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六经之道同归，而礼乐之用为急，治身者斯须忘礼，则暴嫚入之矣。为国者一朝失礼，则荒乱及之矣。人函天地阴阳之气，有喜怒哀乐之情，天禀其性，而不能节也。圣人能为之节而不能绝也。故象天地而制礼乐，所以通神明，立人伦，正情性，节万事者也。 |
| | The principles of the Six Classics all converge in one goal, but the application of rites and music is most urgent. If a person cultivating himself for a moment forgets about rites, then rudeness and disrespect will take hold. He who governs the state, if he loses sight of propriety even for a single day, will find chaos and disorder reaching him. Human beings contain the yin-yang qi of heaven and earth, possess emotions such as joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness; Heaven endows them with nature but cannot regulate it. A sage can regulate these emotions but cannot completely eliminate them. Therefore, by modeling after heaven and earth they established rites and music; this is how one communicates with the divine, establishes human relationships, rectifies emotions and nature, and regulates all affairs.
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哀有哭踊之节，乐有歌舞之容，正人足以副其诚，邪人足以防其失，故婚姻之礼废，则夫妇之道乖，而淫僻之罪多，乡饮之礼废，则长幼之序乱，而争斗之狱繁，祭祀之礼废，则骨肉之恩薄，而背死忘先者衆，朝聘之礼废，则君臣之位失，而侵陵之渐起。故孔子曰：安上治民，莫善于礼，移风易俗，莫善于乐，礼节民心，乐和民声，政以刑之，刑以防之，礼乐政刑四达而不悖，则王道备矣。 |
| | In mourning, there are prescribed rites for weeping and wailing; in joy, there is the proper manner of dancing and singing. For upright people, these rites sufficiently express sincerity; for wicked individuals, they serve to prevent transgressions. Therefore, if the rites of marriage are abandoned, then the way between husband and wife becomes disordered, and cases of licentiousness increase. If the rites of communal feasting in the village are abandoned, the order of seniority and juniority is disrupted, leading to an increase in disputes and lawsuits. If the rites related to funerals are abandoned, then familial affection becomes shallow, and many people forget their ancestors and neglect the deceased. If the rites for court audiences and diplomatic visits are abandoned, then the hierarchy between ruler and subject is lost, and gradually, acts of aggression and encroachment will arise. Therefore, Confucius said: "To pacify the superiors and govern the people, nothing is better than rites; to transform customs and change social mores, nothing is better than music. Rites regulate the hearts of the people, while music harmonizes their voices. Governance is carried out through political measures , and laws are used for prevention. When rites, music, governance, and legal measures reach all quarters without contradiction, then the Way of kingship is complete."
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乐以治内而为同，礼以修外而为异，同则和亲，异则畏敬，和亲则无怨，畏敬则不争，揖让而天下治者，礼乐之谓也。王者必因前王之礼，顺时宜有所损益，即民心稍稍制作，至太平而大备，周监二代，礼文尤具，事为之制，曲为之防，故称礼经三百，威仪三千，于是教化浃洽，民用和睦，灾害不生，祸乱不作，囹圄空虚，四十馀年，及其衰也。诸侯逾越法度，恶礼制之害己，去其篇籍，遭秦灭学，遂以乱亡。 |
| | Music governs the inner self to foster harmony. Rites cultivate the external conduct and establish distinctions; Harmony brings affection, distinctions bring reverence; where there is affection, resentment does not arise; where there is reverence, contention does not occur. When courtesy and yielding prevail throughout the world, order is achieved—this is what rites and music signify. A sovereign must follow the rites of previous kings, adjusting them according to contemporary needs by adding or subtracting certain elements. Gradually shaping customs in accordance with the people's hearts and minds, when peace and prosperity are fully realized, as was the case during the Zhou dynasty which learned from the two preceding dynasties (Shang and Xia), their rites became especially elaborate. They established regulations for every matter and precautions for every detail; thus it is said that there were "three hundred ritual classics" and "three thousand ceremonial forms." At this time, moral instruction permeated society thoroughly, people lived in harmony, disasters did not arise, calamities and chaos did not occur, prisons remained empty for more than forty years. But when the dynasty declined... The feudal lords transgressed laws and regulations, resenting how rites and systems harmed their interests; they discarded the texts and records. When Qin destroyed learning, rites were lost to disorder and chaos, leading ultimately to its downfall.
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汉兴，拨乱反正，日不暇给，犹命叔孙通制礼仪以正君臣之位。高祖悦而叹曰：吾乃今日知为天子之贵也。遂定仪法，未尽备而通终，至文帝时，贾谊以为汉承秦之败俗，弃礼义，捐廉耻，而大臣特以簿书不报，期会为故，至于风俗流溢，恬而不怪，夫移风易俗，使天下回心而向道，类非俗吏之所能为也。立君臣，等上下，使纲纪有序，六亲和睦，此非天之所为，人之所设也。人之所设，不为不立，不修则坏，乃草具其仪，天子悦焉。而大臣绛灌之属害之，故其议遂寝。 |
| | When the Han dynasty rose to power, it restored order and corrected wrongs, but with no time to spare each day. Nevertheless, they still commissioned Shusun Tong to establish rites and ceremonies in order to regulate the positions of ruler and subject. Emperor Gaozu was pleased and exclaimed: "I only now understand how exalted it is to be an emperor." Thus, the ceremonial laws were established, but before they could be fully completed, Tong passed away. By the time of Emperor Wendi, Jia Yi believed that the Han dynasty had inherited the corrupt customs of Qin, abandoned rites and righteousness, discarded integrity and shame, while ministers merely focused on bureaucratic paperwork and meeting deadlines as their main concerns. As a result, social customs deteriorated to such an extent that people became indifferent and no longer found it strange. To transform customs and redirect the hearts of all under heaven toward virtue is not something ordinary officials can accomplish. Establishing relations between ruler and subject, distinguishing the ranks of superiors and inferiors, ensuring that moral order is well-organized, and making six categories of kinship harmonious—this is not what Heaven does; it is a human institution. What humans establish will not fail to be set up, but if not maintained, it will fall into disrepair. Thus, they hastily prepared the ceremonial forms, and the Son of Heaven was pleased with them. However, high-ranking ministers such as Jiong Guan opposed it, so the proposal was ultimately abandoned.
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至武帝即位，议立明堂，制礼服，会窦太后不悦儒术，其事又废，后董仲舒言王者承天意以从事，故务德教而省刑罚，今废先王之德教，独用执法之吏治民，而欲德化被四海，故难成也。是故古之王者，莫不以教化为大务，立大学以教于国，设庠序以化于邑，教化已明，习俗已成，天下尝无一人之狱矣。至周末世，大为无道，秦继其后，又益甚之，今汉继秦之后，虽欲治之，无可奈何，法出而奸生，令下而诈起，如以汤止沸，沸愈甚而无益，譬之琴瑟不调，甚者，必解而更张之，乃可鼓也。为政而不行，甚者，必变而更化之，乃可理也。故汉得天下以来，常欲以善治，而至今不能胜残去杀者，失之当更化而不能更化也。是时，上方征讨四夷，鋭志武功，不暇留意礼文之事。 |
| | When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, discussions arose about establishing a Mingtang Hall and instituting ritual garments. However, coinciding with Dou Taihou's disfavor of Confucianism, these plans were once again abandoned. Later, Dong Zhongshu stated that sovereigns should carry out their duties by following Heaven's will; therefore, they must emphasize virtue and moral instruction while minimizing the use of punishments. Now, if one abandons the moral teachings of former kings and relies solely on officials who enforce laws to govern the people, yet still hopes for virtue and benevolence to spread across all under heaven, it is difficult to achieve. Therefore, ancient kings without exception regarded moral instruction as their most important task. They established great academies to educate within the state and set up schools at local levels to civilize the people in the regions. When moral instruction was clear and customs well-established, throughout the realm there were no prisons with even a single prisoner. By the later years of the Zhou dynasty, rulers became greatly immoral; Qin followed and made it even worse. Now Han succeeds after Qin, although wishing to govern well, there is nothing to be done. When laws are issued, corruption arises; when decrees are promulgated, deceit follows. It is like trying to stop boiling with hot water—the boiling becomes even more intense without benefit. This is analogous to a zither or se whose strings are out of tune: if it is very badly tuned, one must loosen them completely and retune before playing can resume. If governance fails to produce results, and the situation becomes severe, it is necessary to transform and initiate a new order in order for things to be properly managed. Therefore, since the Han dynasty gained control of the empire, it has always aspired to good governance; yet until now, it cannot eliminate cruelty and killing. The reason lies in its failure to initiate transformation when such change was needed. At that time, the emperor was preoccupied with campaigns against the four foreign tribes and eager to achieve military glory; he had no leisure to pay attention to matters of rites and ceremonial forms.
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至宣帝时，琅邪王吉为谏大夫，又上疏言，欲治之主不世出，公卿幸得遭遇其时，未有建万世之长策，举明主于三代之隆者也。其务在于簿书，断狱听讼而已，此非太平之基也。上不纳其言，至成帝时，刘向要说上宜兴辟雍，设庠序，陈礼乐，隆雅颂之声，盛揖让之容，以风化天下，如此而不治，未之有也。或曰：不能具礼，礼以养人为本，如有过差，是过而养人也。刑罚之过，或至死伤，今之刑，非皋陶之法也。而有司请定法，削则削，笔则笔，救时务也。至于礼乐，则曰不敢，是敢于杀人，不敢于养人也。夫教化之比于刑法，刑法轻，是舍所重而急所轻也。且教化所恃以为治，刑法所以助治也。今废所恃而独立其所助，非所以致太平也。成帝以向言下公卿议，丞相，大司空奏请立辟廱，营表未作，遭成帝崩。 |
| | By the time of Emperor Xuan, Wang Ji of Langya served as a Counselor and again submitted a memorial stating: "A ruler who desires to govern well does not appear in every generation. It is fortunate for high officials to encounter such an era; yet none have proposed long-term strategies for lasting peace or elevated the sovereign to the prosperity seen during the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou." Their focus lies solely in bureaucratic paperwork, adjudicating cases, and hearing lawsuits; this is not the foundation for a peaceful and prosperous era. The emperor did not accept his advice. By the time of Emperor Cheng, Liu Xiang advised that it was appropriate for the Son of Heaven to establish a Biyong Hall, set up schools, promote rites and music, elevate elegant songs and odes, and demonstrate courteous and yielding conduct in order to civilize all under heaven. If such measures were taken yet still failed to bring about good governance, there would never have been such an occurrence. Some say: "It is impossible to fully implement rites." However, the essence of rites lies in nurturing people. If there are minor errors or deviations, it would still be an act of nurturing through rites. Excessive punishment may even lead to death or injury; the punishments used today are not in accordance with Gao Yao's laws. Yet officials requested that laws be established, and they cut where necessary, wrote as needed—this was a measure to address the urgent needs of the time. As for rites and music, they said "we dare not act," which means that one dares to kill people but does not dare to nurture them. Compared with moral instruction, legal punishment is minor; yet if one focuses on the lesser and neglects the greater, it is abandoning what is important for what is trivial. Moreover, moral instruction relies upon to achieve governance; legal punishment merely serves as an auxiliary means of governance. Now, abandoning the foundation on which we rely and relying solely on its auxiliary function is not a way to achieve lasting peace and prosperity. Emperor Cheng submitted Liu Xiang's proposal to the high officials for discussion. The Chancellor and Grand Commandant of Works recommended establishing a Biyong Hall; however, before preparations could begin, Emperor Cheng passed away.
