins there were, the less value they held; goods became scarcer and more expensive. An official stated: "
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| | 食貨志下: |
古者皮幣，諸侯以聘享。金有三等，黃金為上，白金為中，赤金為下。今半兩錢法重四銖，而姦或盜摩錢質而取鋊，錢益輕薄而物貴，則遠方用幣煩費不省。」乃以白鹿皮方尺，緣以繢，為皮幣，直四十萬。王侯宗室朝覲聘享，必以皮幣薦璧，然後得行。 |
| | In ancient times, animal hides and silk were used as currency; feudal lords used them for diplomatic gifts. Gold had three grades: yellow gold was the highest, white gold the middle, and red gold the lowest. Now, the half-liang coin is supposed to weigh four zhu, but some criminals grind down coins to extract metal. As a result, coins have become lighter and thinner while goods are more expensive; this causes inconvenience and high costs for distant regions using currency." Therefore, they made square pieces of white deer skin measuring one chi on each side, bordered with embroidered patterns, as a form of currency, valued at 400,000. When kings, marquises, and members of the imperial clan visited the court or exchanged gifts, they had to present the deer-skin currency along with jade discs; only then would their visits be permitted.
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| | 食貨志下: |
又造銀錫白金。以為天用莫如龍，地用莫如馬，人用莫如龜，故白金三品：其一曰重八兩，圜之，其文龍，名「白撰」，直三千；二曰以重差小，方之，其文馬，直五百；三曰復小，橢之，其文龜，直三百。令縣官銷半兩錢，更鑄三誅錢，重如其文。盜鑄諸金錢罪皆死，而吏民之犯者不可勝數。 |
| | They also produced white gold made of silver and tin. They believed that for heavenly use, nothing was more appropriate than the dragon; for earthly use, nothing more suitable than the horse; and for human use, nothing better than the turtle. Thus, three grades of white gold were created: one weighed eight liang, round in shape, with a dragon pattern on it, named "Baiyuan," valued at 3,000; the second weighed slightly less, was square in shape, had a horse pattern on it, and was worth 500; The third was even smaller, oval-shaped, with a turtle design on it, valued at three hundred. An order was issued for local governments to melt down the half-liang coins and recast them into sanzhu coins, with weights matching their inscribed values. Those who illegally cast any of these gold or copper coins would be executed; however, the number of officials and commoners committing such crimes was too numerous to count.
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| | 食貨志下: |
於是以東郭咸陽、孔僅為大農丞，領鹽鐵事，而桑弘羊貴幸。咸陽，齊之大煮鹽，孔僅，南陽大冶，皆致產累千金，故鄭當時進言之。弘羊，洛陽賈人之子，以心計，年十三侍中。故三人言利事析秋豪矣。 |
| | At this time, Dongguo Xianyang and Kong Jin were appointed as Assistant Grand Ministers of Agriculture in charge of salt and iron affairs, while Sang Hongyang was favored and held a high position. Dongguo Xianyang, a major salt producer from Qi, and Kong Jin, a prominent metallurgist from Nanyang, both had accumulated wealth in the thousands of gold; therefore, Zheng Dangshi recommended them. Sang Hongyang was the son of a merchant from Luoyang and skilled in mental arithmetic; at thirteen, he became an Attendant-in-Ordinary. Thus, these three individuals were extremely detailed and precise when discussing matters of profit.
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| | 食貨志下: |
法既益嚴，吏多廢免。兵革數動，民多買復及五大夫、千夫，徵發之士益鮮。於是除千夫、五大夫為吏，不欲者出馬；故吏皆適令伐棘上林，作昆明池。 |
| | As the laws became increasingly strict, many officials were dismissed or relieved of their duties. With frequent military campaigns, many civilians purchased tax exemptions and ranks such as wu daifu or qian fu; thus, fewer conscripted soldiers were available for mobilization. At this time, those who held the ranks of qianfu or wu daifu could become officials; if they did not wish to serve, they had to provide horses instead. Therefore, officials were ordered to cut thorny bushes in Shanglin Garden and construct Kunming Pool.
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| | 食貨志下: |
其明年，大將軍、票騎大出擊胡，賞賜五十萬金，軍馬死者十餘萬匹，轉漕車甲之費不與焉。是時財匱，戰士頗不得祿矣。 |
| | The following year, the Grand General and Pieliqi launched a major campaign against the Hu; rewards amounted to 500,000 gold. Over 100,00 horses died in battle, without even counting expenses for transport wagons, armor, or military equipment. At this time, state finances were exhausted, and soldiers could hardly receive their salaries.
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| | 食貨志下: |
有司言三銖錢輕，輕錢易作姦詐，乃更請郡國鑄五銖錢，周郭其質，令不可得摩取鉛。 |
| | An official stated that the sanzhu coins were too light, and such lightweight coins made it easier for criminals to forge or defraud. Therefore, they requested that commanderies and states recast five-zhu coins with thick rims around their edges, making them difficult to grind down and extract lead from.
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| | 食貨志下: |
大農上鹽鐵丞孔僅、咸陽言：「山海，天地之臧，宜屬少府，陛下弗私，以屬大農佐賦。願募民自給費，因官器作煮鹽，官與牢盆。浮食奇民欲擅斡山海之貨，以致富羨，役利細民。其沮事之議，不可勝聽。敢私鑄鐵器煮鹽者，釱左趾，沒入其器物。郡不出鐵者，置小鐵官，使屬在所縣。」使僅、咸陽乘傳舉行天下鹽鐵，作官府，除故鹽鐵家富者為吏。吏益多賈人矣。 |
| | The Grand Minister of Agriculture, Assistant Salt and Iron Commissioner Kong Jin and Xianyang stated: "Mountains and seas are treasures of heaven and earth; they should belong to the Shao Fu. Your Majesty does not claim them as private property but has entrusted them to the Grand Ministry of Agriculture to assist in tax collection. We request that civilians be recruited to bear their own costs, using official equipment for salt production, with the government providing large cauldrons. Idle and cunning people wish to monopolize the resources of mountains and seas for their own profit, growing rich at the expense of exploiting commoners. The arguments opposing these plans were too numerous to listen to. Anyone who dared to privately cast iron tools or produce salt would have their left foot pierced with a branding iron, and all their equipment would be confiscated. In commanderies without iron resources, small iron officials were appointed to oversee operations under the jurisdiction of local counties." They dispatched Kong Jin and Dongguo Xianyang to travel across the empire, overseeing salt and iron operations, establishing government offices, and appointing former wealthy salt and iron producers as officials. Thus, more and more officials were merchants by background.
