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漢天子正號曰「皇帝」，自稱曰「朕」，臣民稱之曰「陛下」，其言曰「制詔」，史官記事曰「上」。車馬、衣服、器械百物曰「乘輿」，所在曰「行在所」，所居曰「禁中」，後曰「省中」。印曰「璽」，所至曰「幸」，所進曰「御」。其命令一曰「策書」，二曰「制書」，三曰「詔書」，四曰「戒書」。 |
| | The Han emperor's official title was "Huangdi," he referred to himself as "Zhen," his subjects addressed him as "Baxia," his orders were called "zhizhao," and in historical records, the emperor is referred to as "Shang." Carriages, horses, clothing, and all kinds of tools and objects were called "Chenyu," the location where he was present was referred to as "Xingzaisuo," his residence was known as "Jinzhong," and the rear palace area was termed "Shengzhong." Seals were called "Xi," wherever he went was referred to as "Xing," and whatever was presented to him was termed "Yu." His imperial commands were categorized as follows: first, "Ceshu"; second, "Zhishu"; third, "Zhaoshu"; and fourth, "Jieshu."
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皇帝、皇、王后、帝皆君也。上古天子庖犧氏、神農氏稱皇。堯、舜稱帝。夏、殷、周稱王。秦承周末為漢驅除，自以德兼三皇，功包五帝，故并以為號。漢高祖受命，功德宜之，因而不改也。 |
| | The emperor, Huang, Wanghou, and Di were all rulers. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven Paoxi Shi and Shennong Shi were called "Huang." Yao and Shun were referred to as "Di." The Xia, Yin, and Zhou dynasties used the title "Wang." The Qin dynasty succeeded the end of the Zhou and was responsible for driving out its remnants. It considered itself to have virtue surpassing that of the Three Huangs and achievements encompassing those of the Five Dis, so it combined these titles into one designation. Emperor Gaozu of Han received his mandate; his virtue and achievements were worthy of this title, so he continued it without change.
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王者至尊，四號之別名。 |
| | "Wang" is the supreme ruler, a different name for these four titles.
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王，畿內之所稱，王有天下，故稱王。 |
| | "Wang" was the title used within the royal domains; since the Son of Heaven ruled over all under heaven, he was called "Wang."
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天王，諸夏之所稱，天下之所歸往，故稱天王。 |
| | "Heavenly Wang" (Tianwang) was a title used by the various Chinese states; since all under heaven looked to him as their leader, he was called "Heavenly Wang."
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天子，夷狄之所稱，父天，母地，故稱天子。 |
| | "The Son of Heaven" (Tianzi) was a title used by non-Chinese peoples; since he regarded heaven as his father and earth as his mother, he was called "Son of Heaven."
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天家，百官小吏之所稱，天子無外，以天下為家，故稱天家。 |
| | "The Heavenly Family" (Tianjia) was a term used by officials and minor clerks; since the Son of Heaven had no external boundaries and regarded all under heaven as his home, he was called "Heavenly Family."
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天子，正號之別名。 |
| | "The Son of Heaven" is an alternative name for the official title.
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皇帝，至尊之稱。皇者，煌也，盛德煌煌，無所不照。帝者，諦也。能行天道，事天審諦，故稱皇帝。 |
| | "Huangdi," the supreme title of honor. The term "Huang" means brilliance; it signifies that virtuous achievements are radiant and illuminate everything without exception. "The term 'Di' means certainty." One who can carry out the will of heaven, and who reverently and carefully serves heaven, is thus called "Huangdi."
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朕，我也。古者尊卑共之，貴賤不嫌，則可同號之義也。堯曰朕，在位七十載。皋陶與帝舜言曰「朕言惠可底行」。屈原曰「朕皇考」，此其義也。至秦，天子獨以為稱，漢因而不改也。 |
| | "Zhen" means "I." In ancient times, people of all ranks and statuses used it together; there was no distinction between the noble and the lowly, so this term could be shared by all. Yao referred to himself as "Zhen" and reigned for seventy years. Gao Tao said to Emperor Shun, "My words are kind and can be put into practice." lodash Qu Yuan said, "Zhen Huangkao," which is the meaning of this term. By the Qin dynasty, only the Son of Heaven used it as his personal designation; the Han dynasty followed suit and did not change it.
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陛下者，陛階也，所由升堂也。天子必有近臣，執兵陳于陛側以戒不虞。謂之陛下者，群臣與天子言，不敢指斥天子，故呼在陛下者而告之。因卑達尊之意也。上書亦如之。及群臣士庶相與言曰殿下、閤下、、、執事之屬皆此類也。 |
| | "Baxia" refers to the steps leading up to the throne, the path by which one ascends to the hall. The Son of Heaven must have close attendants who hold weapons and stand on either side of the steps as a precaution against unexpected events. The term "Baxia" is used because when officials address the Son of Heaven, they dare not directly mention him; instead, they call out to those standing at his feet and convey their message through them. This reflects the meaning of expressing respect for a superior by addressing someone of lower rank on his behalf. The same applies to written memorials submitted to the throne. When officials, scholars, and commoners address each other, terms such as "Diexia," "Gexia," and "Zhishi" are also of this type.
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上者，尊位所在也。太史令司馬遷記事，當言帝則依違但言上，不敢渫瀆言尊號，尊王之義也。 |
| | "Shang" refers to the location of a position of honor or authority. When Tai Shi Ling Sima Qian recorded events, if he was supposed to mention the emperor, he would be hesitant and only say "Shang," for he dared not recklessly or disrespectfully use the title of respect; this was in accordance with the meaning of honoring the Son of Heaven.