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世祖受命中兴，即位三十年，四夷宾服，政教清明，乃营立明。 |
| | Emperor Shizu was divinely chosen to restore the dynasty; after ascending the throne for thirty years, all four foreign tribes submitted in obedience and political instruction became clear and just. He then began planning to establish a Mingtang Hall.
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堂辟廱，明帝即位，躬行其礼，威仪既盛美矣。然德化未流洽者，以其礼乐未具，羣下无所诵说，而庠序尚未设之故也。 |
| | The Mingtang and Biyong were established. When Emperor Ming ascended the throne, he personally performed these rites; their ceremonies and forms were both grand and beautiful. However, moral influence had not yet fully permeated the people because rites and music were still incomplete; officials below lacked texts to recite or discuss, and schools had not yet been established.
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夫人宵天地之貌，怀五常之性，聪明精粹，有生之最灵者也。爪牙不足以供嗜欲，趋走不足以避利害，无毛羽以御寒暑，必将役物以为养，用智而不恃力，此所以为贵也。故不仁爱则不能羣，不能羣则不胜物，不胜物则养不足，羣而不足，争心将作，上圣卓然先行敬让博爱之德者，衆心悦而从之，从之成羣，是为君矣。归而往之，是为王矣。 |
| | Human beings embody the form of heaven and earth. Carrying the Five Constant Virtues, With keen intellect and refined essence, They are the most spiritually endowed among all living things. Claws and teeth are insufficient to satisfy desires, running is not enough to avoid dangers or benefits; without fur or feathers to protect against cold and heat, humans must necessarily use external resources for sustenance. They rely on wisdom rather than strength—this is why they are valued. Therefore, without benevolence and love, people cannot form a community; without a community, they cannot overcome external challenges; unable to overcome them, sustenance will be insufficient. If the community exists but resources remain inadequate, contention will arise in the hearts of people. The most enlightened sages, who first practiced reverence, yielding, and broad love, would gain the joy and obedience of the masses. When the masses follow, a community is formed—this is how a ruler emerges. Returning to lead them in this way becomes a king.
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洪范曰：天子作民父母，为天下王，圣人取类以正名，而谓君为父母，明仁爱德让王道之本也。爱待敬而不败，德须威而久立，故制礼以崇敬，作刑以明威也。圣人既躬明哲之性，必通天地之心，制礼作教，立法设刑，动缘民情，而则天象地，故因天秩而制五礼，因天讨而作五刑，上刑用甲兵，其次用斧钺，中刑用刀锯，其次用钻凿，薄刑用鞭扑，大者陈诸原野，小者致诸市朝，其所繇来者上矣。 |
| | Hongfan says: "The Son of Heaven becomes the father and mother to the people, thus becoming king over all under heaven." Sages used analogy to establish proper names, calling a ruler "father and mother," clearly indicating that benevolence, love, virtue, yielding, and the Way of kings form its foundation. Love depends on reverence to remain uncorrupted; virtue requires authority to endure and stand firm. Therefore, rites are established to promote reverence, and punishments are created to clarify authority. A sage, having personally possessed the nature of wisdom and insight, must understand the will of Heaven and Earth. He establishes rites and instruction, formulates laws and punishments, all based on the sentiments of the people while following the patterns of Heaven and modeling after Earth. Therefore, he created the Five Rites according to the order of Heaven (tian zhi), and established the Five Punishments in accordance with Heaven's retribution (tian tao). The most severe punishment involves armies and weapons; next comes execution by axe or halberd. Moderate punishments involve cutting with knives or saws, followed by drilling or piercing. Lighter punishments include flogging or beating. Major offenses are carried out in open fields, while minor ones take place in the marketplace or court. These practices have a long historical origin.
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自黄帝有涿鹿之战，颛顼有共工之陈，唐虞之隆至治之极，犹流共工，放欢兜，杀三苗，殛鲧，然后天下服，夏有甘扈之誓，殷周以兵定天下，古人有言，天生五材，民并用之，废一不可，谁能去兵，鞭扑不可弛于家，刑罚不可废于国，征伐不可偃于天下，用之有本末，行之有逆顺耳。孔子曰：工欲善其事，必先利其器，文德者，帝王之利器，威武者，文德之辅助也。夫文之所加者深，则武之所服者大，德之所施者博，则威之所制者广，三代之盛，至于刑措兵寝者，以其本末有序，帝王之极功也。 |
| | Since the Yellow Emperor had the Battle of Zhuolu, and Zhuanxu had the campaign against Gonggong. The flourishing era of Tang and Yu reached the pinnacle of good governance, yet they still exiled Gonggong, banished Huandou, killed Sanmiao, and executed Gun. Only then did all under heaven submit. The Xia dynasty had the Oath at Ganhulu; Shang and Zhou used military force to pacify the world. As an ancient saying goes: "Heaven provides five materials, which people use together; abandoning any one is impossible." Who could do without armies? Whipping and beating cannot be relaxed within a family; punishments cannot be abolished in a state; campaigns of conquest cannot be abandoned from ruling over all under heaven. Their application has its fundamentals and priorities; their implementation follows principles of order or disorder. Confucius said: "A craftsman who wishes to do his work well must first sharpen his tools." Moral virtue is the sharp tool of a sovereign, while military might serves as its auxiliary. Where moral instruction deeply influences, the power of military force will be widely respected; where virtue is broadly practiced, authority will extend far and wide. The flourishing of the three dynasties, to the point that punishments were set aside and armies remained in storage, was due to their proper order between fundamentals and applications—this represents the supreme achievement of a sovereign.
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春秋之时，王道寝坏，礼乐不兴，刑罚不中，陵夷至于战国，韩任申子，秦用商鞅，连相坐之法，造参夷之诛，增加肉刑，大辟有凿颠押胁镬亨之刑，至于始皇，兼吞战国，遂毁先王之法，灭礼义之官，专任刑罚，躬操文墨，而奸邪并生，赭衣塞路，囹圄成市，天下愁怨，溃而叛之。 |
| | During the Spring and Autumn period, the Way of kings declined; rites and music did not flourish, punishments were unjustly applied, and gradually deteriorated until the Warring States era. The state of Han employed Shenzi, while Qin used Shang Yang to implement laws of collective punishment and introduced severe penalties such as clan extermination. They added corporal punishments, and for capital crimes there were tortures like drilling the head, extracting marrow from the ribs, and boiling in cauldrons. By the time of First Emperor Qin Shi Huang, who had conquered all warring states, he destroyed the laws of former kings, abolished offices related to rites and virtue, relied solely on punishments, personally handled written decrees, and as a result, corruption and wickedness flourished. Convicts filled the roads, prisons became like markets, and resentment spread throughout the land, leading ultimately to rebellion and collapse.
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高祖初入关，约法三章，蠲削烦苛，兆民大悦，其后四夷未附，兵革未息，三章之法不足以御奸，于是相国萧何捃摭秦法，取其宜于时者，作律九章，当孝惠，高后时，萧，曹为相，塡以无为，是以衣食滋殖，刑罚用希，及孝文即位，躬修玄默，劝趣农桑，减省租赋，将相皆旧功臣，少文多质，惩恶亡秦之政，论议务在宽厚，耻言人之过失，化行天下，告讦之俗易，吏安其官，民乐其业，蓄积岁增，户口浸息，风流笃厚，禁罔疏阔，选张释之为廷尉，罪疑者予民，是以刑罚大省，至于断狱四百，有刑措之风。 |
| | When Emperor Gaozu first entered Guan, he established the Three Chapters of Law, eliminating cumbersome and harsh regulations, which greatly pleased the people. Later, when the four foreign tribes had not yet submitted and wars were still ongoing, the Three Chapters proved insufficient to curb corruption. Thus, Chancellor Xiao He collected and selected from Qin laws, adopting those suitable for the times, and compiled them into Nine Chapters of Law. During Emperor Hui's reign and that of Empress Dowager Lü, Xiang and Cao served as chancellors; they governed with non-interference, resulting in increased food production and rare use of punishments. When Emperor Wen ascended the throne, he practiced quietude and self-cultivation, encouraged agriculture and sericulture, reduced taxes and levies. The prime ministers were all veteran meritorious officials—few were learned but many were sincere. They had been deeply affected by the evils of Qin rule; in their discussions, they emphasized leniency and kindness, shamed themselves for speaking about others' faults. Moral instruction spread throughout the realm, and customs of denunciation changed. Officials found peace in their posts, people took joy in their occupations, reserves increased year after year, population gradually grew, social customs became sincere and thick, legal restrictions relaxed, and he appointed Zhang Shizhi as Tingwei (Minister of Justice), who ruled that when there was doubt about guilt, the benefit should go to the accused. Thus punishments were greatly reduced; by this time, only four hundred cases were adjudicated annually, showing a trend toward the suspension of punishment.
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即位十三年，齐大仓令淳于公有罪当刑。其少女缇萦上书曰：妾父为吏，齐中皆称其廉平，今坐法当刑，妾伤夫死者不可复生，刑者不复属，虽后欲改过自新，其道无由也。妾愿没入为官婢，以赎父刑罪，使得自新。 |
| | Thirteen years after ascending the throne, Qi Da Cang Ling Chunyu Gong was convicted and sentenced to corporal punishment. His younger daughter, Tiying, submitted a memorial saying: "My father served as an official; in Qi he was universally praised for his integrity and fairness. Now he has been convicted of breaking the law and is to be subjected to corporal punishment. I am distressed that once a person is executed, life cannot return . Once punished with corporal injury, one can never fully recover; even if later they wish to reform themselves and become new people, there will be no way for them to do so." I humbly request to be registered as a palace servant in order to redeem my father's punishment, allowing him the chance to reform and become anew.