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| | 食貨志下: |
商賈以幣之變，多積貨逐利。於是公卿言：「郡國頗被災害，貧民無產業者，募徙廣饒之地。陛下損膳省用，出禁錢以振元元，寬貸，而民不齊出南畝，商賈滋眾。貧者畜積無有，皆仰縣官。異時算軺車賈人之嬢錢皆有差，請算如故。諸賈人末作貰貸賣買，居邑貯積諸物，及商以取利者，雖無市籍，各以其物自占，率嬢錢二千而算一。諸作有租及鑄，率嬢錢四千算一。非吏比者、三老、北邊騎士，軺車一算；商賈人軺車二算；船五丈以上一算。匿不自占，占不悉，戍邊一歲，沒入嬢錢。有能告者，以其半畀之。賈人有市籍，及家屬，皆無得名田，以便農。敢犯令，沒入田貨。」 |
| | Merchants, taking advantage of currency fluctuations, accumulated large amounts of goods to pursue profit. At this time, Grand Ministers and senior officials stated: "Many commanderies and states have suffered from disasters; poor people without property or means of production should be recruited to relocate to fertile and resource-rich areas. Your Majesty has reduced your own expenses, released funds from the imperial treasury to support the poor, and relaxed loan policies; yet common people still do not return to farming in the fields, while merchants continue to multiply. The poor have no savings or reserves at all and must rely entirely on county governments for support. Previously, there were differentiated levies on light carts used by merchants; it is requested that these taxes be restored to their former rates. All merchants, those engaged in non-essential trades, who borrow and lend money, buy and sell goods, store commodities in towns, or engage in commerce for profit—regardless of whether they have commercial household registrations—they should declare their own assets. A tax rate of one dan per 2,000 qian is to be applied. Those who rent land for cultivation or engage in casting should pay a tax rate of one dan for every 4,000 qian. Non-officials, Sanlao (senior village elders), and cavalrymen from the northern borders should pay one dan tax for each light cart. Merchants' light carts should be taxed at two dans; Ships over five zhang in length are to pay one dan. Those who conceal their assets and fail to declare them, or those who do not fully disclose their wealth, will be sent for one year of border service, with all undeclared money confiscated. Anyone able to report such violations will receive half the amount as a reward. Merchants with commercial household registrations, along with their families, are not allowed to own farmland in order to promote agriculture. Anyone who dares to violate this decree will have his land and goods confiscated."
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| | 食貨志下: |
是時，豪富皆爭匿財，唯卜式數求入財以助縣官。天子乃超拜式為中郎，賜爵左庶長，田十頃，布告天下，以風百姓。初，式不願為官，上強拜之，稍遷至齊相。語自在其傳。孔僅使天下鑄作器，三年中至大司農，列於九卿。而桑弘羊為大司農中丞，管諸會計事，稍稍置均輸以通貨物。始令吏得入穀補官，郎至六百石。 |
| | At that time, wealthy elites all competed to conceal their wealth; only Bu Shi repeatedly requested permission to contribute money in order to assist the county government. The emperor therefore promoted Bu Shi directly to Zhonglang, bestowed on him the noble rank of Zuoshuchang, granted him ten qing of farmland, and announced it throughout the empire in order to set an example for the common people. Initially, Bu Shi did not wish to hold office; however, the emperor insisted on appointing him and gradually promoted him until he became prime minister of Qi. Details are recorded in his own biography. Kong Jin, who was responsible for overseeing the production of iron tools throughout the empire, rose to become Grand Minister of Agriculture within three years and ranked among the Nine Ministers. Meanwhile, Sang Hongyang served as Vice Minister of Agriculture under the Grand Ministry and managed all financial affairs. He gradually established a system of junshu to facilitate the circulation of goods. The government first allowed officials to purchase ranks by contributing grain, with positions ranging from lang up to 600 dan in rank.
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| | 食貨志下: |
自造白金五銖錢後五歲，而赦吏民之坐盜鑄金錢死者數十萬人。其不發覺相殺者，不可勝計。赦自出者百餘萬人。然不能半自出，天下大氐無慮皆鑄金錢矣。犯法者眾，吏不能盡誅，於是遣博士褚大、徐偃等分行郡國，舉并兼之徒守相為利者。而御史大夫張湯方貴用事，減宣、杜周等為中丞，義縱、尹齊、王溫舒等用急刻為九卿，直指夏蘭之屬始出。而大農顏異誅矣。初，異為濟南亭長，以廉直稍遷至九卿。上與湯既造白鹿皮幣，問異。異曰：「今王侯朝賀以倉璧，直數千，而其皮薦反四十萬，本末不相稱。」天子不說。湯又與異有隙，及人有告異以它議，事下湯治。異與客語，客語初令下有不便者，異不應，微反脣。湯奏當異九卿見令不便，不入言而腹非，論死。自是後有腹非之法比，而公卿大夫多諂諛取容。 |
| | Five years after the introduction of white gold and five-zhu coins, the emperor pardoned tens of thousands of officials and civilians who had been sentenced to death for illegal coin casting. Those who committed such crimes without being discovered and killed each other could not be counted in numbers. Over one million people were pardoned for voluntarily confessing their crimes. However, less than half of them confessed voluntarily; it was estimated that the entire empire had largely engaged in illegal coin casting by then. With so many lawbreakers, officials could not execute them all. Therefore, the emperor dispatched scholars such as Chu Da and Xu Yan to travel across commanderies and states, investigating those who monopolized resources or colluded with local magistrates for profit. At the same time, the Minister of Justice Zhang Tang was in high favor and wielding power; Jianshen and Du Zhou were appointed as vice-ministers. Yi Zong, Yin Qi, Wang Wenshu, and others rose to positions among the Nine Ministers due to their strict and harsh governance. Officials such as Xia Lan, who held direct authority for investigations, also began to emerge. Meanwhile, Yan Yi of the Grand Ministry was executed. Initially, Yan Yi served as a small official in Jinan and gradually rose to one of the Nine Ministers due to his integrity and uprightness. The emperor had already introduced white deer-skin currency together with Zhang Tang, but consulted Yan Yi on the matter. Yan Yi said: "Now, marquises and dukes present cang bi jade discs worth several thousand coins when paying homage to the emperor, yet the value of the white deer-skin mats they use is forty times higher. This is a reversal of priorities." The emperor was displeased. Zhang Tang had already been at odds with Yan Yi, and when someone accused Yan Yi of making other criticisms, the case was referred to Zhang Tang for investigation. Yan Yi had a conversation with his guest, and when the guest mentioned that some people found the new decree inconvenient, Yan did not respond but slightly pursed his lips. Zhang Tang submitted a report stating that as one of the Nine Ministers, Yan Yi had noticed the decree was inconvenient but did not speak out and instead criticized it secretly. He was thus sentenced to death. From then on, a legal precedent for secret criticism (fu fei) was established, and many high-ranking officials and ministers began to flatter the emperor in order to survive.
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| | 食貨志下: |
天下既下嬢錢令而尊卜式，百姓終莫分財佐縣官，於是告嬢錢縱矣。 |
| | After the imperial court issued a decree on coinage and honored Bu Shi, the common people still failed to voluntarily contribute wealth to assist local officials. As a result, reports of illegal coin casting spread widely.
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| | 食貨志下: |
郡國鑄錢，民多姦鑄，錢多輕，而公卿請令京師鑄官赤仄，一當五，賦官用非赤仄不得行。白金稍賤，民弗寶用，縣官以令禁之，無益，歲餘終廢不行。是歲，湯死而民不思。其後二歲，赤仄錢賤，民巧法用之，不便，又廢。於是悉禁郡國毋鑄錢，專令上林三官鑄。錢既多，而令天下非三官錢不得行，諸郡國前所鑄錢皆廢銷之，輸入其銅三官。而民之鑄錢益少，計其費不能相當，唯真工大姦乃盜為之。 |
| | Commanderies and states were minting coins, and many commoners engaged in illicit coin casting. The coins became increasingly light in weight. As a result, the high-ranking officials requested that the capital be authorized to produce official red-edged coins, each worth five regular coins, and decreed that only these red-edged coins could be used for government taxes and expenses; otherwise, they would not be accepted. White gold gradually lost its value, and the people no longer regarded it as a valuable currency. Although the government issued orders to ban its use, these measures were ineffective, and after more than a year, they were ultimately abandoned and not enforced. In this year, Zhang Tang died, but the people did not mourn for him. Two years later, the red-edged coins lost their value, and people found ways to circumvent the law in using them. This caused inconvenience, so they were abolished again. At this point, all commanderies and states were strictly prohibited from minting coins, with the exclusive authority granted to the San Guan of Shanglin. With a large supply of coins, the government decreed that no coin other than those produced by the San Guan could be used. All previously minted coins from various commanderies and states were ordered to be melted down and their copper submitted to the San Guan. As a result, private coin casting by commoners became even rarer; calculating the costs, it was no longer profitable. Only skilled forgers and major criminals continued to produce counterfeit coins illegally.