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乘輿出于律。律曰「敢盜乘輿、服御物。」謂天子所服食者也。天子至尊，不敢渫瀆言之，故託之于乘輿。乘、猶載也，輿、猶車也。天子以天下為家，不以京師宮室為常處，則當乘車輿以行天下，故群臣託乘輿以言之。或謂之車駕。 |
| | The term "Chenyu" originates from legal statutes. The law states, "Anyone who dares to steal items of the imperial use or clothing and objects used by the Son of Heaven." This refers to what the Son of Heaven wears and consumes. The Son of Heaven is supreme; one dares not recklessly or disrespectfully mention him directly, so the reference is made through "Chenyu." "Cheng," means to carry, and "Yu," means a carriage. The Son of Heaven regards all under heaven as his home and does not consider the capital city or palace as a permanent residence; therefore, he should travel throughout the world in carriages. Hence, officials refer to him indirectly by using "Chenyu." It is also sometimes called "Chejia."
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天子自謂曰行在所，猶言今雖在京師、行所至耳。巡狩天下，所奏事處皆為宮。在京師曰奏長安宮，在泰山則曰奏奉高宮。唯當時所在，或曰朝廷，亦依違尊者所都，連舉朝廷以言之也。親近侍從官稱曰大家；百官小吏，稱曰天家。 |
| | The Son of Heaven refers to himself as being at the "Xingzaisuo," meaning that although he is currently in the capital, it is merely where his travels have brought him. When touring and inspecting all under heaven, wherever he receives reports of affairs becomes a palace. If in the capital city, it is called "Zou Chang'an Gong"; if on Mount Tai, it is referred to as "Zou Fenggao Gong." Only the location at that time was considered; sometimes it is called "Chaoting," which also indirectly refers to where the Son of Heaven resides, and mentions "Chaoting" together in speech. Close attendants and officials refer to the emperor as "Dajia"; Lower-ranking officials and minor clerks call him "Tianjia."
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禁中者，門戶有禁，非侍御者不得入，故曰禁中。孝元皇后父大司馬陽平侯名禁，當時避之，故曰省中。今宜改，後遂無言之者。 |
| | "Jinzhong" refers to the inner palace where access is restricted; only those in attendance or service are allowed entry, hence it is called "Jinzhong." The father of Empress Xiaoyuan was Daisima Yangping Hou, whose name was "Jin"; to avoid using the character for his name at that time, it was instead called "Shengzhong." It should now be changed; later on, no one continued to use this term.
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璽者，印也，印者，信也。天子璽以玉螭虎紐。古者尊卑共之。《月令》曰：「固封璽。」《春秋左氏傳》曰：「魯襄公在楚，季武子使公冶問，璽書追而與之。」此諸侯大夫印稱璽者也。衛宏曰：「秦以前，民皆以金玉為印，龍虎紐、唯其所好，然則秦以來天子獨以印稱璽，又獨以玉，群臣莫敢用也。」 |
| | "Xi" means a seal; a "Yin," is a symbol of trust and authority. The Son of Heaven's Xi was made with a dragon-tiger shaped clasp in jade. In ancient times, this term was used by people of all ranks and social standings. The "Yueling" says: "Seal the Xi securely." "The Zuo Zhuan Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals" says: "When Duke Xiang of Lu was in Chu, Ji Wuzi sent Gong Ye to inquire, and a sealed letter with Xi was sent after him and given to him." This is an example of feudal lords and high-ranking officials referring to their seals as "Xi." Wei Hong said: "Before the Qin dynasty, common people all used gold and jade for their seals; they could have dragon or tiger clasps according to their personal preference. However, since the Qin dynasty, only the emperor's seal was called 'Xi,' and it was made exclusively of jade; no officials dared to use such a designation."
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幸者，宜幸也，世俗謂幸為僥倖。車駕所至，臣民被其德澤以僥倖，故曰幸也。先帝故事，所至見長吏三老官屬，親臨軒，作樂，賜食皁帛越巾刀珮帶，民爵有級數，或賜田租之半，是故謂之幸，皆非其所當得而得之。王仲任曰：「君子無幸而有不幸，小人有幸而無不幸。」《春秋傳》曰：「民之多幸，國之不幸也。」言民之得所不當得，故謂之幸。然則人主必慎所幸也。御者，進也，凡衣服加于身、飲食入于口、妃妾接于寢，皆曰御。親愛者皆曰幸。 |
| | "Xing" means "to be favored," but in common usage, people refer to it as "jiao xing," meaning an undeserved favor or good fortune. Wherever the Son of Heaven travels, his subjects receive his virtue and blessings as an undeserved favor; thus it is called "Xing." According to the precedents of former emperors, wherever he went, he would meet with senior officials, elders, and other local authorities. He would personally visit them in their carriages, hold musical performances, bestow food, black silk, towels, knives, pendants, sashes, and grant people ranks of nobility according to certain levels; sometimes even half the land tax was given as a gift. This is why it was called "Xing"—all these things were not what they deserved but which they received anyway. Wang Zhongren said: "A gentleman has no undeserved good fortune, yet may suffer misfortune; a petty person may have undeserved good fortune but never suffers misfortune." The "Zuo Zhuan" says: "When the people receive much undeserved favor, it is an ill omen for the state." This means that when the people obtain what they are not entitled to, it is called "Xing." Therefore, a ruler must be cautious about where he bestows his undeserved favors. "Yu" means to present or offer; anything that is put on the body, consumed by mouth, or received in bed with concubines is referred to as "Yu." Those who are loved and favored are all called "Xing."