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书奏天子，天子怜悲其意。遂下令曰：盖闻有虞氏之时，画衣冠，异章服以为戮，民不犯，何治之至，今法有肉刑三，而奸不止，其咎安在，非乃朕德之薄而教不明与，吾甚自愧，故夫训道不纯，而愚民陷焉。诗曰：凯悌君子，民之父母，今人有过，教未施而刑已加焉。或欲改行为善，而道无由至，朕甚怜之，夫刑至断支体，刻肌肤，终身不息，何其刑之痛而不德也。岂称为民父母之意哉。其除肉刑，有以易之。 |
| | The memorial was presented to the Son of Heaven; moved by her filial devotion, he felt deep sympathy for her plight. He then issued an edict: "I have heard that in the time of Youyu, people were punished by marking their clothes and distinguishing their attire to signify disgrace; the people did not commit crimes—what perfect governance was that! Now there are three forms of corporal punishment Yet crimes still do not cease—where lies the fault? Is it not due to my shallow virtue and unclear instruction? I am deeply ashamed. Therefore, when moral guidance is impure, ignorant people fall into misdeeds. The Book of Songs says: "A kind and benevolent gentleman is the father and mother of the people." Now, when a person commits an offense, instruction has not yet been given but punishment is already applied. Some may wish to reform and do good, yet have no path by which to achieve it. I feel great pity for them. Punishments that cut off limbs or scar the flesh cause lifelong suffering—how cruel is such punishment without virtue! Does this reflect the meaning of being a father and mother to the people? Therefore, let us abolish corporal punishments and replace them with alternatives.
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善乎。孙卿之论刑也。曰：世俗之为说者，以为治古无肉刑，有象刑，是不然矣。以为治古则人莫触罪邪，岂独无肉刑哉。亦不待象刑矣。以为人或触罪矣。而直轻其刑，是杀人者不死，而伤人者不刑也。罪至重而刑至轻，民无所畏，乱莫大焉。凡制刑之本，将以禁暴恶，且惩其末也。杀人者不死，伤人者不刑，是惠暴而宽恶也。故象刑非生于治古，方起于乱今也。 |
| | Well said. This is the discussion of punishment by Xunzi. Said: "Common people who make arguments claim that in ancient times there were no corporal punishments, only symbolic punishments; this is incorrect." They think that in those well-governed ancient times, people did not commit crimes at all—wouldn't there be more than just the absence of corporal punishments? Nor would symbolic punishments even be necessary. They believe that people may still commit crimes. Yet if one merely reduces the severity of punishment, then murderers would not die and those who injure others would escape punishment altogether. When crimes are grave but punishments light, the people have nothing to fear; no greater disorder could exist. The fundamental purpose of establishing punishments is to prevent violence and wickedness, as well as to deter future wrongdoing. If murderers are not executed and those who injure people face no punishment, this is rewarding violence and showing leniency toward evil. Therefore, symbolic punishments did not originate in well-governed ancient times; they arose only during the disorder of our present age.
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凡爵列官职，赏庆刑罚，皆以类相从者也。一物失称，乱之端也。德不称位，能不称官，赏不当功，刑不当罪，不祥莫大焉。夫征暴诛悖，治之盛，也。杀人者死，伤人者刑，是百王之所同，未有知其所由来者也。故治则刑重，乱则刑轻，犯治之罪固重，犯乱之罪固轻也。书云，刑罚世重世轻，此之谓也。书所谓象刑惟明者，言象天道而作刑，安有菲屦赭衣者哉。 |
| | All ranks, titles, official positions, rewards, celebrations, and punishments follow a system of classification and hierarchy. If even one item is improperly matched to its rank or role, it becomes the beginning of disorder. When virtue does not match one's position, ability does not correspond to an official post, rewards do not fit the merit, and punishments do not align with the crime—there can be no greater ill omen than this. Punishing violence and suppressing rebellion is a demonstration of authority, which represents the height of good governance. Murderers are executed and those who injure face punishment—this has been the common practice of all past rulers, though no one knows its exact origin. Therefore, in times of good governance punishments are severe; in times of disorder they are light. Crimes committed during stable rule are naturally grave, while those during chaotic times are inherently minor. The Book says: "Punishments vary in severity from generation to generation"—this is precisely what it means. What the Book refers to as "symbolic punishments for clarity" means that punishments are modeled after the principles of Heaven. How could there be such things as wearing plain shoes and red clothes?
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孙卿之言既然。又因俗说而论之曰：禹承尧舜之后，自以德衰而制肉刑，汤武顺而行之者，以俗薄于唐虞故也。今汉承衰周暴秦极弊之流，俗已薄于三代，而行尧舜之刑，是犹以鞿羁而御駻突，违救时之宜矣。且除肉刑者，本欲以全民也。今去髠钳一等，转而入于大辟，以死罔民，失本惠矣。故死者岁以万数，刑重之所致也。至乎穿窬之盗，忿怒伤人，男女淫佚，吏为奸臧，若此之恶，髠钳之罚，又不足以惩也。故刑者岁十万数，民既不畏，又曾不耻，刑轻之所生也。 |
| | Xunzi's words have already been stated thus. He further discussed it in light of popular interpretations, saying: "Yu inherited the legacy of Yao and Shun; he himself believed virtue had declined and thus instituted corporal punishments. Tang and Wu followed this practice because customs had deteriorated compared to those of Tang and Yu." Now, the Han dynasty has inherited the extreme decline of Zhou and Qin dynasties; customs have already deteriorated more than in the Three Dynasties. Yet if we apply the punishments of Yao and Shun, it is like using a bridle to control an unruly horse This goes against the needs of the present era. Moreover, abolishing corporal punishments was originally intended to preserve people's lives and well-being. Now, by removing one level of punishment such as 髡钳 (hair shaving and iron collar), the offender is instead subjected to capital punishment; using death to deceive the people contradicts the original intent of benevolence. Therefore, each year thousands die—this results from excessive severity in punishments. As for petty thieves who break into homes, those who commit violence out of anger, men and women engaged in licentious behavior, or officials committing corruption—such evils cannot be sufficiently deterred by punishments like 髡钳. Therefore, each year the number of those punished reaches hundreds of thousands; people neither fear nor feel shame for such actions—this is a consequence of overly lenient punishments.
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故俗之能吏，公以杀盗为威，专杀者胜任，奉法者不治，乱名伤制，不可胜条，是以网密而奸不塞，刑繁而民愈嫚，必世而未仁，百年而不胜残，诚以礼乐阙而刑不正也。岂宜惟思所以清原正本之论，删定律令，撰二百章以应大辟，其馀罪次，于古当生，今触死者，皆可募行肉刑，及伤人与盗，吏受赇枉法，男女淫乱，皆复古刑为三千章，诋欺文致微细之法悉蠲除，如此，则刑可畏而禁易避，吏不专杀，法无二门，轻重当罪，民命得全，合刑罚之中，殷天人之和，顺稽古之制，成时雍之化，成康刑措，虽未可致，孝文断狱，庶几可及也。 |
| | Therefore, corrupt officials in society take pride in killing thieves to establish authority; those who specialize in executions are considered capable, while law-abiding officials fail to govern effectively. Misusing names and damaging institutions leads to countless violations that cannot be fully listed. Thus, although the legal net is dense, corruption remains unchecked; though punishments multiply, people become increasingly disrespectful. A generation passes without benevolence emerging, a century goes by with cruelty still prevalent—this truly results from the absence of rites and music and the misapplication of punishments. Is it not appropriate to consider measures that clear the source and correct the root? By revising laws and decrees, compiling two hundred chapters corresponding to capital punishment, while for lesser crimes which in ancient times would have been punished with life but now result in death, we may instead offer corporal punishments. For offenses such as injuring others, theft, officials accepting bribes or perverting justice, and licentious behavior between men and women, we should restore the ancient system of three thousand laws. All minor legal technicalities involving false accusations or overly detailed wording should be abolished entirely. In this way, punishments will inspire fear while prohibitions become easier to avoid; officials will not monopolize executions, there will no longer be two standards in law, severity will match crimes, and people's lives will be preserved. This would achieve a balanced application of punishment that harmonizes Heaven and humanity, follows ancient institutions, and foster the moral transformation of the era. Though we may not yet reach the level of Chengkang where punishments were suspended, Emperor Wen's administration—where only four hundred cases were judged annually—might at least be attainable.
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洪范八政，一曰食，二曰货，二者生民之本，兴自神农之世，斫木为耜，煣木为耒，耒耨之利，以教天下，日中为市，致天下之民，聚天下之货，交易而退，各得其所，而货通食足，然后国实民富，而教化成，黄帝以下，通其变，使民不倦，殷周之盛，诗书所述，要在安民，富而教之也。故易称天地之大德曰生，圣人之大宝曰位，何以守位曰仁，何以聚人曰财，财者，帝王所以聚人守位，养成羣生，治国安人之本也。是以圣王域民，筑城郭以居之，制井庐以均之，开市肆以通之，设庠序以教之，士农工商四民有业，圣王量能授事，四民陈力受职，故朝无废官，邑无傲民，地无旷土。 |
| | The Hongfan lists eight state affairs, the first being food and the second goods. These two are fundamental to sustaining the people. They originated in the era of Shen Nong, who carved wooden plows and bent wooden hoes, using their advantages to teach all under heaven. He established markets at midday, drawing together the people from across the land and gathering goods for trade; after exchanging what they needed, everyone returned satisfied, ensuring the circulation of goods and sufficiency of food. Only then could the state be strong and its people wealthy, allowing moral instruction to flourish. From Huangdi onward, rulers adapted these practices skillfully so that the people remained tireless in their labor. During the flourishing times of Yin and Zhou dynasties, as described in the Book of Songs and Book of Documents, the key was always to ensure peace for the people—first enriching them before educating them. Therefore, the Book of Changes says: "The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is life; the greatest treasure of a sage is position. How to maintain one's position? Through benevolence. How to gather people? Through wealth." Wealth is what enables emperors to attract the populace, preserve their positions, nurture all living beings, and form the foundation for governing the state and ensuring peace for its people. Therefore, sage kings organized the people by building city walls to house them, establishing well-arranged dwellings for equitable distribution, opening markets and shops to facilitate trade, setting up schools to educate them. Scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants—these four classes of people each had their occupations. Sage rulers assigned responsibilities according to ability; thus, the four groups contributed labor in accordance with their roles. As a result, there were no vacant offices at court, no arrogant or idle people in the towns, and no unused land on earth.