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| | 食貨志下: |
楊可告嬢遍天下，中家以上大氐皆遇告。杜周治之，獄少反者。乃分遣御史廷尉正監分曹往，往即治郡國嬢錢，得民財物以億計，奴婢以千萬數，田大縣數百頃，小縣百餘頃，宅亦如之。於是商賈中家以上大氐破，民媮甘食好衣，不事畜臧之業，而縣官以鹽鐵嬢錢之故，用少饒矣。益廣開，置左右輔。 |
| | Yang Ke's reports of illegal coin casting were spread throughout the empire, and almost all middle-class families or above were accused in some way. Du Zhou handled these cases, and few defendants dared to appeal their sentences. The court then dispatched officials, including magistrates and judges from the Ministry of Justice, to travel in groups to various commanderies and states. Upon arrival, they investigated cases of illegal coin casting, seizing civilian property valued in the hundreds of millions, thousands of slaves and servants, hundreds of acres of farmland in large counties and over a hundred acres in small ones, as well as houses of equal value. As a result, middle-class and above merchants were largely ruined. The common people became content with simple food and fine clothing without engaging in the business of accumulating wealth. Meanwhile, due to revenues from salt, iron, coinage, and other state monopolies, government finances became more abundant. The territory was further expanded, and positions for the Left and Right Fuxiong were established.
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| | 食貨志下: |
初，大農幹鹽鐵官布多，置水衡，欲以主鹽鐵；及楊可告嬢，上林財物眾，乃令水衡主上林。上林既充滿，益廣。是時粵欲與漢用船戰逐，乃大修昆明池，列館環之。治樓船，高十餘丈，旗織加其上，甚壯。於是天子感之，乃作柏梁臺，高數十丈。宮室之修，繇此日麗。 |
| | Initially, the Grand Minister of Agriculture had many officials in charge of salt and iron operations, so he established the Shuiheng Office to oversee them. Later, when Yang Ke reported on illegal coin casting and a large amount of property was seized from Shanglin, the emperor ordered the Shuiheng Office to take charge of managing these assets. After Shanglin's resources were fully replenished, its territory and operations expanded further. At this time, the Yue people wished to engage in naval battles with the Han dynasty, so they greatly expanded the Kunming Pool and built a series of pavilions around it. They constructed large river ships over ten zhang in height, with colorful banners and decorations on top, appearing very imposing. Impressed by this display, the emperor built the Bailing Terrace, which was dozens of zhang in height. From then on, palace construction became increasingly luxurious and elaborate each day.
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乃分嬢錢諸官，而水衡、少府、太僕、大農各置農官，往往即郡縣比沒入田田之。其沒入奴婢，分諸苑養狗馬禽獸，及與諸官。官益雜置多，徒奴婢眾，而下河漕度四百萬石，及官自糴乃足。 |
| | The government then distributed the confiscated assets and illegal coinage among various officials, with the Shuiheng, Shaofu, Taifu, and Dainong offices each establishing agricultural officers. These officers frequently seized farmland in commanderies and counties for state use. The confiscated slaves and servants were distributed among the imperial parks to raise dogs, horses, and various animals, as well as given to other government offices. With an increasing number of officials and a large population of slaves, the state's river transport system could deliver four million dan of grain annually. Additionally, government purchases from the market were sufficient to meet needs.
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所忠言：「世家子弟富人或鬥雞走狗馬，弋獵博戲，亂齊民。」乃徵諸犯令，相引數千人，名曰「株送徒」。入財者得補郎，郎選衰矣。 |
| | Suo Zhong said: "Descendants of noble families and wealthy individuals often engage in cockfighting, dog racing, horse racing, hunting, gambling, and games, which disrupt the lives of ordinary people." The government then arrested those who violated decrees, with thousands implicated through mutual accusations. These individuals were known as "zhu song tu" (accomplices caught in a net). Those who contributed wealth could be appointed as lang officials, and thus the selection of lans gradually declined in quality.
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| | 食貨志下: |
是時山東被河災，及歲不登數年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子憐之，令飢民得流就食江淮間，欲留，留處。使者冠蓋相屬於道護之，下巴蜀粟以振焉。 |
| | At this time, Shandong was suffering from floods along the Yellow River and had experienced several years of poor harvests. In some areas spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to cannibalism. The emperor took pity on them and allowed starving civilians to move to the Jianghuai region in search of food, granting permission for those who wished to settle there to do so. Envoys and officials traveled along the roads with their caravans constantly arriving to escort them, while grain from Bashu was sent downriver to provide relief.
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| | 食貨志下: |
明年，天子始出巡郡國。東度河，河東守不意行至，不辯，自殺。行西踰隴，卒，從官不得食，隴西守自殺。於是上北出蕭關，從數萬騎行獵新秦中，以勒邊兵而歸。新秦中或千里無亭徼，於是誅北地太守以下，而令民得畜邊縣，官假馬母，三歲而歸，及息什一，以除告嬢，用充入新秦中。 |
| | The following year, the emperor began his first tour of the commanderies and states. He traveled east across the Yellow River, and the governor of Hedong was unprepared for the emperor's sudden arrival; unable to respond properly, he committed suicide. When traveling west across Long Mountain, the imperial entourage ran out of food supplies; the governor of Longxi committed suicide as a result. As a result, the emperor traveled north through Xiaoguan Pass and led an expedition with tens of thousands of cavalry to hunt in Xin Qin Zhong. He used this opportunity to inspect the border troops before returning. In Xin Qin Zhong, there were areas stretching for a thousand li without watchtowers or border defenses. As a result, officials at the level of Tai Shou in Beidi and below were executed. The government then allowed civilians to raise livestock near the frontier counties, providing them with breeding mares on loan from the state. After three years, they had to return the original animals along with one-tenth of their offspring as interest. This policy was implemented not only to suppress reports of illegal coin casting but also to populate and develop Xin Qin Zhong.
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| | 食貨志下: |
既得寶鼎，立后土、泰一祠，公卿白議封禪事，而郡國皆豫治道，修繕故宮，及當馳道縣，縣治宮儲，設共具，而望幸。 |
| | After obtaining the precious tripod, the emperor established altars for Hou Tu and Tai Yi. The high ministers proposed discussions on the ceremony of Fengshan (imperial sacrifices at Mount Tai). In response, all commanderies and states prepared in advance by repairing roads, restoring old palaces, and in counties along the planned imperial route, they built accommodations, stocked supplies, and made arrangements to welcome the emperor's visit.