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策書，策者，簡也。《禮》曰：「不滿百丈，不書于策。」其制長二尺，短者半之，其次一長一短，兩編下坿篆書，起年月日，稱皇帝曰，以命諸侯王三公，其諸侯王三公之薨于位者，亦以策書誄謚其行而賜之，如諸侯之策。三公以罪免，亦賜策文，體如上策，而隸書以尺，一木兩行，唯此為異者也。 |
| | Ceshu: "Ce" means bamboo slips. The "Li" says: "If a matter is not over one hundred zhang in length, it should not be recorded on bamboo slips." The regulation stipulates that the slips should be two chi long; shorter ones are half this length. The next level consists of one long and one short slip, with two bound together at the bottom marked in seal script. It begins with the date and month, addresses the emperor as "Yue," and is used to issue commands to feudal kings and the Three Dongs. When a feudal king or a member of the Three Dongs dies while holding office, it is also used on bamboo slips to eulogize their deeds and bestow posthumous names upon them in the same manner as for feudal lords. When a member of the Three Dongs was dismissed due to crimes, he too would be granted a written decree. The format resembled that of an imperial edict, but it was written in clerical script on slips one chi long, with two lines inscribed on a single piece of wood; this is the only difference.
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制書、帝者制度之命也，其文曰制詔。三公赦令、贖令之屬是也。刺史太守相劾奏申下上遷書文亦如之，其徵為九卿，若遷京師，近臣則言官具言姓名，其免若得罪無姓。凡制書有印使符下，遠近皆璽封，尚書令印重封，唯赦令、贖令召三公詣朝堂受制書，司徒印封露布下州郡。 |
| | "Zhishu"—the imperial command concerning regulations and systems—its wording was called "Zhaizhao." This includes decrees issued by the Three Dongs, such as pardons or redemption orders. When cishi, tai shou, or other officials submitted reports of mutual accusations and recommendations for promotion or demotion, the wording followed this format. When appointing someone to a position among the Nine Qings or transferring them to the capital as an inner court official, the document would specifically mention their name; however, if they were dismissed or punished, it did not include their surname. All imperial decrees were sealed with a stamp and sent by officials carrying tokens; they were all sealed with the emperor's Xi, regardless of distance. The decree was doubly sealed with the seal of the Shangshu Ling. Only pardon orders and redemption orders summoned the Three Dongs to receive the decree in person at the court hall, while the order for the Siku would be unsealed and sent directly to the states and commanderies.
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詔書者，詔誥也，有三品。其文曰：告某官，官如故事，是為詔書。群臣有所奏請，尚書令奏之，下有制曰：天子荅之曰「可」。若下某官云云亦曰昭書。群臣有所奏請，無尚書令奏制字，則荅曰「已奏」，如書本官下所當至，亦曰詔。 |
| | "Zhaoshu," means an imperial decree or edict, which was divided into three categories. Its wording would be: "Announcing to a certain official," and the appointment followed established precedents; this is called a Zhaoshu. When officials submitted memorials, the Shangshu Ling would present them to the Son of Heaven; if a decree was issued in response saying "Ke," it meant that the emperor had approved. If an order was then sent down to a certain official with such wording, it too was called a Zhaoshu (or "Zhao Shu"). When officials submitted requests and the Shangshu Ling did not present a decree, the response would be "Yi Zou," meaning it had already been reported. If such an order was sent directly to the official concerned according to protocol, it too was referred to as a "Zhao."
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戒書、戒敕刺史太守及三邊營官，被敕文曰有詔敕某官，是為戒敕也。世皆名此為策書，失之遠矣。 |
| | "Jieshu"—imperial warnings issued to cishi, tai shou and officials stationed at the three frontiers—when an official received a decree stating "there is an imperial order for Official A," it was called a Jiechi. The world commonly refers to this as Ceshu, which is greatly mistaken.
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凡群臣上書于天子者有四名：一曰章，二曰奏，三曰表，四曰駮議。 |
| | All memorials submitted by officials to the Son of Heaven were categorized into four types: first, "Zhang"; second, "Zou"; third, "Biao"; and fourth, "Boyi."
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章者，需頭，稱稽首上書謝恩、陳事詣闕通者也。 |
| | "Zhang"—a document with a heading that expressed prostration in submission to thank the emperor for his grace, report matters, and request an audience at court.
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奏者，亦需頭，其京師官但言稽首，下言稽首以聞，其中有所請若罪法劾案公府，送御史臺；公卿校尉，送謁者臺也。 |
| | "Zou"—also with a heading—officials in the capital would merely state "prostration," while those from outside would say "prostration to be heard." If there were requests or accusations concerning legal matters submitted by public offices, they were sent to the Yushi Tai (Office of Censors). Ministers and generals would submit their memorials through the Ye Zhe Tai.
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表者，不需頭，上言臣某言，下言臣某誠惶誠恐，頓首頓首，死罪死罪。左方下坿曰某官臣某甲上，文多用編兩行，文少以五行，詣尚書通者也。公卿校尉諸將不言姓，大夫以下有同姓官別者言姓，章曰報聞，公卿使謁者將大夫以下至吏民尚書左丞奏聞報可，表文報已奏如書。凡章表皆啟封，其言密事，得皁囊盛。其有疑事，公卿百官會議，若臺閣有所正處而獨執異意者曰駮議。駮議曰某官某甲議以為如是，下言臣愚戇議異，其非駮議，不言議異，其合于上意者，文報曰某官某甲議可。 |
| | "Biao"—did not require a heading; it began with "Minister A reports," and ended with "Minister A, in great fear and trepidation, bows his head repeatedly, at the risk of death." On the left side at the bottom, it was written as "Minister A of a certain office respectfully submits," and the text was usually arranged in two lines; if there were fewer words, five lines were used. This type of document was submitted to the Shangshu for processing. Ministers, generals, and other high-ranking officials did not include their surnames in the documents; however, those of lower ranks such as 大夫 (Da Fu) who shared a surname with others included it for distinction. For "Zhang," the response was "Bao Wen." Ministers would send 謁者 (Ye Zhe) to deliver memorials from officials and commoners through the Shangshu Zuo Cheng, who would report them and receive approval. As for "Biao" documents, a reply of "Bao Yi Zou Ru Shu" was given, meaning it had been submitted as recorded. All "Zhang" and "Biao" documents were sealed; if they contained confidential matters, they would be placed in a black silk pouch. If there were doubtful matters to be discussed, the ministers and officials would hold a meeting; if someone in the Tai Ge (central government) held an opposing view despite the official decision, it was called "Boyi." In a "Boyi," it would read: "Minister A believes that such-and-such is the case." At the end, it stated, "I humbly submit my foolish and blunt opinion in opposition." If it was not a "Boyi," there would be no mention of an opposing view. When the opinion aligned with imperial intent, the response document read: "Minister A's suggestion has been approved."