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孔子曰：导千乘之国，敬事而信，节用而爱人，使民以时，故民皆劝功乐业，先公而后私，民三年耕则馀一年之畜，衣食足而知荣辱，廉让生而争讼息，馀三年食，进业曰登，再登曰平，三登泰平，然后王德流洽，礼乐成焉。又曰：籴甚贵伤民，甚贱伤农，民伤则离散，农伤则国贫，故甚贵与甚贱，其伤一也。善为国者，使民毋伤而农益劝。 |
| | Confucius said: "To govern a state with a thousand chariots, one must be respectful in duties and trustworthy, practice frugality and cherish the people, and employ them according to seasons." Thus, the people would all encourage achievements and take joy in their work, prioritizing public matters over private interests. If the people farmed for three years, they would have enough surplus for a year's storage; with sufficient clothing and food, they would understand honor and disgrace, integrity and courtesy would arise, disputes would cease. After having stored provisions for three years, further advancement in production was called "登" (deng); another such period was termed "平" (ping); after three such periods, it became "泰曰平" (Tai Yue Ping). Only then would the virtue of a king spread widely and rites and music be fully realized. He also said: "If grain prices are too high, it harms the people; if they are too low, it harms farmers. When the people suffer, society becomes disunited; when farmers suffer, the state grows poor. Therefore, whether prices are excessively high or excessively low, both cause harm." A wise ruler of a state ensures that the people suffer no harm while farmers are increasingly encouraged.
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文帝即位，躬修俭节，思安百姓，时民近战国，背本趣末。贾谊说上曰：管子曰：仓廪实知礼节，民不足而可治者，自古及今，未之尝闻。古之人曰：一夫不耕，或受之饥，一女不织，或受之寒，生之有时而用之无度，则物力必屈，古之治天下，至纤至悉也。故其蓄积足恃，今背本而趋末，食者甚衆，是天下之大残也。淫侈之俗，日日以长，是天下之大贼也。残贼公行，莫之或止，生之者甚少，而靡之者甚多，天下财産，何得不蹷哉。 |
| | When Emperor Wen took the throne, he personally practiced frugality and simplicity, seeking to bring peace to the people. At that time, the populace was close in spirit to the Warring States era, abandoning agriculture for commerce and other pursuits. Jia Yi advised the emperor, saying: "Guan Zi said: 'When granaries are full, people understand propriety and restraint. There has never been a case from ancient times to the present where the people were insufficient in resources yet could be governed.'" The ancients said: "If one man does not farm, someone may suffer hunger; if one woman does not weave, someone may endure cold." Production has its seasons, but consumption is boundless—thus resources will inevitably be exhausted. In ancient times, those who governed the world paid meticulous attention to even the smallest details. Therefore, their accumulated reserves were sufficient for reliance. Now, however, people abandon agriculture and pursue commerce; the number of those who consume far exceeds what can be sustained—this is a great harm to the world. Excessive luxury and indulgence, growing day by day, constitute the greatest threat to the world. Destructive and harmful behaviors run rampant, with no one to stop them. The number of people producing is very small, while the number squandering resources is vast—how could the wealth of the world not be exhausted?
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世之有饥穰，天之行也。禹汤被之矣。即不幸有方二三千里之旱，国胡以相恤，卒然边境有急，数十万之衆，国胡以馈之，兵旱相乘，天下屈，有勇者聚徒而横击，并举而争起矣。乃骇而图之，岂将有及乎。夫积贮者，天下之大命也。苟粟多而财有馀，何为而不成，以攻则取，以守则固，以战则胜，怀敌附远，何招而不至，今殴民而归之农，皆著于本，使天下各食其力，末技游食之民，转而缘南畮，则畜积足而人乐其所矣。可以为富安天下，而直为此禀禀也。窃为陛下惜之。 |
| | Famine and abundance in each generation are natural occurrences. Yǔ and Tāng experienced this as well. If misfortune strikes and a drought covers an area of two or three thousand li, how can the state provide relief? If suddenly there is an emergency at the border requiring hundreds of thousands of troops, from where will provisions come? When military conflicts coincide with droughts, the nation weakens. Then those bold enough to gather followers may rise in rebellion, and uprisings could erupt simultaneously across many regions. Only when alarmed will one take action—how likely is it that such measures will arrive in time? Accumulating reserves is the vital foundation of the state. If grain is abundant and wealth sufficient, what cannot be achieved? With such strength, attacks will succeed, defenses will hold firm, battles will bring victory. Enemies will submit, distant peoples will come under allegiance—what invitation would not be heeded? Now, by urging the people to return to farming, all will focus on fundamentals. If everyone in the land sustains themselves through their own labor, and those engaged in minor trades or idleness turn instead to tilling fields, then reserves will be sufficient and people will find joy in their place. This is how one can bring wealth and stability to the world—yet it has been reduced merely to this meager state. I secretly feel regret for Your Majesty over this matter.
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于是上感谊言，始开藉田，躬耕以劝百姓。晁错复说上曰：圣王在上而民不冻饥者，非能耕而食之，织而衣之也。为开其资财之道也。故尧，禹有九年之水，汤有七年之旱，而国无捐瘠者，以畜积多而备先具也。今海内为一，土地民人之衆，不避汤禹，加以无天灾，而畜积之未及者，何也。地有遗利，民有馀力，生谷之土未尽垦，山泽之利未尽出，游食之人未尽归农也。民贫则奸邪生，贫生于不足，不足生于不农，不农则不地著，不地著则离乡轻家，民如鸟兽，虽有高城深池，严法重刑，犹不能禁也。 |
| | Thus, the emperor was moved by Jia Yi's words and began to establish a royal field for farming, personally tilling it in order to encourage the people. Chao Cuo again advised the emperor: "When sage kings ruled and the people did not suffer from cold or hunger, it was not because they personally farmed to feed them or wove cloth for their clothing." Rather, it was by opening up ways for the people to generate wealth. Therefore, Yao and Yu endured floods lasting nine years, Tang faced a drought of seven years, yet the state had no people perishing from starvation. This was because reserves were abundant, and preparations had been made in advance. Now the realm is unified, its land and population as numerous as those of Tang or Yu, yet without natural disasters—why then are reserves still insufficient? There remain untapped resources in the land, and people have unused labor. Fertile fields are not fully cultivated; benefits from mountains and lakes are not fully exploited; those idling without work have not all returned to farming. When the people are poor, corruption and immorality arise. Poverty stems from insufficiency; insufficiency arises from neglecting agriculture. Without farming, they do not become rooted to the land; without being rooted in the land, they abandon their hometowns and disregard family ties. The people then behave like birds and beasts—no matter how high the city walls or deep the moats, no matter how strict the laws or severe the punishments, such conditions cannot be controlled.
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夫寒之于衣，不待轻暖，饥之于食，不待甘旨，饥寒至身，不顾廉耻，人情一日不再食则饥，终岁不制衣则寒，夫腹饥不得食，肤寒不得衣，虽慈母不能保其子，君安能以有民哉。明主知其然也。故务民于农桑，薄赋敛，广蓄积，以实仓禀，备水旱，故民可得而有也。民者，在上所以牧之，趋利，如水走下，四方无择也。夫珠玉金银，饥不可食，寒不可衣，然而衆贵之者，以上用之故也。其为物轻微易臧，在于把握，可以周海内而无饥寒之患，此令民易去其乡，盗贼有所劝，亡逃者得轻资也。粟米布帛生于地，长于时，聚于力，非可一日成也。数石之重，中人不胜，不为奸邪所利，一日弗得而饥寒至，是故明君贵五谷而贱金玉。 |
| | When cold, people do not wait for light or warm clothing; when hungry, they do not wait for delicious food. When hunger and cold afflict the body, people disregard propriety and shame. Human nature dictates that one meal a day is insufficient to avoid starvation, and without new clothes all year, one cannot escape cold. If someone suffers from hunger with an empty stomach or cold on their skin, even a kind mother cannot protect her child—how then can a ruler claim to have the people as his subjects? An enlightened ruler understands this. Therefore, he encourages the people to focus on farming and sericulture, reduces taxes and levies, expands reserves, fills granaries, and prepares for floods or droughts. In this way, the ruler can truly possess the people's loyalty and support. The people are like herds to be guided by those in power; they naturally seek benefits, flowing downward like water and choosing no direction. Jade, pearls, gold, and silver cannot be eaten when hungry or worn for warmth in cold. Yet they are highly valued by many because the ruler uses them. These items are light, easy to store, and can be held in one's hand. With them, a person could travel across the realm without fear of hunger or cold. This makes it easier for people to abandon their hometowns; thieves and bandits find encouragement, while fugitives gain portable means of escape. Grain, cloth, and silk are produced from the land, grow with time, and accumulate through labor—they cannot be achieved in a single day. A few stones of grain are heavy enough that an ordinary person cannot carry them, and they offer no benefit to thieves or evildoers. A single day without them brings hunger and cold. Therefore, wise rulers value grains highly while regarding gold and jade as insignificant.
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今农夫春耕夏耘，秋获冬藏，伐薪樵，给傜役，春不得避风尘，夏不得避暑热，秋不得避阴雨，冬不得避寒冻，四时之间，无日休息，又私自送往迎来，吊死问疾，养孤长幼在其中，勤苦如此，尚复被水旱之灾，急政暴虐，赋敛不时，朝令而暮改，当其有者，半贾而卖，无者取倍称之息，于是有卖田宅，鬻子孙，以偿责者矣。 |
| | Now, farmers in spring plow and cultivate in summer; they harvest in autumn and store grain in winter. They cut firewood and serve corvée labor, unable to avoid the dust of spring winds or the heat of summer; they cannot escape autumn rains or winter cold. Through all four seasons, there is no day of rest. In addition, they personally bear private expenses for sending off guests and welcoming visitors, mourning the dead, visiting the sick, raising orphans, and caring for children—all this occurs within their daily toil. With such hard labor, yet still suffering from floods or droughts, sudden policies and brutal governance, taxes levied at inopportune times, orders issued in the morning only to be changed by nightfall—those who have grain must sell it at half price; those without must pay double interest. Thus, some are forced to sell their fields and homes or even their children and grandchildren in order to repay debts.
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而商贾大者，积贮倍息，小者，坐列贩卖，操其奇赢，日游都市，乘上之急，所卖必倍，故其男不耕耘，女不蚕织，衣必文采，食必粱肉，无农夫之苦，而有仟伯之得，因其富厚，交通王侯，力过吏埶，以利相倾，千里游敖，冠盖相望，此商人所以兼农人，农人所以流亡者也。 |
| | Meanwhile, wealthy merchants hoard goods and profit from double interest; smaller ones sit in marketplaces selling wares, seeking odd profits. They daily wander the cities, taking advantage of urgent needs to sell at doubled prices. Thus, these men do not till fields or women spin silk—yet their clothing is always embroidered and colorful, their food always refined grains and meat. Without the hardships of farmers, they gain a hundredfold profit. With their wealth, they connect with marquises and dukes, surpassing officials in influence, competing for advantage through profit, traveling thousands of li, their carriages and hats visible on every road. This is why merchants can dominate farmers—and why farmers become displaced and flee.