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| | 食貨志下: |
明年，南粵反，西羌侵邊。天子為山東不澹，赦天下囚，因南方樓船士二十餘萬人擊粵，發三河以西騎擊羌，又數萬人度河築令居。初置張掖、酒泉郡，而上郡、朔方、西河、河西開田官，斥塞卒六十萬人戍田之。中國繕道餽糧，遠者三千，近者千餘里，皆仰給大農。邊兵不足，乃發武庫工官兵器以澹之。車騎馬乏，縣官錢少，買馬難得，乃著令，令封君以下至三百石吏以上差出 |
| | The following year, Nan Yue rebelled, and the western Qiang tribes invaded the frontier regions. Because the emperor was concerned about the instability in Shandong, he pardoned prisoners throughout the empire. He then mobilized more than 200,000 naval troops from the south to attack Yue, dispatched cavalry from west of the Three Rivers to fight against the Qiang, and sent tens of thousands more across the Yellow River to build Lingju. The commanderies of Zhangye and Jiuquan were first established, while the Shangjun, Suofang, Xhe, and Hexi regions set up agricultural offices. A total of 600,000 frontier soldiers were deployed to guard and cultivate these lands. The central government repaired roads and transported provisions, with the farthest distances reaching 3,000 li and the nearest over 1,000 li. All these efforts were supported by the Grand Ministry of Agriculture. When border troops proved insufficient, weapons and equipment stored in the Wu Ku (Imperial Armory) were mobilized to supplement their supplies. When horses and cavalry mounts became scarce, and government funds were insufficient to purchase them, an order was issued requiring officials from marquises down to those holding ranks of 300 dan or higher to contribute their share.
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| | 食貨志下: |
牡馬天下亭，亭有畜字馬，歲課息。 |
| | Each administrative station across the empire was required to keep breeding mares, and these stations were responsible for raising foals as part of an annual quota.
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| | 食貨志下: |
齊相卜式上書，願父子死南粵。天子下詔褒揚，賜爵關內侯，黃金四十斤，田十頃。布告天下，天下莫應。列侯以百數，皆莫求從軍。至飲酎，少府省金，而列侯坐酎金失侯者百餘人。乃拜卜式為御史大夫。式既在位，見郡國多不便縣官作鹽鐵，器苦惡，賈貴，或彊令民買之。而船有算，商者少，物貴，乃因孔僅言船算事。上不說。 |
| | Bu Shi, Chancellor of Qi, submitted a memorial expressing his willingness to sacrifice himself and his son in the campaign against Nan Yue. The emperor issued an edict praising him, conferred on him the title of Guannei Hou (Inner Pass Marquis), granted 40 jin of gold, and awarded ten qing of farmland. The decree was announced throughout the empire, but no one else responded to it. There were hundreds of marquises, yet none volunteered to join the military campaign. During the ritual wine offering ceremony, the Shaofu Office found shortages in gold contributions, and over a hundred marquises lost their titles for failing to provide the required amount of 酎 gold. The emperor then appointed Bu Shi as Minister of Justice (Yushi Daifu). After assuming office, Bu Shi observed that in many commanderies and states the government's operation of salt and iron monopolies was causing inconvenience to the people. The products were poorly made, expensive, and sometimes forced upon the populace for purchase. In addition, there was a tax on ships, which reduced the number of merchants and caused goods to become more expensive. As a result, Bu Shi followed Kong Jian's advice regarding the ship tax issue. The emperor was displeased.
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| | 食貨志下: |
漢連出兵三歲，誅羌，滅兩粵，番禺以西至蜀南者置初郡十七，且以其故俗治，無賦稅。南陽、漢中以往，各以地比給初郡吏卒奉食幣物，傳車馬被具。而初郡又時時小反，殺吏，漢發南方吏卒往誅之，間歲萬餘人，費皆仰大農。大農以均輸調鹽鐵助賦，故能澹之。然兵所過縣，縣以為訾給毋乏而已，不敢言輕賦法矣。 |
| | For three consecutive years, the Han dynasty launched military campaigns, exterminated the Qiang tribes, and conquered both Yue states. From Panyu in the west to southern Shu, seventeen new commanderies were established, each governed according to local customs without imposing taxes or levies. From Nanyang and Hanzhong onward, local authorities provided supplies such as salaries, food, currency, goods, transport vehicles, horses, and equipment to the newly established commanderies according to their territorial contributions. However, these newly established commanderies frequently experienced small-scale rebellions in which officials were killed. The Han dynasty sent troops from the southern regions to suppress them, with over ten thousand soldiers deployed each year; all expenses were borne by the Grand Ministry of Agriculture (Dainong). The Grand Ministry was able to fund these efforts through the equal transport system, salt and iron monopolies, and other revenue sources that supplemented tax collections. However, in counties where troops passed through, local officials merely ensured that supplies were available without shortage and dared not propose any relaxation of tax laws.
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| | 食貨志下: |
其明年，元封元年，卜式貶為太子太傅。而桑弘羊為治粟都尉，領大農，盡代僅斡天下鹽鐵。弘羊以諸官各自市相爭，物以故騰躍，而天下賦輸或不償其僦費，乃請置大農部丞數十人，分部主郡國，各往往置均輸鹽鐵官，令遠方各以其物如異時商賈所轉 |
| | The following year, in Yuangfeng Yuan Nian, Bu Shi was demoted to Taifu (Grand Tutor) of the Crown Prince. Meanwhile, Sang Hongyang became Zhisu Duwei and took charge of the Grand Ministry, completely replacing Kong Jian in overseeing the empire's salt and iron monopolies. Sang Hongyang, noting that various officials competed with each other in trade and caused prices to fluctuate wildly, proposed the establishment of dozens of Da Nong Bu Cheng (Ministry of Agriculture Deputy Commissioners) who would be stationed across commanderies and states. He also suggested setting up local offices for equal transport, salt, and iron management in many regions, instructing distant areas to contribute goods as merchants had previously done through trade networks.
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| | 食貨志下: |
貶者為賦，而相灌輸。置平準於京師，都受天下委輸。召工官治車諸器，皆仰給大農。大農諸官盡籠天下之貨物，貴則賣之，賤則買之。如此，富商大賈亡所牟大利，則反本，而萬物不得騰躍。故抑天下之物，名曰「平準」。天子以為然而許之。於是天子北至朔方，東封泰山，巡海上，旁北邊以歸。所過賞賜，用帛百餘萬匹，錢金以鉅萬計，皆取足大農。 |
| | This system would convert surplus goods into tax payments, enabling a continuous flow of resources between different regions. A price-stabilization bureau was established in the capital to centrally receive and manage all goods transported from across the empire. The government summoned officials responsible for manufacturing carts and other equipment, all of whom were supplied by the Grand Ministry. Through its various offices, the Grand Ministry controlled all goods in the empire, selling them when prices were high and buying when they were low. In this way, wealthy merchants could no longer make huge profits, so many returned to agriculture and other fundamental industries. As a result, commodity prices remained stable without wild fluctuations. Thus, by controlling the flow of goods throughout the empire, this system was named "Pingzhun" (Price Stabilization). The emperor approved and agreed with this plan. As a result, the emperor journeyed north to Suofang, eastward to perform the Fengshan ceremony on Mount Tai, toured along the eastern coast, and then traveled along the northern frontier before returning. The rewards and gifts distributed along his journey amounted to over a million bolts of silk, with gold and money measured in the tens of thousands; all were drawn from the Grand Ministry's resources.
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| | 食貨志下: |
弘羊又請令民得入粟補吏，及罪以贖。令民入粟甘泉各有差，以復終身，不復告嬢。它郡各輸急處，而諸農各致粟，山東漕益歲六百萬石。一歲之中，太倉、甘泉倉滿。邊餘穀，諸均輸帛五百萬匹。民不益賦而天下用饒。於是弘羊賜爵左庶長，黃金者再百焉。 |
| | Sang Hongyang also requested permission for commoners to contribute grain in exchange for official appointments or to redeem themselves from crimes. He decreed that civilians could donate varying amounts of grain to the Ganzhuan Temple, and in return would receive lifelong exemptions from taxes or labor duties, thus avoiding accusations related to illegal coin casting. Other commanderies transported grain to urgent locations, and farmers from various regions contributed their harvests, increasing the annual canal transport of grain from Shandong to six million dan. Within a single year, both the Taocang and Ganzhuan granaries were filled to capacity. There was surplus grain along the borders, while the equal transport system had accumulated five million bolts of silk. The people did not pay additional taxes, yet the empire's resources were abundant and sufficient. As a result, Sang Hongyang was granted the title of Zuoshuchang (Left Commoner) and received 200 jin of gold.