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漢承秦法，群臣上書皆言昧死言，王莽盜位，慕古法，去昧死，曰稽首。光武因而不改，朝臣曰稽首頓首，非朝臣曰稽首再拜，公卿、侍中、尚書衣帛而朝曰朝臣，諸營校尉將大夫以下亦為朝臣。 |
| | The Han dynasty inherited the Qin legal system, and officials submitting memorials would all say "Mi Si Yan" (I dare to speak despite my death). Wang Mang usurped power and admired ancient customs; he abolished "Mi Si" and used instead "Ji Shou." Emperor Guangwu followed this practice without change. Officials in court would say "Ji Shou Dun Shou," while those not in the court said "Ji Shou Zai Bai." Ministers, Shizhong, and Shangshu who wore silk to attend court were called Chaochen; military officers such as Xiao Wei, generals,大夫 (Da Fu), and officials of lower ranks were also considered Chaochen.
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王者臨撫之別名。天子曰兆民，諸侯曰萬民，百乘之家曰百姓。 |
| | "Wang" is an alternative term for the ruler's presence and governance. The Son of Heaven referred to his subjects as "Zhaomin," feudal lords called them "Wanmin," and families with a hundred chariots called them "Bai Xing."
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天子所都曰京師，京、水也，地下之眾者莫過于水，地上之眾者莫過于人，京、大，師、眾也，故曰京師也。 |
| | The capital city of the Son of Heaven was called "Jingshi." The term "Jing" means water, and nothing underground is more numerous than water; nothing above ground is more numerous than people. "Jing" also means great or large, while "Shi" means multitude—hence it is called "Jingshi."
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京師、天子之畿內千里，象日月，日月躔次千里。 |
| | The Jingshi—the Son of Heaven's royal domain within a thousand li—symbolized the sun and moon, as their orbital paths covered a distance of a thousand li.
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天子命令之別名，一曰命，二曰令，三曰政。 |
| | Alternative names for imperial decrees: first, "Ming"; second, "Ling"; third, "Zheng."
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天子父事天，母事地，兄事日，姊事月，常以春分朝日于東門之外，示有所尊，訓人民事君之道也。秋夕朝月于西門之外，別陰陽之義也。 |
| | The Son of Heaven regarded heaven as his father, earth as his mother, the sun as his elder brother, and the moon as his elder sister. He would regularly worship the sun on the vernal equinox outside the eastern gate to demonstrate reverence for these forces; this served as a lesson in how people should serve their ruler. On autumn evenings, he would worship the moon outside the western gate to distinguish the principles of yin and yang.
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天子父事三老者，適成于天地人也。兄事五更者，訓于五品也。更者，長也，更相代至五也。能以善道改更己也。又三老，老謂久也、舊也、壽也，皆取首妻男女完具者，古者天子親袒割牲，執醬而饋，三公設几，九卿正履，使者安車輭輪送迎而至其家，天子獨拜于屏，其明旦三老詣闕謝，以其禮過厚故也。又五更或為叟，叟、老稱，與三老同義也。 |
| | The Son of Heaven regarded the Three Elders as his father figures, thus completing harmony with heaven, earth, and humanity. He regarded the Five Sages as elder brothers to instruct the five ranks of officials. "Geng" means "elder," and it signifies that they succeed one another up to the fifth generation. It means being able to improve oneself through virtuous teachings. The Three Elders—"Lao" means long-standing, traditional, and longevity. They were selected from those whose first marriages had produced both sons and daughters. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven personally uncovered his upper body to slaughter an animal for sacrifice, held sauce in hand to serve them. The three dukes set up a mat for seating, the nine ministers adjusted their shoes properly, envoys arrived with soft-wheeled carriages to escort them home. The emperor alone bowed before the screen. On the following morning, the Three Elders would visit the palace gate to express gratitude, because the honor shown was excessive. The Five Sages were sometimes called "Sou," which is an honorific for elders and shares the same meaning as the Three Elders.
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三代建正之別名：夏以十三月為正，十寸為尺。律中大蔟，言萬物始蔟而生，故以為正也。 |
| | Alternative names for establishing the calendar in the three dynasties: The Xia dynasty used the thirteenth month as the first month of the year, and ten cun made one chi. The pitch pipe "Da Cu" was in tune; it signified that all things began to sprout and grow, hence it was used as the basis for the calendar.
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殷以十二月為正，九寸為尺，律中大呂，言陰氣大勝，助黃鍾宣氣而萬物生，故以為正也。 |
| | The Yin dynasty used the twelfth month as the first month, and nine cun made one chi; the pitch pipe "Da Lu" was in tune. It signified that yin energy had greatly prevailed, assisting Huangzhong to spread vital breath so that all things could grow—hence it was taken as the basis for the calendar.
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周以十一月為正，八寸為尺，律中黃鍾，言陽氣踵黃泉而出，故以為正也。 |
| | The Zhou dynasty used the eleventh month as the first month, and eight cun made one chi; the pitch pipe "Huangzhong" was in tune. It signified that yang energy emerged from the yellow springs, hence it was taken as the basis for the calendar year.