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今法律贱商人，商人已富贵矣。尊农夫，农夫已贫贱矣。故俗之所贵，主之所贱也。吏之所卑，法之所尊也。上下相反，好恶乖迕，而欲国富法立，不可得也。方今之务，莫若使民务农而已矣。欲民务农，在于贵粟，贵粟之道，在于使民以粟为赏罚，今募天下入粟县官，得以拜爵，得以除辠，如此，富人有爵，农民有钱，粟有所渫矣。夫能入粟以受爵，皆有馀者也。取于有馀以供上用，则贫民之赋可损，所谓损有馀，补不足，令出而民利者也。顺于民心，所补者三，一曰主用足，二曰民赋少，三曰劝农功，爵者上之所擅，出于口而无穷，粟者民之所种，生于地而不乏，夫得高爵与免辠，人之所甚欲也。使天下人入粟于边以受爵免辠，不过三岁，塞下粟必多矣。 |
| | Now the law deems merchants lowly, yet they have already achieved wealth and status. We honor farmers, but farmers are already poor and low in status. Thus, what society values is precisely what the ruler deems insignificant. What officials look down upon is exactly what the law holds in high esteem. When those above and below hold opposite views, when preferences and aversions conflict, it will be impossible to achieve a wealthy state or establish sound laws. The most urgent task now is nothing more than encouraging the people to devote themselves to farming. To encourage the people to farm lies in valuing grain. To value grain means using it as a basis for rewards and punishments. Now, if we invite all under heaven to contribute grain to the county officials, they may thereby receive noble ranks or have their crimes pardoned. In this way, wealthy individuals gain titles, farmers earn money, and surplus grain will be distributed effectively. Those who can contribute grain in exchange for noble ranks are all those with surpluses. Taking from the surplus to supply imperial needs allows us to reduce taxes on poor people. This is what is meant by "taking from those with more than enough to supplement those in need"—a policy that benefits the people when implemented. This policy aligns with the people's wishes and brings three benefits: first, sufficient imperial resources; second, reduced burdens on commoners; third, encouragement for agricultural production. Noble ranks are controlled by the ruler and can be granted endlessly at will. Grain is produced by the people from the land and never runs out. To obtain a high rank or to have one's crimes pardoned—these are desires deeply cherished by all people. If we encourage the entire population to contribute grain at the frontier in exchange for ranks or pardons, within no more than three years, there will certainly be an abundance of grain along the border.
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于是文帝从错之言，令民入粟边，各以多少级数为差，至武帝之初，七十年间，国家无事，都鄙廪庾尽满，而府库馀财，京师之钱累百巨万，贯朽而不可校，校，数也。太仓之粟，陈陈相因，充溢露积于外，腐败不可食，衆庶街巷有马，阡陌之间成羣，守闾阎者食粱肉，为吏者长子孙，居官者以为姓号，人人自爱而重犯法，先行谊而黜愧辱焉。于是罔疏而民富。 |
| | Thus, Emperor Wen followed Chao Cuo's advice and ordered the people to contribute grain to the frontier, with distinctions made according to the amount of grain and corresponding ranks. By the beginning of Emperor Wu's reign, after seventy years of peace, granaries in both capital and outlying regions were full, treasuries overflowed with wealth, and the money stored in the imperial capital accumulated into hundreds of millions, so much that the cords tying the coins rotted and could no longer be counted. "Jiao" here means to count or tally. The grain in the Grand Granary piled up year after year, overflowing and left exposed outdoors until it rotted and became inedible. In the streets and alleys of common people, horses were everywhere; on fields and roadsides, they gathered in flocks. Those guarding gates ate refined grains and meat; officials ensured their descendants' future, and those holding office passed down their positions as family names. Everyone loved themselves and valued the law, prioritizing righteousness while rejecting shame and disgrace. Thus, even with a loose legal net, the people were wealthy.
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是后外事四夷，内兴功利，役费并兴，而民去本，天下虚耗，人民相食，武帝末年，悔征伐之事，乃封丞相为富民侯，以赵过为搜粟都尉，教民代田，用力少而得谷多，至昭帝时，流民稍还，田野益辟，颇有蓄积，宣帝即位，用吏多选贤良，百姓安土，岁数丰穰，谷至石五钱，农人少利，时大司农中丞耿寿昌奏言籴三辅，弘农，河东，上党，太原郡谷，足供京师，可以省关东漕卒过半，天子从其计，寿昌遂白令边郡皆以谷贱时增价而籴，谷贵时减价而粜，名曰常平仓，民便之，上乃赐寿昌爵关内侯，至元帝时，乃罢常平仓，哀帝即位，百姓訾富虽不及文景，然天下户口最盛。 |
| | After this, external affairs with the four foreign tribes and internal projects for public benefit were initiated simultaneously. Labor and expenses multiplied, leading people to abandon agriculture; as a result, the realm became impoverished, and in extreme cases, people resorted to cannibalism. In the final years of Emperor Wu's reign, he regretted his wars and campaigns. He then bestowed the title "Fumin Hou" (Marquis for Enriching the People) on the prime minister and appointed Zhao Guo as Commander-in-Chief of Grain Collection, instructing him to teach farmers a new method called "daitian," which required less labor but yielded more grain. By Emperor Zhao's time, displaced people gradually returned, fields expanded further, and reserves began to accumulate. When Emperor Xuan took the throne, he appointed officials who were mostly virtuous and capable; the people settled in their lands, harvests were abundant for several years, and grain prices dropped to five coins per dan (approximately 100 liters). Farmers found little profit from this situation. At that time, Geng Shouchang, an official of the Grand Granary, proposed purchasing grain from the commanderies of Sanfu, Hongnong, Hedong, Shangdang, and Taiyuan to supply the capital, which would reduce by more than half the number of transport workers needed from Guandong. The emperor accepted this plan. Geng then suggested that border regions buy grain at low prices when it was cheap and sell it at reduced rates during high-price periods, calling this system "Changping Cang" (Constant Price Granaries). This policy proved convenient for the people, so the emperor granted Geng Shouchang the title of Guannei Hou. By Emperor Yuan's reign, however, the Changping Cang system was abolished. When Emperor Ai took the throne, although the wealth of commoners did not match that under Emperors Wen and Jing, the population reached its highest level in history.
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平帝崩，莽遂篡位，因汉承平之业，匈奴称藩，百蛮宾服，舟车所通，尽为臣妾，府库百官之富，天下晏然，莽一朝有之，而其意未满，陿小汉家制度，以为疏阔，宣帝始赐单于印玺，与天子同，而西南夷鈎町称王，莽乃遣使易单于印绶，贬鈎町为侯，二方始怨，侵犯边境，莽遂兴师发三十万衆，欲同时十道并出，壹举灭匈奴，海内扰矣。又动欲慕古，不度时宜，分裂州郡，改职作官，下令更名天下田曰王田，奴婢曰私属，皆不得卖买，其男口不满八而田过一井者，分馀田与九族乡党，犯令法至死，制又不定，吏缘为奸，天下謷謷然，陷刑者衆。 |
| | After Emperor Ping's death, Wang Mang usurped the throne. He inherited the Han dynasty's peaceful achievements: the Xiongnu submitted as vassals; all southern and western tribes were pacified; wherever ships or carriages traveled, people became subjects of the empire. The wealth in treasuries and among officials was abundant, and the realm enjoyed peace. Wang Mang suddenly possessed this prosperity but remained unsatisfied. He considered Han institutions too broad and loose. Emperor Xuan had first granted the Xiongnu chieftain a seal identical to that of an emperor; meanwhile, the southwestern tribes of Gouting declared themselves kings. In response, Wang Mang sent envoys to replace the Xiongnu leader's seal with one of lower rank and demoted Gouting from king to marquis. These two regions began resenting him and invaded the borders. Wang Mang then mobilized an army of 300,000 troops, planning for ten simultaneous campaigns in order to destroy the Xiongnu in a single decisive strike. The entire realm was thrown into turmoil as a result. He also foolishly imitated ancient systems without considering the appropriateness of his time, dividing and reorganizing commanderies and states, altering official positions and creating new offices. He issued an order renaming all land in the realm as "Wang Tian" (King's Fields) and slaves and servants as "Si Zhu," declaring that neither could be bought or sold. For families with fewer than eight members who owned more than one well-field of land, they were required to distribute their surplus among relatives and neighbors; those violating these orders faced the death penalty. His policies remained in constant flux, and officials exploited this instability for personal gain. The people were greatly confused, and many fell into legal trouble as a result.
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凡货，金钱布帛之用，夏，殷以前，其详靡记云，太公为周立九府圜法，退又行之于齐，至管仲相桓公，通轻重之权。曰：岁有凶穰，故谷有贵贱，令有缓急，故物有轻重，人君不理，则蓄贾游于市，乘民之不给，百倍其本矣。计本量委则足矣。然而民有饥饿者，谷有所藏也。民有馀则轻之，故人君敛之以轻，民不足则重之，故人君散之以重，凡轻重敛散之以时即准平，故大贾蓄家不得豪夺吾民矣。 |
| | Regarding commodities, the use of money, cloth, and silk—before the Xia and Yin dynasties, detailed records are not available. Duke Tai Gong established the "Jiu Fu Yuan Fa" (Nine Treasuries Circular System) for Zhou dynasty. Later, this system was also implemented in Qi. When Guan Zhong served as prime minister under Duke Huan of Qi, he regulated the balance between light and heavy currencies (i.e., different types or values of money). He said: "Each year brings either famine or abundance, so grain prices fluctuate between high and low. Government policies vary in urgency, hence the value of goods rises and falls accordingly." If a ruler does not manage this properly, hoarders and speculators will roam the markets, taking advantage of people's shortages to make profits hundreds of times their original investment. By calculating costs and measuring reserves, one can ensure sufficiency. Yet there are still people who suffer from hunger—this is because grain remains stored away. When the people have surplus, they undervalue grain; thus, rulers should buy it at low prices. When the people lack supplies and value grain highly, rulers should release stored reserves at higher prices. If rulers regulate buying and selling according to the right timing, prices will remain balanced. Thus, wealthy merchants and hoarders cannot exploit or oppress the common people.