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| | 食貨志下: |
是歲小旱，上令百官求雨。卜式言曰：「縣官當食租衣稅而已，今弘羊令吏坐市列，販物求利。亨弘羊，天乃雨。」久之，武帝疾病，拜弘羊為御史大夫。 |
| | In this year there was a minor drought, so the emperor ordered all government officials to perform rain-summoning rituals. Bu Shi said: "The state should merely live off land rents and tax revenues; now Sang Hongyang has officials sitting in the markets, trading goods for profit. If we execute Sang Hongyang, Heaven will send rain." After some time, Emperor Wu fell seriously ill and appointed Sang Hongyang as Minister of Justice.
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| | 食貨志下: |
昭帝即位六年，詔郡國舉賢良文學之士，問以民所疾苦，教化之要。皆對願罷鹽鐵酒鸾均輸官，毋與天下爭利，視以儉節，然後教化可興。弘羊難，以為此國家大業，所以制四夷，安邊足用之本，不可廢也。乃與丞相千秋共奏罷酒酤。弘羊自以為國興大利，伐其功，欲為子弟得官，怨望大將軍霍光，遂與上官桀等謀反，誅滅。 |
| | Six years after Emperor Zhao took the throne, he issued an edict ordering commanderies and states to recommend virtuous and learned scholars. He questioned them about the people's hardships and the essentials of moral education. All respondents answered that they wished to abolish the offices overseeing salt, iron, alcohol, and equal transport, so that the state would no longer compete with the people for profit. They emphasized frugality and restraint as a foundation before moral education could flourish. Sang Hongyang challenged this view, arguing that these were vital state enterprises essential for controlling the surrounding tribes and ensuring border stability and sufficient resources; they could not be abolished. As a result, he jointly submitted a proposal with Chancellor Qianqiu to abolish the state monopoly on alcohol sales. Sang Hongyang, believing that he had brought great benefits to the state and taking credit for his achievements, sought official positions for his relatives. He resented General Huo Guang, the Grand Marshal, and thus conspired with Shangguan Jie and others in a rebellion, which led to their execution and extermination.
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| | 食貨志下: |
宣、元、成、哀、平五世，亡所變改。元帝時嘗罷鹽鐵官，三年而復之。貢禹言：「鑄錢采銅，一歲十萬人不耕，民坐盜鑄陷刑者多。富人臧錢滿室，猶無厭足。民心動搖，棄本逐末，耕者不能半，姦邪不可禁，原起於錢。疾其末者絕其本，宜罷采珠玉金銀鑄錢之官，毋復以為幣，除其販賣租銖之律，租稅祿賜皆以布帛及穀，使百姓壹意農桑。」議者以為交易待錢，布帛不可尺寸分裂。禹議亦寢。 |
| | During the reigns of Emperors Xuan, Yuan, Cheng, Ai, and Ping—the five successive emperors—there were no changes or reforms. During Emperor Yuan's reign, the salt and iron offices were once abolished, but they were restored again after three years. Gong Yu said: "Coin casting and copper mining require 100,000 people each year who do not farm; many commoners are subjected to punishment for illegal coin casting. Wealthy individuals hoard money in their homes yet remain insatiably greedy. The people's hearts are unsettled, abandoning agriculture for commerce; less than half the population now farm, and it is impossible to suppress corruption and immorality. The root of these problems lies in money. To curb the harmful effects, one must address their root. It is advisable to abolish offices responsible for collecting pearls, jade, gold, silver, and coin casting, and no longer use these as currency. Remove laws imposing taxes in tiny amounts on trading activities; instead, collect taxes and distribute salaries and gifts solely in cloth and grain, so that the people may focus entirely on farming and sericulture." Those who debated argued that transactions require money, as cloth and silk cannot be easily divided into precise units. Gong Yu's proposal was also put aside.
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| | 食貨志下: |
自孝武元狩五年三官初鑄五銖錢，至平帝元始中，成錢二百八十億萬餘云。 |
| | From the first casting of the wuzhu coins by the Three Officials in the fifth year of Yuanshou during Emperor Wu's reign, until the middle of Yuanshi during Emperor Ping's reign, a total of more than 280 million coins were produced.
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| | 食貨志下: |
王莽居攝，變漢制，以周錢有子母相權，於是更造大錢，徑寸二分，重十二銖，文曰「大錢五十」。又造契刀、錯刀。契刀，其環如大錢，身形如刀，長二寸，文曰「契刀五百」。錯刀，以黃金錯其文，曰「一刀直五千」。與五銖錢凡四品，並行。 |
| | When Wang Mang assumed the regency, he altered Han dynasty institutions. Citing the Zhou dynasty practice of having large and small coins to serve as counterparts in value, he then created a new large coin with a diameter of 1.2 cun, weighing twelve zhu, inscribed "Daqian Wushí" (Large Coin Fifty). He also produced the Qidao and Cuodao coins. The Qidao coin had a ring like the large coin, with a blade-shaped body 2 cun long and inscribed "Qidao Wubai" (Contract Knife Five Hundred). The Cuodao coin had its inscription inlaid with gold, reading "Yidao zhi Wanyi" (One Knife Worth Five Thousand). Together with the wuzhu coins, there were four types of currency in circulation simultaneously.
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| | 食貨志下: |
莽即真，以為書「劉」字有金刀，乃罷錯刀、契刀及五銖錢，而更作金、銀、龜、貝、錢、布之品，名曰「寶貨」。 |
| | After Wang Mang officially became emperor, he believed that the character "Liu" (used in the imperial surname) contained the radicals for gold and knife. Therefore, he abolished the Cuodao, Qidao coins, and wuzhu coins and instead created a new system of currency using gold, silver, turtles, shells, coins, and cloth, collectively named "Bao Hua" (Treasure Commodities).
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| | 食貨志下: |
小錢徑六分，重一銖，文曰「小錢直一」。次七分，三銖，曰「 |
| | The small coin had a diameter of six fen, weighed one zhu, and was inscribed "Xiaoqian Zhiyi" (Small Coin Worth One). The next size measured seven fen in diameter, weighed three zhu, and read "
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| | 食貨志下: |
錢一十」。次八分，五銖，曰「幼錢二十」。次九分，七銖，曰「中錢三十」。次一寸，九銖，曰「壯錢四十」。因前「大錢五十」，是為錢貨六品，直各如其文。 |
| | Qian Shiyi" (Coin Ten). The next size measured eight fen in diameter, weighed five zhu, and read "Youqian Ershi" (Junior Coin Twenty). The next size was nine fen in diameter, seven zhu in weight, inscribed as "Zhongqian San Shi" (Middle Coin Thirty). The next size measured one cun in diameter, weighed nine zhu, and was labeled "Zhuangqian Sishi" (Mature Coin Forty). Together with the earlier "Daqian Wushí" (Large Coin Fifty), these formed six types of coinage, each valued according to its inscription.