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三代年歲之別名：唐虞曰載，載、歲也，言一歲莫不覆載，故曰載也。夏曰歲，一曰稔也。商曰祀，周曰年。 |
| | Alternative names for years in the three dynasties: In the Tang and Yu periods, a year was called "Zai," which means "year." It signified that nothing within one year is not covered or supported—hence it was called Zai. In the Xia dynasty, a year was referred to as "Sui," also known as "Ren." The Shang dynasty called it "Si," and the Zhou dynasty called it "Nian."
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閏月者，所以補小月之減日，以正歲數，故三年一閏，五年再閏。 |
| | An intercalary month was added to compensate for the days lost in a small month, thus correcting the annual count. Therefore, one intercalary month occurred every three years and two intercalary months every five years.
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天子諸侯后妃夫人之別名：天子之紀曰后，后之言後也。諸侯之妃曰夫人，夫之言扶也。大夫曰孺人，孺之言屬也。士曰婦人，婦之言服也。庶人曰妻，妻之言齊也。公侯有夫人、有世婦、有妻、有妾。皇后赤綬玉璽，貴人緺綟金印，緺綟色似綠。 |
| | Alternative titles for the emperors, feudal lords, consorts, and ladies: The principal wife of the Son of Heaven was known as "Hou," which means "lady." The consort of a feudal lord was called "Furen," where "Fu" signifies support. A wife of an official (Da Fu) was called "Ruren," with "Ru" meaning belonging or being part of a family. The wife of a scholar-official (Shi) was referred to as "Funv," where "Fu" signifies obedience and submission. A commoner's wife was called "Qi," with "Qi" meaning equality or being on equal footing. Dukes and marquises had a Furen (consort), Shifu (female attendants of the next rank), Qi (wife), and Qie (concubine). The Empress wore a red tassel with a jade seal, while the Guiren (a high-ranking lady-in-waiting) wore a greenish-blue tassel and a gold seal; the color of the "Guanchi" was similar to green.
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天子后立六宮之別名：三夫人、帝嚳有四妃以象后妃四星，其一明者為正妃，三者為次妃也。九嬪、夏后氏增以三三而九，合十二人。春秋天子一取十二，夏制也。二十七世婦，殷人又增三九二十七，合三十九人。八十一御女，周人上法帝嚳正妃，又九九為八十一，增之合百二十人也。天子一取十二女，象十二月，三夫人、九嬪。諸侯一取九女，象九州，一妻、八妾。卿大夫一妻、二妾，士一妻、一妾。 |
| | Alternative titles for the six palaces of the Son of Heaven's consort: Three Furen. Emperor Ku had four consorts to symbolize the Four Stars of the Empress and her attendants; one was bright, representing the principal consort, while the other three were secondary consorts. Nine Pin (a rank of concubine): The Xiahoushi dynasty added three more to each group, making a total of nine, together with the previous ranks totaling twelve women. In spring and autumn, the Son of Heaven took one from each of twelve groups—this was the system of the Xia dynasty. Twenty-seven Shifu: The Yin people added another three times nine, totaling twenty-seven, making a combined total of thirty-nine women. Eighty-one Yuniu (attendants or concubines): The Zhou people followed the example of Emperor Ku's principal consort and added nine times nine, making eighty-one more, bringing the total to one hundred and twenty women. The Son of Heaven would take twelve women at a time, symbolizing the twelve months; three Furen and nine Pin were among them. A feudal lord took nine women at one time, representing the Nine Provinces: one wife and eight concubines. Ministers and officials had one wife and two concubines; scholars-officials (Shi) had one wife and one concubine.
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王者子女封邑之差：帝之女曰公主，儀比諸侯；帝之姊妹曰長公主，儀比諸侯王；異姓婦女以恩澤封者曰君，比長公主。 |
| | The differences in fiefs granted to the children of a ruler: The daughter of an emperor was called "Gongzhu," and her ceremonial status was equal to that of feudal lords; The emperor's sisters were called "Zhanggongzhu," with ceremonial rank equivalent to kings among the feudal lords; Women of non-royal families who received fiefs out of imperial favor were called "Jun," and their status was comparable to that of a Zhanggongzhu.
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天子諸侯宗廟之別名：左宗廟，東曰左，帝牲牢三月，在外牢一月，在中牢一月，在明牢一月，謂近明堂也。三月一時已足肥矣，徙之三月，示其潔也。右社稷，西曰右，宗廟、社稷皆在庫門之內、雉門之外，天子三昭三穆與太祖之廟七，七廟一壇一墠，曰考廟、、皇考廟、顯考廟、祖考廟，皆月祭之。諸侯二昭二穆與太祖之廟五。五廟一壇一墠，曰考廟、王考廟、皇考廟，皆月祭之。 |
| | Alternative names for the ancestral temples of the Son of Heaven and feudal lords: The left temple. "Left" means east; sacrificial animals were kept in confinement for three months— one month in the outer pen, one month in the middle pen, and one month in the Ming pen, which was near the Mingtang (Hall of Illumination). Three months is sufficient for a season to fatten an animal; moving it through three pens over the course of three months demonstrated its purity. The right side housed the altars for Sheji (land and grain gods). "Right" means west. Both the ancestral temple and the Sheji altar were located inside the Kumen gate but outside the Zhimen gate. The Son of Heaven had three temples for his descendants ("Zhao") and three for his ancestors ("Mu"), plus one for the Taizu (the founding ancestor), totaling seven temples. These seven temples included one altar and one courtyard, known as the "Kao Miao," "Huangkao Miao," "Xiankao Miao," and "Zukao Miao." Monthly sacrifices were made to all of them. Feudal lords had two temples for descendants ("Zhao"), two for ancestors ("Mu"), and one for the Taizu, totaling five ancestral temples. The five temples included one altar and one sacrificial courtyard; they were called the "Kao Miao," "Wangkao Miao," and "Huangkao Miao." Monthly sacrifices were made to them as well.