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秦兼天下，币为二等，黄金以溢为名，钱质如周，钱文曰半两，汉兴，以为秦钱重难用，更令民铸荚钱，孝文为钱益多而轻，更铸四铢，文为半两，除盗铸钱令。贾谊谏曰：夫事有召祸而法有起奸，今令细民人操造币之埶，各隐屏而铸作，因欲禁其厚利微奸，虽黥罪日报，其埶不止，为法若此，上何赖焉。又民用钱，郡县不同，法钱不立，吏急而壹之宓，则大为烦苛而力不能胜，纵而弗呵乎。则市肆异用，钱文大乱，苟非其术，何乡而可哉。今农事弃捐，而采铜者繁，奸钱日多，五谷不为多，善人怵而为奸邪，愿民陷而之刑戮，刑戮甚不祥，奈何而忽，上不听，是时吴以诸侯即山铸钱，富埒天子，后卒叛逆，邓通，大夫也。以铸钱，财过王者，故吴，邓钱布天下。 |
| | When Qin unified the realm, currency was divided into two categories: gold and copper coins. Gold was measured in "yi," The weight of the coins was similar to that used in Zhou, and they were inscribed with "Ban Liang" (half tael). When Han dynasty arose, it found Qin coins too heavy for practical use and ordered people to cast new thin coins called "Jia Qian," Emperor Wen increased the number of coins and reduced their weight, casting new four-zhu coins with the inscription "Ban Liang" (half tael) and abolishing laws against private coinage. Jia Yi advised: "Some actions invite disaster, and some laws encourage corruption. Now that common people are allowed to produce currency, they will secretly cast coins in hidden places. Even if we punish those who seek excessive profits or commit minor fraud daily with 黥刑 (branding), the trend cannot be stopped." With laws like this, on what can the ruler rely? Moreover, since coin usage varied among commanderies and counties, there was no standard currency. If officials tried to enforce uniformity urgently, it would create excessive burdens the people could not bear; if they let things be without intervention, disorder would follow. Then markets and shops would use different currencies, causing great confusion in coinage. If one does not adopt the right approach, how can order be restored? Now, farming is neglected while copper mining increases; counterfeit coins grow daily. Grain production does not increase, Even the virtuous are tempted into corruption. I fear the people will fall into criminal punishment, which is most inauspicious. How can this be ignored? The emperor did not listen. At that time, Wu, a feudal lord, mined mountains and cast coins, becoming as wealthy as the Son of Heaven; he later rebelled. Deng Tong was an official who also amassed great wealth through coinage. Through coin casting, his wealth surpassed that of kings; thus, Wu and Deng Tong's coins circulated throughout the realm.
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武帝因文景之蓄，忿胡粤之害，即位数年，严助，朱买臣等招来东瓯，事两粤，江淮之间，萧然烦费矣。唐蒙，司马相如开西南夷，凿山通道千馀里，以广巴蜀，巴蜀之民罢焉。彭吴穿秽栢，朝鲜置沧海郡，则燕，齐之间靡然发动，及王恢设谋马邑，匈奴绝和亲，侵扰北边，兵连而不解，天下共其劳，干戈日滋，行者赍，居者送，中外骚扰相奉，财赂衰耗而不澹，入物者补官，出货者除辠，选举陵夷，廉耻相冒，武力进用，法严令具，兴利之臣，自此而始。 |
| | Emperor Wu, relying on the reserves accumulated by Emperors Wen and Jing and resenting the harm caused by the Hu and Yue peoples, ascended the throne for several years before sending Yan Zhu, Zhu Maichen, and others to subdue Dongou and deal with the two Yue states. The region between the Yangtze and Huai rivers became exhausted from the burdens of war and administration. Tang Meng and Sima Xiangru opened up the southwestern tribes, carving roads through mountains for over a thousand li to expand control into Bashu. The people of Bashu were exhausted by this effort. Peng Wu led expeditions into Huimao, and the commandery of Canghai was established in Choson (Korea). As a result, people from Yan and Qi were mobilized. When Wang Hui devised a plan at Ma Yi to attack the Xiongnu, the latter broke off peace talks and began raiding northern borders. Wars continued without end; the entire realm bore the burden of military labor. Arms and weapons multiplied daily; travelers carried provisions while families sent them off. The country was in turmoil as people moved back and forth. Wealth and resources were drained and never replenished. Those who contributed goods received official ranks, those who paid money had their crimes pardoned. Merit-based appointments declined, shame and integrity were ignored, military men rose to power, laws became strict and decrees numerous—thus began the rise of officials focused on profit rather than virtue.
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其后衞青岁以数万骑出击匈奴，遂取河南，筑朔方郡，时又通西南夷道，作者数万人，千里负担馈饢，率十馀钟致一石，置沧海郡，筑衞朔方，转漕甚远，自山东咸被其劳，费数十百巨万，府库并虚，乃募民能入奴婢以终身复为郞，增秩，及入羊为郞，始于此，此后衞青比岁将十馀万衆击胡，斩捕首虏之士，受赐黄金二十馀万斤，而汉军士马死者十馀万，兵甲转漕之费不与焉。于是经用赋税既竭，不足以奉战士，有司请令民得买爵及赎禁锢免赃罪，大者封侯卿大夫，小者郞，吏道杂而多端，官职耗废。 |
| | Later, Wei Qing led tens of thousands of cavalry annually to attack the Xiongnu and captured the region south of the Yellow River. The Shuofang commandery was then built. At that time, roads were also opened in the southwestern tribes; hundreds of thousands labored on these projects, carrying provisions over distances of a thousand li. On average, ten dou (approximately 640 liters) had to be transported for each dan (100 liters) delivered. The Canghai commandery was established, and the Wei Shufang region was fortified. Transporting supplies over such long distances placed a heavy burden on all of Shandong; expenses reached tens or even hundreds of millions. The imperial treasuries were drained. To raise funds, the government recruited people willing to contribute slaves and servants in exchange for lifelong exemption from service as Lang officials (a type of court attendant), with additional ranks granted. Later, contributing sheep also became a way to attain such positions—this practice began at this time. Afterward, Wei Qing led over 100,000 soldiers annually against the Xiongnu; those who captured or killed enemies received rewards totaling more than 200,000 jin of gold. Meanwhile, tens of thousands of Han soldiers and horses perished in battle—without even counting the costs of weapons, armor, and transport logistics. At this time, regular revenues from taxes and levies were exhausted and no longer sufficient to support the soldiers. Officials requested permission for people to purchase noble ranks or redeem themselves from restrictions or crimes through payment. Those who paid large sums could be ennobled as marquises, ministers, or high-ranking officials; those with smaller payments became Lang attendants. The path to officialdom grew chaotic and varied, leading to the neglect of proper governance and corruption in government posts.
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票骑仍再出击胡，大克，获浑邪王，率数万衆来降，皆得厚赏，衣食仰给县官，县官不给，天子乃损膳，解乘舆驷，出御府禁藏以澹之，费以亿计，县官大空，富商贾财或累万金而不佐公家之急，于是天子与公卿议更造钱造无造字，币以澹用，而摧浮淫并兼之徒，于是以东郭咸阳，孔仅为大司农丞，领盐铁事，而桑私羊贵幸侍中，故三人言利，事析秋豪矣。法既益严，吏多废免，皆谪令伐棘上林，作昆明池，其明年，大将军，票骑大出击胡，赏赐五十万金，军马死者十馀万匹，转漕车甲之费不与焉。是时财匮，战士颇不得禄矣。 |
| | Piaoqi (Zhu Che) again led campaigns against the Xiongnu and achieved great victories, capturing King Hunye, who brought tens of thousands to surrender. All were richly rewarded, their food and clothing provided by the county government. When this could no longer be sustained, the emperor reduced his own meals, dissolved his chariot teams, and drew from the imperial treasury to cover expenses—costs reaching into the hundreds of millions. State finances collapsed completely. Wealthy merchants hoarded fortunes in the tens of thousands but did not assist with public needs. Thus, the Son of Heaven convened a discussion with ministers about reforming currency production (though the word "create" was omitted from official records), aiming to increase coinage and curb speculation and monopolies. Consequently, Dongguo Xianyang and Kong Jin were appointed as vice-commanders-in-chief at the Grand Granary Office, overseeing salt and iron affairs, while Sang Hongyang, favored by the emperor, served as a palace attendant. These three men debated economic matters with precision down to the finest details. As laws became increasingly strict, many officials were dismissed or demoted. They were all ordered to cut thorny bushes in Shanglin Park and work on the construction of Kunming Pool. The following year, when the Grand General and Piaoqi launched a major campaign against the Xiongnu, rewards amounted to 500,000 gold units. Over ten thousand horses perished, not counting the costs for transport wagons, armor, or other military expenditures. At this time, state finances were exhausted, and soldiers often failed to receive their wages.
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诸贾人末作贳贷及商以取利者，虽无市籍，各以其物自占，率缗钱二千而算一，轺车一算，商贾人轺车二算，船五丈以上一算，匿不自占，占不悉，戍边一岁，没入缗钱，有能吿者，以其半畀之，是时，豪富皆争匿财，唯卜式数求入财以助县官，天子乃超拜式为中郞，赐爵左庶长，田十顷，布告天下，以风百姓。 |
| | At this time, all merchants and those engaged in secondary trades who borrowed money or made profits through commerce—regardless of whether they had official merchant records—were required to declare their assets themselves. For every 2000 qian (coins), one "suan" (a unit for taxation) was levied; a light carriage counted as one suan, while a merchant's light carriage counted as two suans. Ships over five zhang in length were taxed at one suan. Those concealing assets or failing to declare them fully would be sent for a year of border service, and their money would be confiscated. Anyone who reported such cases could receive half the amount as reward. At this time, wealthy elites competed to hide their wealth; only Bu Shi repeatedly volunteered to contribute his property to assist the state treasury. The emperor therefore promoted Bu Shi directly to Zhonglang (a mid-ranking official), bestowed him with the title Zuoshuchang, granted ten qing of farmland, and issued a proclamation throughout the realm in order to set an example for the people.
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自造白金，五铢钱，后五岁而赦吏民之坐盗铸金钱死者数十万人，其不发觉相杀者，不可胜计，赦自出者百馀万人，然不能半自出矣。犯法者衆，吏不能尽诛，于是遣博士褚大，徐偃等分行郡国，举并兼之徒，而御史大夫张汤方贵用事，减宣，杜周等为中丞，义纵，尹齐，王温舒等用惨急苛刻为九卿，直指夏兰之属始出，而大农顔异诛矣。自是后有腹非之法比，而公卿大夫多谄谀取容，天子既下缗钱令而尊卜式，百姓终莫分财佐县官，于是吿缗钱纵矣。 |
| | The government then issued white silver and five-zhu coins. Five years later, tens of thousands were pardoned for having been executed due to illegal coinage; those who had killed each other without being discovered could not be counted in full. Over a million people received amnesty, but less than half actually turned themselves in. With so many lawbreakers, officials could not execute them all. Thus, the emperor sent scholars such as Chu Da and Xu Yan to travel across commanderies and states to investigate those engaged in monopolies and corruption. At this time, Grand Censor Zhang Tang was powerful and influential; Jian Xuan and Du Zhou served as vice-censors, while Yi Zong, Yin Qi, Wang Wenshu, and others held high-ranking positions by enforcing harsh and severe policies. Officials like Xia Lan of the Direct Inspection Office began to emerge, and Da Nong Yan Yi was executed. From then on, laws similar to the "Fu Fei" (a law against false accusations) were enacted, and many ministers and officials flattered the emperor for personal gain. Although the Son of Heaven had issued decrees regarding coinage and honored Bu Shi, the common people still refused to share their wealth with the state treasury; thus, reports about coin-related crimes increased greatly.