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| | 食貨志下: |
黃金重一斤，直錢萬。朱提銀重八兩為一流，直一千五百八十。它銀一流直千。是為銀貨二品。 |
| | One jin of gold was worth 10,000 coins. Red Ridge silver weighing eight liang constituted one liu, valued at 1,580 coins. Other types of silver, one liu was worth a thousand coins. This constituted two categories of silver currency.
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| | 食貨志下: |
元龜岠冉長尺二寸，直二千一百六十，為大貝十朋。公龜九寸，直五百，為壯貝十朋。侯龜七寸以上，直三百，為幺貝十朋。子龜五寸以上，直百，為小貝十朋。是為龜寶四品。 |
| | The Yuan Gui (a type of turtle) measured 12 cun in length, was worth 2,160 coins, and equaled ten pings of large shells. The Gong Gui (a type of turtle), nine cun in length, was valued at 500 coins and equaled ten pings of mature shells. The Hou Gui (a type of turtle measuring seven cun or more in length) was valued at 300 coins and equated to ten pings of minor shells. The Zi Gui (a type of turtle five cun or longer in length) was worth 100 coins and equal to ten pings of small shells. This constituted four categories of turtle-based treasures.
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| | 食貨志下: |
大貝四寸八分以上，二枚為一朋，直二百一十六。壯貝三寸六分以上，二枚為一朋，直五十。幺貝二寸四分以上，二枚為一朋，直三十。小貝寸二分以上，二枚為一朋，直十。不盈寸二分，漏度不得為朋，率枚直錢三。是為貝貨五品。 |
| | Large shells measuring 4.8 cun or more, two pieces formed one ping and were valued at 216 coins. Mature shells measuring over 3.6 cun in length, with two pieces forming one ping and worth fifty coins. Minor shells measuring at least 2.4 cun in length, two of which formed one ping, valued at thirty coins. Small shells measuring over twelve fen (1.2 cun) in length, with two forming one ping and valued at ten coins. Shells less than 1.2 cun were considered undersized and could not form a ping; each was generally valued at three coins. This constituted five categories of shell currency.
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| | 食貨志下: |
大布、次布、弟布、壯布、中布、差布、厚布、幼布、幺布、小布。小布長寸五分，重十五銖，文曰「小布一百」。自小布以上，各相長一分，相重一銖，文各為其布名，直各加一百。上至大布，長二寸四分，重一兩，而直千錢矣。是為布貨十品。 |
| | Da Bu, Ci Bu, Di Bu, Zhuang Bu, Zhong Bu, Cha Bu, Hou Bu, You Bu, You Bu (Minor Bu), Xiao Bu. The Xiao Bu measured 1.5 cun in length and weighed fifteen zhu; it was inscribed "Xiaobu Yibai" (Small Cloth One Hundred). From the Xiao Bu upward, each type was one fen longer and weighed one zhu more than the previous; their inscriptions corresponded to their names, with values increasing by 100 coins for each category. The highest was the Da Bu (Large Cloth), measuring two cun and four fen in length, weighing one liang, and valued at 1000 coins. This constituted ten categories of cloth currency.
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| | 食貨志下: |
凡寶貨五物，六名，二十八品。 |
| | In total, the Bao Hua system consisted of five types of goods, six names, and twenty-eight classifications.
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| | 食貨志下: |
鑄作錢布皆用銅，殽以連錫，文質周郭放漢五銖錢云。其金銀與它物雜，色不純好，龜不盈五寸，貝不盈六分，皆不得為寶貨。元龜為蔡，非四民所得居，有者，入大卜受直。 |
| | Coins and cloth currency were all cast using copper mixed with lead and tin; their inscriptions, materials, and outer rims followed the style of Han dynasty wuzhu coins. If gold and silver were mixed with other substances, or if their colors were impure; if turtles measured less than five cun in length or shells less than six fen in size, they could not be considered as Bao Hua (treasure commodities). The Yuan Gui was designated as Cai and could not be possessed by common people. Those who owned it had to surrender it to the Grand Diviner, who would then pay its value.
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| | 食貨志下: |
百姓憒亂，其貨不行。民私以五銖錢市買。莽患之，下詔：「敢非井田挾五銖錢者為惑眾，投諸四裔以御魑魅。」於是農商失業，食貨俱廢，民涕泣於市道。坐賣買田宅奴婢鑄錢抵罪者，自公卿大夫至庶人，不可稱數。莽知民愁，乃但行小錢直一，與大錢五十，二品並行，龜貝布屬且寢。 |
| | The populace became confused and disoriented; as a result, these currencies did not circulate effectively. Common people privately used the wuzhu coins for trade and purchases. Wang Mang was troubled by this, so he issued an edict: "Anyone who dares to oppose the equal-field system or use wuzhu coins is considered a deceiver of the people and should be exiled to the distant frontiers to guard against demons." As a result, farmers and merchants lost their livelihoods; both food supplies and commerce collapsed, and people wept in the streets. Those who were punished for crimes related to buying and selling land, houses, slaves, concubines, or illegal coin casting ranged from high-ranking officials like gongqing dafu down to commoners—too numerous to count. Wang Mang, realizing the people's distress, decided to resume only the small coin worth one and the large coin worth fifty, allowing these two types of currency to circulate together; meanwhile, turtle shells, shells, and cloth currencies were temporarily put aside.
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| | 食貨志下: |
莽性躁擾，不能無為，每有所興造，必欲依古得經文。國師公劉歆言周有泉府之官，收不讎，與欲得，即易所謂「理財正辭，禁民為非」者也。莽乃下詔曰：「夫周禮有賒貸，樂語有五均，傳記各有斡焉。今開賒貸，張五均，設諸斡者，所以齊眾庶，抑并兼也。」遂於長安及五都立五均官，更名長安東西市令及洛陽、邯鄲、臨甾、宛、成都市長皆為五均司市稱師。東市稱京，西市稱畿，洛陽稱中，餘四都各用東西南北為稱，皆置交易丞五人，錢府丞一人。工商能采金銀銅連錫登龜取貝者，皆自占司市錢府，順時氣而取之。 |
| | Wang Mang had an impetuous and restless nature; he could not adopt a policy of non-action. Whenever he initiated new projects, he always sought to justify them by citing ancient classics. The State Teacher Gong Liu Xin stated that the Zhou dynasty had an official known as Quanfu, who collected goods not in demand and provided them to those who wanted them—this was what the Yijing referred to as "managing finances properly, regulating words, and preventing people from committing wrongdoing." Wang Mang then issued an edict: "The Zhou Li mentions credit and loans, the Yueyu speaks of Wu Jun (Five Equalizations), and historical records each contain their own principles. Now, by establishing credit and loan systems, implementing Wu Jun (Five Equalizations) and setting up various regulatory mechanisms, we aim to regulate the populace and curb monopolization." Thus, he established Wu Jun officials in Chang'an and the five capitals. He renamed the market magistrates of the eastern and western markets in Chang'an, as well as those of Luoyang, Handan, Linze, Wan, and Chengdu, all as Wu Jun Sishi Chenshi (Five Equalization Market Supervisors). The eastern market was called Jing, the western market Ji; Luoyang's was named Zhong. The remaining four capitals were designated with names corresponding to their directions—east, west, south, and north—and each location appointed five Transaction Assistant Officials (Jiao Yu Cheng) and one Money Office Assistant Official (Qian Fu Cheng). Merchants and artisans capable of mining gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, harvesting turtles, or collecting shells were required to register with the Market Supervision Office and Money Office, and extract resources according to seasonal conditions.