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大夫以下廟之別名：大夫一昭一穆與太祖之廟三，三廟一壇，考廟、王考廟、四時祭之也。士一廟，降大夫二也。上士二廟一壇，考廟、王考廟，亦四時祭之而已。自立二祀曰門曰行。下士、一廟曰考廟，王考無廟而祭之，所謂祖稱曰廟者也，亦立二祀，與上士同。府史以下未有爵命，號為庶人，及庶人皆無廟，四時祭于寢也。 |
| | Alternative names for ancestral temples of officials and below: Officials (Da Fu) had one temple for descendants ("Zhao"), one for ancestors ("Mu"), and one for the Taizu—totaling three temples. These included one altar, with the "Kao Miao" and "Wangkao Miao," to which sacrifices were made four times a year. A scholar-official (Shi) had only one ancestral temple, two ranks lower than that of an official (Da Fu). An "Shangshi" (high-ranking scholar-official) had two ancestral temples and one altar: the Kao Miao and Wangkao Miao, to which sacrifices were also made four times a year. That was all. Those who established their own two minor shrines worshipped the "Men" (door god) and the "Xing" (way or path deity). A Xishi (lower-ranking scholar-official) had one ancestral temple called the Kao Miao; there was no separate temple for his grandfather, but he still made sacrifices to him. This is what is meant by "Zu" being referred to as a "Miao." He also established two minor shrines, just like an Shangshi. Officials below the rank of Fu Shi who had not received a title or official appointment were called "Shuren." Commoners and Shuren alike did not have ancestral temples; they made their four seasonal sacrifices in the sleeping quarters.
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周祧文武為祧，四時祭之而已。去祧為壇，去壇為墠，有禱焉，祭之；無禱乃止。去墠曰鬼，壇謂築土起堂，墠謂築土而無屋者也。 |
| | The Zhou dynasty enshrined King Wen and King Wu as "Tiao," to whom sacrifices were offered four times a year, that was all. When the enshrinement in Tiao was removed, it became an altar; when the altar was removed, it became a sacrificial courtyard. If there were prayers or offerings, sacrifices would be made there. If no prayers were offered, then the sacrifice ceased. When a sacrificial courtyard was abandoned, it became associated with "Gui" (spirits or ghosts). A "Tan" refers to an earthen platform built for a hall; a "Shan," by contrast, is an earthen structure without a roof.
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薦考妣于適寢之所，祭春薦韭卵，夏薦麥魚，秋薦黍豚，冬薦稻雁，制無常牲，取與新物相宜而已。 |
| | The place where offerings to one's deceased parents were made in the main sleeping quarters was called "Jian." In spring, leeks and duck eggs were offered; in summer, wheat and fish; in autumn, millet and piglets; in winter, rice and geese. There was no fixed type of sacrificial animal—the choice simply depended on what best matched the season's fresh produce.
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天子之宗社曰泰社，天子所為群姓立社也。天子之社曰王社，一曰帝社。古者有命將行師，必于此社授以政。《尚書》曰：「用命賞于祖，不用命戮于社。」 |
| | The ancestral and land altar of the Son of Heaven was called "Taishen," which was established by the emperor for all his subjects. The Son of Heaven's Sheji (land and grain altar) was also known as Wangshe, or alternatively, Dishi. In ancient times, when a general was commissioned to lead an army, he would necessarily receive his orders at this altar. The "Shangshu" states: "Those who obey commands are rewarded before the ancestral shrine; those who disobey are punished at the altar of land and grain."
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諸侯為百姓立社曰國社，諸侯之社曰侯社。 |
| | A feudal lord established a Sheji for his subjects, which was called "Guoshe"; the Sheji belonging to the feudal lord himself was known as "Hushe."
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亡國之社：古者天子亦取亡國之社以分諸侯，使為社以自儆戒，屋之掩其上使不通天，柴其下使不通地，自與天地絕也，面北向陰，示滅亡也。 |
| | The Sheji of a fallen state: In ancient times, the Son of Heaven also took the Sheji from a fallen kingdom and distributed them among feudal lords to serve as their own altars for self-warning. The top was covered with a roof so that it did not connect with heaven; the base was surrounded by firewood so that it did not reach the earth—thus severing its connection with both heaven and earth. It faced north toward darkness, symbolizing destruction and downfall.
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大夫以下成群立社曰置社，大夫不得特立社，與民族居，百姓以上則共一社，今之里社是也。天子社稷土壇方廣五丈，諸侯半之。 |
| | Officials of lower ranks (Da Fu and below) who formed a community established an altar, called "Zhishe." Officials were not allowed to establish their own independent Sheji; they shared altars with the local people. Those above the rank of commoners shared one Sheji—this is what today's neighborhood Sheji represents. The square earthen altar for the Son of Heaven's Sheji measured five zhang in length and width; feudal lords' altars were half that size.
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天子社稷皆太牢，諸侯社稷皆少牢。 |
| | The sacrifices at the Son of Heaven's Sheji all used "tai lao" (three animals: ox, sheep, and pig), while those at feudal lords' Sheji used only "shao lao" (two animals: sheep and pig).
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天子為群姓立七祀之別名：曰司命、曰中霤、曰國行、曰國門、曰泰厲、曰戶、曰竈。 |
| | Alternative names for the seven minor shrines established by the Son of Heaven for his subjects: "Siming," "Zhongliu," "Guoxing," "Guomen," "Taili," "Hu," and "Zao."
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諸侯為國立五祀之別名：曰司命、曰中霤、曰國門、曰國行、曰公厲。 |
| | Alternative names for the five minor shrines established by feudal lords for their states: "Siming," "Zhongliu," "Guomen," "Guoxing," and "Gongli."
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大夫以下自立三祀之別名：曰族厲、曰門、曰行。 |
| | Alternative names for the three minor shrines established independently by officials of lower ranks: "Zuli," "Men," and "Xing."