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杨可吿缗遍天下，中家以上，大氐皆遇吿，得民财物以亿计，奴婢以千万数，田大县数百顷，小县百馀，宅亦如之，于是商贾中家以上大氐破，民媮，甘食好衣，不事蓄藏之业，而县官以盐铁缗钱之故，用少饶矣。是时，越欲与汉用船战逐，水战相逐，乃大修昆明池，列馆环之，治楼船高十馀丈，作柏梁台高数十丈，宫室之修，由此日丽，明年，天子始巡郡国，公卿白议封禅事，而郡国皆豫治道，修缮故宫，储设共具而望幸，明年，南越反，西羌侵边，天子因南方楼船士二十馀万人击越，发三河以西骑击羌，又度河筑令居，初置张掖，酒泉郡，而上郡，朔方，西河，河西开田官，斥塞卒，六十万人戍田之，中国缮道馈粮，远者三千馀里，边兵不足，乃发武库工官兵器以澹之。 |
| | Yang Ke's reports on coin-related crimes spread throughout the land. Almost all middle-class families and above were accused, with state officials seizing property worth hundreds of millions, thousands or even tens of thousands of slaves and servants, hundreds of qing of farmland in large counties, over a hundred qing in small ones , and similarly sized estates. As a result, most middle-class merchants and traders were ruined. The people became lazy, content with simple food and fine clothing, no longer engaged in productive labor or accumulation. Because of the state's control over salt, iron, and coinage, government revenues increased significantly despite reduced expenditures. At this time, the Yue people wished to engage in naval battles with Han forces. As both sides pursued each other on water, they began extensive construction of the Kunming Pool, surrounding it with pavilions and building large warships over ten zhang tall. They also constructed the Bailing Tai platform, which was dozens of zhang high. From then on, palace construction became increasingly elaborate and luxurious. The following year, the Son of Heaven made his first tour of commanderies and states; ministers proposed discussions about the Fengshan ceremony (a ritual to honor heaven and earth). In anticipation, all commanderies and states prepared roads in advance, repaired old palaces, stored supplies, and awaited imperial visits. The next year, Nanyue rebelled and Xiqiang invaded the frontier. The emperor then mobilized over 200,001 naval troops from southern regions to attack Yue, while sending cavalry from west of the Sanhe region against Qiang forces. He also crossed the Yellow River to build Lingju, establishing Zhangye and Jiuquan commanderies for the first time. In Shangjun, Shufang, Xihed, and Hexi, officials were appointed to manage farmland expansion, while border guards ( Six hundred thousand people were stationed to cultivate the land, while supplies and rations were transported along newly repaired roads from the central regions. The farthest distances exceeded 3000 li. When border troops proved insufficient, weapons and equipment stored in the Wu Ku (Imperial Armory) were mobilized for use.
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齐相卜式上书愿父子死南粤，天子下诏褒扬，赐爵关内侯，黄金四十斤，田十顷，布告天下，天下莫应，列侯以百数，皆莫求从军，至饮酎，少府省金，而列侯坐酎金失侯者百馀人，乃拜卜式为御史大夫，式既在位，见郡国多不便县官作盐铁器，或强令民买之，而船有算，因孔仅言船算事，上不说，然兵所过县，县以为訾给毋乏而已，不敢言轻赋法矣。 |
| | Qi's prime minister Bu Shi submitted a letter expressing his willingness to sacrifice himself and his son in the war against Nanyue. The Son of Heaven issued an edict praising him, bestowing on him the title Guannei Hou (Inner Pass Marquis), 40 jin of gold, ten qing of farmland and announced it throughout the realm. Yet no one else responded; hundreds of marquises existed, but none volunteered to join the military campaign. When it came time for the annual tribute of distilled liquor, the Shao Fu (Ministry of Revenue) inspected the gold contributions from feudal lords More than a hundred marquises lost their titles for failing to meet the gold tribute requirements. The emperor then appointed Bu Shi as Grand Censor. After assuming office, Bu Shi observed that many commanderies and states found it burdensome for the state to produce salt, iron tools, or other goods, with some even forcing commoners to purchase them. Meanwhile, ship taxes were also imposed. Because Kong Jin had previously raised concerns about these ship taxes, the emperor was displeased. However, in counties where military forces passed through, local officials merely ensured that supplies and funds were sufficient without shortage; they dared not suggest easing tax laws or reducing burdens on the people.
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元封元年，卜式贬为太子太傅，而桑弘羊为治粟都尉，领大农，乃请置大农部丞数十人，分部主郡国，各往往置均输盐铁官，尽笼天下之货，名曰平准，不复吿缗，民不益赋，天下用饶，于是弘羊赐爵左庶长，黄金者再百焉。是岁小旱，上令百官求雨。卜式言曰：县官当食租衣税而已，今弘羊令吏坐市列贩物求利，烹弘羊，天乃雨，久之，拜弘羊为御史大夫，昭帝即位，诏郡国举贤良文学士，问以民所疾苦教化之要，皆对愿罢盐铁酒榷均输官，毋与天下争利，示以节俭，然后教化可兴，乃罢酒酤，宣，元，成，哀，平，五世，亡所变改。 |
| | In the first year of Yuangfeng, Bu Shi was demoted to Taifu (Grand Tutor) for the Crown Prince. Sang Hongyang became Zhisu Duwei and assumed leadership over the Da Nong Office. He then requested the appointment of dozens of Da Nong Bu Cheng (assistant officials), who were assigned to oversee commanderies and states in various regions. In many places, officials responsible for equitable transport, salt, and iron monopolies were established, allowing the state to control all commercial goods nationwide under a system called "Pingzhun" (price stabilization). The practice of reporting coin-related crimes was abolished; no additional taxes were imposed on the people, yet national resources became abundant. As a reward, Sang Hongyang was granted the title Zuoshuchang and received 200 jin of gold twice over. In this year there was a minor drought; the emperor ordered all government officials to pray for rain. Bu Shi said: "The state should merely live off rents and taxes. Now Sang Hongyang has ordered officials to sit in markets, selling goods for profit. If we boil Sang Hongyang alive, the heavens will send rain." After a long time, however, the emperor appointed Sang Hongyang as Grand Censor. When Emperor Zhao ascended the throne, he issued an edict ordering commanderies and states to recommend virtuous scholars of literature and morality. These men were asked about the people's hardships and the essentials of moral instruction; all responded that they wished to abolish officials overseeing salt, iron, alcohol monopolies, and equitable transport, so that the state would not compete with the people for profit but instead set an example of frugality—only then could moral education flourish. Thus, the liquor monopoly was abolished during the reigns of Emperors Xuan, Yuan, Cheng, Ai, and Ping, remaining unchanged across these five generations.
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王莽居摄，变汉制，更作金银龟贝钱布之品，名曰宝货，凡宝货五物，六名，二十八品，百姓愦乱，其货不行，民私以五铢钱市买，莽患之，下诏敢非井田，挟五铢钱者为惑衆，投诸四裔，以御魑魅，于是商农失业，食货俱废，民涕泣于市道，坐卖买田宅奴婢铸钱抵辠者，自公卿大夫至庶人，不可胜数，莽知民愁，乃但行小钱直一，与大钱五十二品并行，龟贝布属且寝。 |
| | Wang Mang, during his regency, altered the Han system and created new categories of currency including gold, silver, turtles, shells, coins, and cloth, calling it "Bao Hua" (treasure goods). In total, there were five types of treasure goods, six names, and 28 classifications. The people became confused and disoriented; this currency failed to circulate effectively. Commoners privately continued using the wuzhu coin for trade. Wang Mang was troubled by this and issued an edict declaring that anyone who criticized the well-field system or used wuzhu coins was misleading the public, and such individuals should be exiled to distant frontiers to ward off evil spirits. As a result, merchants and farmers lost their livelihoods; both food production and commerce collapsed. People wept in the streets as countless numbers—ranging from high-ranking officials down to commoners—were punished for crimes related to land transactions, property sales, slave trade, or illegal coin casting. Recognizing public distress, Wang Mang then allowed only small coins worth one unit to circulate alongside the large 52-unit coins; meanwhile, turtle shells, shells, and cloth currency were gradually phased out.
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莽性躁扰，不能毋为，每有所兴造，必欲依古得经文，羲和置命士，督五均六斡，郡有数人，皆用富贾，乘传求利，交错天下，因与郡县通奸，多张空簿，府藏不实，百姓愈病，莽每一斡，为设科条防禁，犯者辠至死，奸吏猾民并侵，衆庶各不安生，每壹易钱，民用破业，而大陷刑，莽以私铸钱死，及非沮宝货投四裔，犯法者多，不可胜计，乃更轻其法，私铸作泉布者，与妻子没入为官奴婢，吏及比伍，知而不举吿与同罪，非沮宝货民，罚作一岁，吏免官，犯者俞衆，及五人相坐，皆没入郡国，槛车铁鏁，传送长安钟官，愁苦死者十六七。 |
| | Wang Mang was by nature impetuous and could not remain idle. Whenever he initiated new policies, he insisted on justifying them with references to ancient texts. The Xihe official appointed "Ming Shi" (appointed officials) to oversee the Five Equalizations and Six Markets; each commandery had several such officers, all of whom were wealthy merchants. They traveled by government-provided transport to seek profits, spreading across the land. These officials colluded with local county authorities, fabricating numerous false records so that state treasuries appeared empty while in reality they were being siphoned off. The people suffered increasingly under these policies. For each of the Six Markets, Wang Mang established detailed regulations and prohibitions; those who violated them faced capital punishment. Corrupt officials and cunning commoners exploited the system together, causing widespread unrest among the populace. Every time currency was changed, many lost their livelihoods or fell into legal trouble. Wang Mang executed people for privately casting coins and exiled others to distant frontiers for criticizing his "Bao Hua" (treasure goods) policy; those who broke these laws were too numerous to count. Eventually, he relaxed the punishments somewhat: individuals caught illegally minting coins or producing money cloths would be enslaved along with their families as state-owned servants. Officials and neighbors who knew of such crimes but failed to report them shared equal guilt. Those found criticizing "Bao Hua" policies received one year of forced labor; officials involved were dismissed from office. Despite this, violations continued to rise. Eventually, if five people were implicated in a case, all would be seized by the commanderies and states, shackled in iron chains inside prison carts, and transported to Chang'an's Zhongguan (Imperial Mint). Six or seven out of ten such prisoners died from grief and hardship along the way.