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又以周官稅民：凡田不耕為不殖，出三夫之稅；城郭中宅不樹藝者為不毛，出三夫之布；民浮游無事，出夫布一匹。其不能出布者，缈作，縣官衣食之。諸取眾物鳥獸魚鱉百蟲於山林水澤及畜牧者，嬪婦桑蠶織紝紡績補縫，工匠醫巫卜祝及它方技商販賈人坐肆列里區謁舍，皆各自占所為於其在所之縣官，除其本，計其利，十一分之，而以其一為貢。敢不自占，自占不以實者，盡沒入所采取，而作縣官一歲。 |
| | He also implemented taxation based on Zhou dynasty officials' regulations: any land not cultivated was considered unproductive, and the owner had to pay taxes equivalent to that of three men; residential areas within city walls where no crops were planted were considered barren, and the occupant had to pay cloth taxes equivalent to that of three laborers; For common people who wandered without employment, a tax of one bolt of cloth per person was imposed. 藟 Those unable to pay the cloth tax were conscripted for labor; county officials provided them with clothing and food. Those who harvested various resources, including birds, beasts, fish, turtles, and insects from mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes, as well as those engaged in animal husbandry; women involved in mulberry cultivation, silkworm rearing, weaving, spinning, mending, and sewing; artisans, physicians, witches, fortune-tellers, priests, and others with specialized skills or commercial activities such as vendors and merchants operating shops or stalls in market districts—each was required to register their occupations with the county officials where they resided. After deducting costs and calculating profits, one-tenth of the profit was to be paid as tribute. Those who dared not register themselves or provided false information in their registration would have all the resources they had collected confiscated and be conscripted to labor for county officials for one year.
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| | 食貨志下: |
諸司市常以四時中月實定所掌，為物上中下之賈，各自用為其市平，毋拘它所。眾民賣買五穀布帛絲綿之物，周於民用而不讎者，均官有以考檢厥實，用其本賈取之，毋令折錢。萬物卬貴，過平一錢，則以平賈賣與民。其賈氐賤減平者，聽民自相與市，以防貴庾者。民欲祭祀喪紀而無用者，錢府以所入工商之貢但賒之，祭祀無過旬日，喪紀毋過三月。民或乏絕，欲貸以治產業者，均授之，除其費，計所得受息，毋過歲什一。 |
| | The various market supervisors regularly, in the middle of each season's month, determined and set upper, medium, and lower price levels for goods under their jurisdiction. These prices served as standards to regulate fair trading within their respective markets without being bound by other regions' practices. For common people trading grain, cloth, silk, and raw silk—goods essential for daily use but difficult to sell—the Equalization Office was responsible for inspecting the goods' authenticity and purchasing them at their original cost price without forcing a cash transaction. If commodity prices rose by even one coin above the set fair price, the office would sell them to the people at the regulated fair price. If prices dropped below the fair level, the people were allowed to trade freely among themselves in order to prevent hoarding and price manipulation. For commoners who needed funds for ancestral sacrifices or funeral expenses but had no money, the Money Office would provide loans from the taxes collected from merchants and artisans. Loans for sacrificial purposes could not exceed ten days, while those for funerals were limited to three months. If the people faced financial hardship and wished to borrow money for production or business, loans would be granted by the Equalization Office. The costs were waived, interest was calculated based on the profits earned, but it could not exceed one-tenth of annual income.
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| | 食貨志下: |
羲和魯匡言：「名山大澤，鹽鐵錢布帛，五均賒貸，斡在縣官，唯酒酤獨未斡。酒者，天之美祿，帝王所以頤養天下，享祀祈福，扶衰養疾。百禮之會，非酒不行。故《》曰『』，而論語曰『酤酒不食』，二者非相反也。夫詩據承平之世，酒酤在官，和旨便人，可以相御也。論語孔子當周衰亂，酒酤在民，薄惡不誠，是以疑而弗食。今絕天下之酒，則無以行禮相養；放而亡限，則費財傷民。請法古，令官作酒，以二千五百石為一均，率開一盧以賣，讎五十釀為準。一釀用麤米二斛，麴一斛，得成酒六斛六斗。各以其市月朔米麴三斛，并計其賈而參分之，以其一為酒一斛之平。除米麴本賈，計其利而什分之，以其七入官，其三及纸酨灰炭給工器薪樵之費。」 |
| | Xihe Lukuang said: "Important mountains and large lakes, salt, iron, coins, cloth, silk, the Five Equalizations, credit loans—all are under state control. Only alcohol sales remain unregulated by the county offices. Alcohol is a divine blessing from Heaven; it is what emperors use to nourish the people, offer sacrifices and prayers for blessings, and support the weak and care for the sick. For all ceremonial gatherings, alcohol is indispensable. Hence the Shijing says, "Provide me with wine," while the Lunyu states, "Do not eat wine that has been bought." These two statements are not contradictory. The Shijing refers to a time of peace and stability, when wine production was under official control; the flavors were harmonious and convenient for people's needs, thus suitable for mutual enjoyment. The Lunyu, by Confucius during the decline and chaos of the Zhou dynasty, refers to a time when wine production was in private hands; the quality was poor and dishonest, so people were doubtful and refrained from drinking it. Now, if we prohibit alcohol nationwide, there will be no means to carry out rituals or support one another; but if left unregulated without limits, it would waste resources and harm the people. I propose to follow ancient practices by having officials produce wine, with 2500 dou as one unit. Establish a designated shop for sale and set the price at fifty qiang per standard batch of brewing. One qiang requires two hu of coarse rice, one hu of qu (fermenting agent), and produces six hu and six dou of wine. Each month, on the first day, calculate the combined price of three hu of rice and qu (fermenting agents) for that market. Divide this total into three parts, with one part representing the fair price for one hu of wine. After deducting the cost price of rice and qu, calculate the profit and divide it into ten parts. Seven parts are to be submitted to the government, while three parts, along with wine lees, lime, charcoal, and other materials, will cover workers' wages, tools, firewood, and labor expenses."
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羲和置命士督五均六斡，郡有數人，皆用富賈。洛陽薛子仲、張長叔、臨菑姓偉等，乘傳求利，交錯天下。因與郡縣通姦，多張空簿，府臧不實，百姓俞病。莽知民苦之，復下詔曰：「夫鹽，食肴之將；酒，百藥之長，嘉會之好；鐵，曰農之本；名山大澤，饒衍之臧；五均賒貸，百姓所取平，卬以給澹；鐵布銅冶，通行有無，備民用也。此六者，非編戶齊民所能家作，必卬於市，雖貴數倍，不得不買。豪民富賈，即要貧弱，先聖知其然也，故斡之。每一斡為設科條防禁，犯者罪至死。」姦吏猾民並侵，眾庶各不安生。 |
| | Xihe appointed Mandated Officials to supervise the Five Equalizations and Six Regulatory Offices. Each commandery had several such officials, all of whom were selected from wealthy merchants. In Luoyang, Xue Zizhong and Zhang Changshu; in Linzi, Xing Wei—these individuals traveled by official transport to seek profit, their commercial activities intersecting across the empire. They colluded with officials at the commandery and county levels, fabricated numerous false records, and their official stores were not filled as claimed. As a result, the common people suffered increasingly. Wang Mang became aware of the hardships this caused to the people and again issued an edict: "Salt is the essential seasoning for food; alcohol, the foremost among all medicines, is a delight in social gatherings; iron is the foundation of agriculture; famous mountains and great marshes contain abundant resources; the Five Equalization credit system allows the people to obtain fair prices, which are then used to provide for their needs; iron, cloth, copper smelting, and trade ensure the circulation of goods, providing for the people's daily necessities. These six resources are not something that ordinary households can produce themselves; they must be obtained from the market. Even if their prices rise several times, people have no choice but to buy them. Powerful landlords and wealthy merchants take advantage of the poor and weak. The sage rulers of old recognized this situation, hence they regulated it through control. For each regulation, strict rules and prohibitions were established; those who violated them could be punished by death." Corrupt officials and cunning commoners exploited the situation together, causing unrest among the general populace.