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五祀之別名：門秋為少陰，其氣收成，祀之于門。祀門之禮，北面設主于門左樞。戶春為少陽，其氣始出生養，祀之于戶。祀戶之禮，南面設主于門內之西行。冬為太陰，盛寒為水，祀之于行，在廟門外之西，拔壤厚二尺、廣五尺、輪四尺，北面設主于拔上。竈夏為太陽，其氣長養，祀之于竈。祀竈之禮，在廟門外之東，先帝于門奧西東，設主于竈陘也。中霤：季夏之月土氣始盛，其祀中霤，霤神在室，祀中霤，設主于牖下也。 |
| | Alternative names for the Five Shrines: The gate, associated with autumn as a time of minor yin energy, when the qi (vital force) is gathered and harvested—sacrifices were made at the gate. The ritual for sacrificing to the gate deity involved placing an altar on the left hinge of the gate, facing north. The household door was associated with spring as a time of minor yang energy, when qi begins to emerge and foster growth—sacrifices were offered at the household door. The ritual for sacrificing to the household deity involved placing an altar in the western part of the interior side of the gate, facing south. Winter was associated with "Taiyin" (great yin), and its intense cold represented water. Sacrifices were made to the deity of the path, located outside the west side of the temple gate. A raised platform was constructed two chi high, five chi wide, and four chi long; an altar was placed on top facing north. The stove (Zao) was associated with summer as a time of "Taiyang" (great yang), when qi promotes growth and development—sacrifices were performed at the stove. The ritual for sacrificing to the stove deity was conducted outside the eastern side of the temple gate. First, an altar for the emperor was set up in the western part of the inner courtyard at the east; then a main altar was placed on the edge of the stove. Zhongliu: In the middle of summer, earth qi begins to flourish. The deity Zhongliu is worshipped in the room; the Zhongliu deity resides within the house, and an altar was set up beneath a window for worship.
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五方正神之別名：東方之神，其帝太昊，其神句芒。南方之神，其帝神農，其神祝融。西方之神，其帝少昊，其神蓐收。北方之神，其帝顓頊，其神玄冥。中央之神，其帝黃帝，其神后土。 |
| | Alternative names for the five cardinal deities: The deity of the Eastern direction was "Taihao," and its associated god was "Gumang." The deity of the Southern direction was Shennong, with Zhurong as its associated god. The deity of the Western direction was Shaohao, and its associated god was Rushou. The deity of the Northern direction was Zhuanxu, with Xueming as its associated god. The deity of the Central direction was Huangdi, and its associated god was Houtu.
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六神之別名：風伯神、箕星也，其象在天，能興風。雨師神、畢星也，其象在天，能興雨。明星神、一曰靈星，其象在天，舊說曰：靈星、火星也，一曰龍星。火為天田，厲山氏之子柱及后稷能殖百穀以利天下，故祠此三神以報其功也。《漢書》稱高帝五年，初置靈官祠、后土祠，位在壬地。 |
| | Alternative names for six deities: Fengbo Shen (the wind deity), also known as Jixing; its image appears in the heavens and has the power to summon winds. Yushi Shen (rain god) is also called Bixing, whose celestial form can bring rain. Mingxing Shen (bright star deity), also called Lingxing, whose celestial image is said to be in the heavens. An old account says: "Lingxing" refers to Mars; another says it refers to Longxing (dragon star). Fire was considered the heavenly field. Zhushu, son of Lishan Shi, and Houji were able to cultivate all kinds of grains for the benefit of the world; therefore, these three deities were worshipped as a way of honoring their contributions. The "Han Shu" records that in the fifth year of Emperor Gaozu's reign, the worship of Lingguan and Houtu was first established, with their altars located at the Ren position.
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社神蓋共工氏之子句龍也，能平水土，帝顓頊之世舉以為土正，天下賴其功，堯祠以為社。凡樹社者，欲令萬民加肅敬也，各以其野所宜之木以名其社及其野，位在未地。稷神、蓋厲山氏之子柱也，柱能殖百穀，帝顓頊之世舉以為田正，天下賴其功。周棄亦播殖百穀，以稷五穀之長也，因以稷名其神也。社、稷二神功同，故同堂別壇，俱在未位，土地廣博，不可徧覆，故封社稷。露之者，必受霜露以達天地之氣，樹之者，尊而表之，使人望見則加畏敬也。 |
| | The She Shen (land deity) is said to be Gonggong Shi's son, Julong. He was able to manage water and soil; during the reign of Emperor Zhuanxu, he was appointed as the official in charge of earth matters. The world relied on his achievements, so Emperor Yao honored him by establishing a She altar for worship. Whenever an altar was established, it was intended to inspire all the people with reverence and solemnity. Each altar and its surrounding area were named after the kind of tree most suitable for that region; their location was in the Wei position. The Ji Shen (grain deity) was said to be Zhushu, the son of Lishan Shi. Zhushu could cultivate all kinds of grains; during Emperor Zhuanxu's reign, he was appointed as head of agricultural affairs, and his achievements were relied upon by people throughout the world. Zhou Qi also cultivated all kinds of grains, and since Ji was considered the leader among the five grains, the deity was named after it. The deities She and Ji shared equal contributions, so they were worshipped in the same hall but on separate altars. Both were located at the Wei position; since land was vast and could not be fully covered, the Sheji system was established to represent it. The trees planted at these altars were exposed to frost and dew, thus connecting with the qi of heaven and earth. Planting them was a sign of respect and reverence; this allowed people who saw them to feel awe and veneration.
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先農神、先農者蓋神農之神，神農作耒耜，教民耕農，至少昊之世，置九農之官如左。 |
| | The Xinnong Shen (deity of the first farmer) was originally the deity of Shennong. Shennong invented farming tools and taught people to cultivate land; by the time of Emperor Shaohao, nine agricultural officials were established as follows.