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匈奴侵寇甚，莽大募天下囚徒人奴，名曰猪突狶勇，壹切税吏民，訾三十而取一，又令公卿已下，至郡县黄绶吏，皆保养军马，吏尽，复以与民，民摇手触禁，不得耕桑，傜役烦剧，而枯旱蝗虫相因，又用制作未定，上自公侯，下至小吏，皆不得奉禄，而私赋敛，货赂上流，狱讼不决，吏用苛暴立威，旁缘莽禁，侵刻小民，富者不得自保，贫者无以自存，起为盗贼，依阻山泽，吏不能禽，而覆蔽之，浸淫日广，于是青，徐，荆，楚之地，往往万数，战鬬死亡，缘边四夷，所系虏，陷罪，饥疫人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。自发猪突狶勇，后四年，而汉兵诛莽。 |
| | The Xiongnu launched increasingly severe raids, so Wang Mang widely recruited convicts and slaves from across the land, calling them "Zhu Tu Xi Yong." Taxes were imposed on all officials and commoners, with one part taken from every thirty parts of assessed property. Officials at the level of Grand Minister down to county magistrates wearing yellow sashes were also ordered to raise and maintain warhorses. When these officials could no longer manage, they passed their responsibilities back onto the people. The populace was constantly violating regulations by merely moving their hands, unable to farm or plant mulberry trees for silk production. Corvée labor became increasingly burdensome. Droughts and locust plagues followed one after another. Meanwhile, new policies remained unsettled; from high-ranking nobles down to minor officials, no one received official salaries, so they resorted to private levies and bribery, which flowed upward. Legal disputes went unresolved as officials used harsh and brutal methods to assert authority, exploiting Wang Mang's decrees to oppress the common people. The wealthy could not protect themselves, while the poor had nothing left to survive on; many turned to banditry, hiding in mountains and marshes where local officials could not capture them or even concealed their existence. These disturbances spread day by day. In regions such as Qing, Xu, Jing, and Chu, groups of thousands formed, engaging in battles that caused deaths and destruction. Along the frontiers, among the four outer tribes, people were captured, imprisoned, or condemned to death; famine and disease led to cannibalism. Before Wang Mang was executed, the population had already been reduced by half. Four years after recruiting the "Zhu Tu Xi Yong," Han forces launched a campaign and executed Wang Mang.
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昔仲尼没而微言绝，七十子丧而大义乖，战国从横，真僞分争，诸子之言，纷然淆乱，至秦患之，乃焚灭文章，以愚黔首，汉兴，改秦之败，大收篇籍，广开献书之路，建藏书之策，置写书之官，书必同文，不知则阙，问诸故老，至于衰世，是非亡正，人用其私，古之学者耕且养，三年而通一艺，存其大体，玩经文而已，是故用日约少而蓄德多，三十而五经立也。后世经传既已乖离，博学者又不思多闻阙疑之义，而务碎义逃难，便辞巧说，破坏形体，说五字之文，至于二三万言，后进弥以驰逐，故幼童而守一艺，白首而后能言，以安其所习，毁所不见，终以自蔽，此学者之患也。 |
| | After Confucius passed away, profound and subtle teachings were lost. After the seventy disciples of Confucius died, the great principles became distorted. During the Warring States period, alliances and rivalries flourished, and true and false doctrines competed fiercely; the writings of various schools were chaotic and confused. The Qin dynasty was troubled by this situation and burned books to suppress learning in an attempt to keep the common people ignorant. When the Han dynasty rose to power, it corrected the failures of the Qin, collecting a vast number of texts, opening wide channels for submitting books, establishing policies for preserving literature, appointing officials responsible for copying manuscripts, ensuring that all written records used standardized characters, and leaving gaps in knowledge where uncertainty existed, consulting elders when necessary. In later times, however, standards collapsed; right and wrong lost their clarity, and people acted according to personal interests. Ancient scholars worked the land while studying, spending three years mastering one discipline, preserving its essential principles, and simply engaging with classical texts. Thus they achieved much moral cultivation in a short time—by age thirty, they had mastered all five classics. In later generations, the transmission of classical texts became distorted. Scholars with broad knowledge no longer considered the principle of seeking extensive learning while acknowledging uncertainties; instead, they focused on dissecting minor points and evading difficulties, using elaborate rhetoric and clever arguments to distort the original structure. Some interpretations of a single five-character passage could stretch into tens of thousands of words. Younger scholars followed this trend even more intensely. As a result, children were made to specialize in one discipline from an early age, only reaching fluency by old age. They clung rigidly to what they had learned and dismissed anything unfamiliar, ultimately limiting their own understanding. This became the great problem among scholars.
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儒家者流，盖出于司徒之官，助人君顺阴阳，明教化者也。游文于六经之中，留意于仁义之际，祖述尧舜，宪章文武，宗师仲尼，以重其言，于道最为高，然惑者既失精微，而辟者又随时抑扬，违离道本，苟以哗衆取宠，后进循之，是以五经乖析，儒学寝衰，此辟儒之患也。 |
| | The Confucian school of thought originated from the office of Siku, assisting the Son of Heaven in harmonizing yin and yang and clarifying moral instruction. They studied the Six Classics, paying close attention to the principles of benevolence and righteousness. They revered Yao and Shun as ancestors in thought, followed the regulations of King Wen and King Wu, and honored Confucius as their teacher, thereby giving weight to their teachings. Among all schools of thought, this was considered the highest. However, confused scholars failed to grasp its subtle essence, while others distorted it for personal gain, exaggerating or suppressing ideas at will and straying from the fundamental principles of the Way. They merely sought popularity by making loud proclamations. Later generations followed these flawed interpretations, leading to divisions in the Five Classics and a gradual decline in Confucian learning—this became the great problem with distorted Confucianism.
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道家者流，盖出于史官，历纪成败存亡祸福古今之道，秉要执本，清虚以自守，卑弱以自持，此君人南面者之术也。合于尧之克让，易之嗛嗛，一谦而四益，此其所长也。及放者为之，则欲绝去礼学，兼弃仁义。曰：独任清虚，可以为治。 |
| | The Daoist school of thought originated from the position of historian, recording patterns of success and failure, survival and destruction, blessings and misfortunes throughout history. They grasped essentials by holding to fundamentals, maintaining inner clarity and detachment while preserving themselves through humility and restraint—this was the method for those who ruled as sovereigns. This aligns with Yao's virtue of yielding and the modesty emphasized in the Yijing, where one act of humility brings four benefits. This is their greatest strength. But when extremists took this philosophy to extremes, they sought to completely abandon rites and learning, discarding benevolence and righteousness altogether. They claimed: "Only by relying on clarity and emptiness can governance be achieved."
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阴阳家者流，盖出于羲和之官，敬顺昊天，历象日月星辰，敬授民时，此其所长也。及拘者为之，则牵于禁忌，泥于小数，舍人事而任鬼神。 |
| | The school of Yin-Yang thought originated from the office of Xihe, who revered and followed the will of Heaven, observing the movements of the sun, moon, and stars to guide people in their seasonal activities. This was their greatest strength. But when rigid adherents took this philosophy, they became overly bound by taboos and fixated on minor calculations, abandoning human affairs in favor of reliance on ghosts and spirits.
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法家者流，盖出于理官，信赏必罚，以辅礼制，此其所长也。及刻者为之，则无教化，去仁爱，专任刑法，而欲以致治，至于残害至亲，伤恩薄厚。 |
| | The Legalist school originated from the office responsible for justice, emphasizing rewards based on trustworthiness and strict punishments to support ritual systems—this was their greatest strength. But when harsh adherents took this approach, they abandoned moral instruction and benevolence, relying solely on legal punishment to achieve good governance. This led to the harm of close relatives and the erosion of kindness and loyalty. {{"Originally written as 'yun,' later changed to 'wu'"
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名家者流，盖出于礼官，古者名位不同，礼亦异数。孔子曰：必也正名乎。此其所长也。及譥者为之，则苟鈎鈲析乱而已。 |
| | The school of Logicians originated from the office in charge of rites. In ancient times, different ranks and titles were associated with distinct ritual practices. Confucius said: "It is essential to correct names." This was their greatest strength. But when those who took this philosophy to an extreme, they merely engaged in trivial arguments and semantic disputes, causing confusion and disorder.
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墨家者流，盖出于清庙之守，茅屋采椽，是以贵俭，养三老五更，是以兼爱，选士大射，是以上贤，宗祀严父，是以右鬼，顺四时而行，是以非命，以孝视天下，是以上同，言皆同可以治，此其所长也。及蔽者为之，见俭之利，因以非礼乐，推兼爱之意，而不知别亲疏。 |
| | The Mohist school originated from those who guarded the ancestral temples. They lived in simple huts with rough wooden beams, valuing frugality; they honored the Three Elders and Five More-Elders (a system of elder respect), thus advocating universal love; they selected officials through archery contests, thereby promoting meritocracy; they revered ancestors and strict fatherhood, hence believing in honoring ghosts. They followed the four seasons in their actions and thus rejected fatalism, But when biased adherents took this philosophy to extremes, seeing only the benefits of frugality, they rejected rites and music. They promoted universal love but failed to understand distinctions between close and distant relationships.
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从横家者流，盖出于行人之官。孔子曰：使乎使乎。言当权事制宜，受命而不受辞，此其所长也。及邪人为之，则上诈谖而弃其信。 |
| | The school of Diplomats originated from the office of envoys. Confucius said: "What a mission! What an envoy!" They emphasized adapting to circumstances and making decisions based on power and strategy, accepting orders but not fixed words—this was their greatest strength. But when wicked individuals took this approach, they valued deception and flattery while abandoning trustworthiness.
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杂家者流，盖出于议官，兼儒墨，合名法，知国体之有此，见王治之无不贯，此其所长也。及荡者为之，则漫羡而无所归心。 |
| | The Eclectic school originated from the office of deliberative officials. They combined Confucian and Mohist ideas, integrating logic and legalism; they understood that a state required such diversity and recognized that effective governance must be comprehensive—this was their greatest strength. But when reckless individuals took this philosophy, they became aimless and lacked a central focus or guiding principle.
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农家者流，盖出于农稷之官，播百谷，劝耕桑，以足衣食。故孔子曰：所重民食，此其所长也。及鄙者为之，以为无所事圣王，欲使君臣并耕，悖上下之序。 |
| | The Agrarian school originated from the officials in charge of agriculture and grain, responsible for sowing various grains and encouraging farming and sericulture to ensure sufficient clothing and food. Therefore, Confucius said: "What is most important is the people's sustenance." This was their greatest strength. But when narrow-minded individuals took this philosophy to extremes, they believed that there was no need for sage kings and wished for both rulers and subjects to till the land together—this contradicted the natural order of hierarchy.
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