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後五歲，天鳳元年，復申下金銀龜貝之貨，頗增減其賈直。而罷大小錢，改作貨布，長二寸五分，廣一寸，首長八分有奇，廣八分，其圜好徑二分半，足枝長八分，間廣二分，其文右曰「 |
| | Five years later, in Tianfeng Yuan Nian, the government once again issued an order regarding silver, gold, turtles, and shells as currency, adjusting their prices somewhat. They also abolished the large and small coins, replacing them with a new currency called Huo Bu. The Huo Bu was two cun and five fen long, one cun wide; its head measured eight fen plus some extra length in length and eight fen in width. Its round center hole had a diameter of two cun and a half. Each foot branch was eight fen long with a space of two fen between them. The inscription on the right side read "
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貨」，左曰「布」，重二十五銖，直貨泉二十五。貨泉徑一寸，重五銖，文右曰「貨」，左曰「泉」，枚直一，與貨布二品並行。又以大錢行久，罷之，恐民挾不止，乃令民且獨行大錢，與新貨泉俱枚直一，並行盡六年，毋得復挾大錢矣。每壹易錢，民用破業，而大陷刑。莽以私鑄錢死，及非沮寶貨投四裔，犯法者多，不可勝行，乃更輕其法：私鑄作泉布者，與妻子沒入為官奴婢；吏及比伍，知而不舉告，與同罪；非沮寶貨，民罰作一歲，吏免官。犯者俞眾，及五人相坐皆沒入，郡國檻車鐵鎖，傳送長安鍾官，愁苦死者什六七。 |
| | "huo" on the right and "bu" on the left, weighing 25 zhu, equivalent in value to twenty-five Huo Quan coins. The Huo Quan had a diameter of one cun, weighed five zhu, and was inscribed with "Huo" on the right side and "Quan" on the left. Each coin was worth one unit and circulated alongside these two types of currency: the Huo Bu and the Huo Quan. Furthermore, since the large coins had been in circulation for a long time and their discontinuation might lead to people hoarding them, it was ordered that the public continue using the large coins temporarily. Each of these large coins would be equal in value to one new Huo Quan coin. Both types were allowed to circulate together for six years, after which no one could hold or use the old large coins anymore. With each change in currency, people lost their livelihoods and fell into serious legal trouble. Wang Mang, because many people were being executed for privately minting coins and others were illegally transporting valuable goods to the four frontiers, found that too many lawbreakers made it impossible to carry out all punishments. Therefore, he decided to lighten the penalties: those who privately cast Huo Quan or Huo Bu would be enslaved along with their wives and children as government slaves; officials and neighbors who knew about such crimes but failed to report them would share the same punishment; those caught illegally transporting valuable goods were punished with one year of forced labor for commoners, and officials involved had their positions stripped. The number of offenders continued to grow, and if five people were involved in a case, they would all be seized and enslaved. Officials from the commanderies and kingdoms used iron-bound carts with heavy chains to transport them to Chang'an Zhongguan (the government mint). Sixty or seventy percent of those sent died from sorrow and hardship.
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作貨布六年後，匈奴侵寇甚，莽大募天下囚徒人奴，名曰豬突豨勇，壹切稅吏民，訾三十而取一。又令公卿以下至郡縣黃綬吏，皆保養軍馬，吏盡復以與民。民搖手觸禁，不得耕桑，繇役煩劇，而枯旱蝗蟲相因。又用制作未定，上自公侯，下至小吏，皆不得奉祿，而私賦斂，貨賂上流，獄訟不決。吏用苛暴立威，旁緣莽禁，侵刻小民。富者不得自保，貧者無以自存，起為盜賊，依阻山澤，吏不能禽而覆蔽之，浸淫日廣，於是青、徐、荊楚之地往往萬數。戰鬥死亡，緣邊四夷所係虜，陷罪，飢疫，人相食，及莽未誅，而天下戶口減半矣。 |
| | Six years after the introduction of Huo Bu, the Xiongnu launched severe raids. Wang Mang then widely recruited convicts and slaves from across the land, naming them "Zhu Tu Xi Yong." He imposed a tax on all officials and commoners, collecting one part for every thirty units of assessed property value. He also ordered all officials from the ranks of gongqing down to county-level officials holding yellow seals, to raise and maintain military horses. These officials passed on this burden entirely to the common people. The people were constantly at risk of breaking laws simply by moving their hands, unable to engage in farming or sericulture. Corvée labor became increasingly burdensome, while droughts and locust plagues occurred one after another. Moreover, because the system of official salaries had not yet been finalized, from high-ranking marquises and dukes down to minor officials, none received their stipends. As a result, they resorted to private levies on the people, leading to widespread bribery flowing upward, while judicial cases remained unresolved in the courts. Officials used harsh and brutal methods to establish authority, exploiting Wang Mang's decrees as justification to oppress ordinary people. The wealthy could not protect themselves, while the poor had no means of survival. As a result, many turned to banditry and took refuge in mountains and marshes. Officials were unable to capture or suppress them, so their influence spread day by day. At this point, in regions such as Qing, Xu, Jingchu, there were often tens of thousands of rebels at a time. Those who died in battles, were captured by the four frontier tribes along the borders, or fell into crimes due to starvation and disease—some even resorted to cannibalism. By the time Wang Mang was not yet executed, the total population of households across the empire had already been reduced by half.
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自發豬突豨勇後四年，而漢兵誅莽。後二年，世祖受命，盪滌煩苛，復五銖錢，與天下更始。 |
| | Four years after the recruitment of "Zhu Tu Xi Yong," Han forces launched a campaign and executed Wang Mang. Two years later, Emperor Shizu received the Mandate of Heaven, abolished oppressive and burdensome policies, restored the Wu Zhu coin, and began anew with all under heaven.
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贊曰：《》稱「」，《》云「楙遷有無」，周有泉府之官，而孟子亦非「狗彘食人之食不知斂，野有餓驿而弗知發」。故管氏之輕重，李悝之平糴，弘羊均輸，壽昌常平，亦有從徠。顧古為之有數，吏良而令行，故民賴其利，萬國作乂。及孝武時，國用饒給，而民不益賦，其次也。至于王莽，制度失中，姦軌弄權，官民俱竭，亡次矣。 |
| | Commentary: The Yijing states, "Collect the surplus and give to those in need; weigh things fairly and distribute them equally." The Shujing says, "Promote the circulation of goods from place to place." In the Zhou dynasty there were officials known as Quanfu (the Office of Currency) who managed such matters. Mencius also criticized those who "let dogs and pigs eat human food without restraint while starving people remain in the fields unnoticed and unaided." Therefore, Guan Zhong's system of price control, Li Kui's grain equalization policy, Sang Hongyang's uniform transport system, and Zhuangchang's Ever-normal Granary system also had their followers. However, in ancient times these systems were implemented with clear limits and standards; officials were upright and decrees were enforced effectively. Thus the people benefited from them, and all regions of the world achieved peace and order. During Emperor Xiaowu's reign, state revenues were abundant without increasing taxes on the people—this was a secondary level of success. As for Wang Mang, his system deviated from balance; corrupt officials abused power, and both government and people were drained to exhaustion—this was the worst possible outcome.
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