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春扈氏農正、趣民耕種，夏扈氏農正、趣民芸除，秋扈氏農正、趣民收斂，冬扈氏農正、趣民蓋藏，棘扈氏農正、常謂茅氏，一曰掌人百果。行扈氏農正、晝為民驅鳥，宵扈氏農正、夜為民驅獸。桑扈氏農正、趣民養蠶，老扈氏農正、趣民收麥。 |
| | Chunhu Shi Nongzheng (Spring Hu Agricultural Official), urged the people to plow and plant; Xiahu Shi Nongzheng, urged them to weed and cultivate during summer; Qiuhu Shi Nongzheng encouraged harvests in autumn; Donghu Shi Nongzheng directed storage efforts in winter. Jihu Shi Nongzheng was also known as Mao Shi or alternatively as the official responsible for managing a hundred kinds of fruits. Xinghu Shi Nongzheng drove away birds from the fields during the day; Xiaohu Shi Nongzheng protected crops at night by driving off wild animals. Sanghu Shi Nongzheng urged the people to raise silkworms; Laohu Shi Nongzheng motivated them to harvest wheat.
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疫神：帝顓頊有三子，生而亡去為鬼，其一者居江水，是為瘟鬼；其一者居若水，是為魍魎；其一者居人宮室樞隅處，善驚小兒。于是命方相氏黃金四目，蒙以熊皮，玄衣朱裳，執戈揚楯，常以歲竟十二月從百隸及童兒，而時儺以索宮中，敺疫鬼也。桃弧棘矢土鼓鼓，旦射之以赤丸，五穀播灑之以除疫殃，已而立桃人葦索，儋牙虎神荼、鬱壘以執之，儋牙虎神荼、鬱壘二神海中有度朔之山，上有桃木蟠屈三千里卑枝，東北有鬼門，萬鬼所出入也。神荼與鬱壘二神居其門，主閱領諸鬼，其惡害之鬼，執以葦索食虎，故十二月歲竟，常以先臘之夜逐除之也，乃畫荼壘并懸葦索于門戶以禦凶也。 |
| | The Yishen (plague deity): Emperor Zhuanxu had three sons, who died at birth and became ghosts. One of them resided in the Jiang River and was known as the Wen Gui (plague ghost); one lived by Ruoshui, becoming Wanghai; the third resided in the hinges and corners of human dwellings, where it was known for frightening children. Therefore, the emperor ordered Fangxiang Shi to wear a golden mask with four eyes and cover it with bear skin, dressed in black robes and red trousers. He held a halberd and raised a shield, leading one hundred attendants and children every twelfth month at year's end, performing ritual dances while searching through the palace to drive away plague ghosts. They used willow bows, thorn-tipped arrows, and clay drums to beat the drums. At dawn, they shot red pellets at the plague ghosts while scattering five grains to eliminate plagues. Afterward, they set up a peach figure, reed ropes, and invoked Danya Hu Shencha and Yulei to capture them. Shencha and Yulei were two deities residing on Mount Duoshuo in the sea; there was a twisted peach tree three thousand li long at its base, with branches extending northeast toward the Ghost Gate, through which ten thousand ghosts entered and exited. The two deities, Shentu and Yulei, resided at the gate to oversee all ghosts. Any harmful or malevolent ones were bound with reed ropes and devoured by tigers; thus, on the last day of the twelfth lunar month, before the new year began, people would drive away these evil spirits. To ward off misfortune, images of Shentu and Yulei along with reed ropes were hung at doorways.
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四代稱臘之別名：夏曰嘉平，殷曰清祀，周曰大蜡，漢曰臘。 |
| | The four dynasties had different names for the "Laba" festival: in the Xia dynasty, it was called Jiaping; in the Yin (Shang) dynasty, Qingsi; in the Zhou dynasty, Dazan; and in the Han dynasty, La.
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五帝臘祖之別名：青帝以未臘卯祖，赤帝以戍臘午祖，白帝以丑臘卯祖，黑帝以辰臘子祖，黃帝以辰臘未祖。 |
| | lỗi The five emperors had different names for their La and Zu rituals: the Qingdi (Green Emperor) performed the Wei La and Mao Zu; the Chidi (Red Emperor) conducted the Shu La and Wu Zu; the Baidi (White Emperor) held the Chou La and Mao Zu; the Heidi (Black Emperor) presided over the Chen La and Zi Zu; and the Huangdi (Yellow Emperor) performed the Chen La and Wei Zu.
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天子大蜡八神之別名：蜡之言索也，祭日索此八神而祭之也。大同小異，為位相對向，祝曰，土反其宅，水歸其壑，昆蟲毋作，豐年若上，歲取千百。 |
| | The eight deities honored in the emperor's grand Dazan ritual had different names: "Zan" means to seek, referring to the practice of offering sacrifices on a specific day to these eight gods. Though largely similar with minor differences, their positions were arranged facing each other. The shaman would say: "May the earth return to its place; may water flow back into its ravines; may insects not multiply; may we have a bountiful year as above, and reap thousands or hundredsfold in harvest."
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先嗇、司嗇、農、郵表畷、貓虎、坊、水庸、昆蟲。 |
| | The eight deities were: Xiansai, Sisai, Nong (agriculture), Youbiaofu, Mao Hu, Fang, Shuiyong, and Kunzhong.
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五祀之別名：法施于民則祀，以死勤事則祀，以勞定國則祀，能禦大災則祀，能扞大患則祀。 |
| | The five different names for the Wusi (five ancestral deities) were: those who established laws and regulations for the people would be worshipped; those who died serving their duties would be honored; those who worked hard to stabilize the nation would be venerated; those who could prevent great disasters would be revered; and those who could defend against major calamities would also be enshrined.
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六號之別名：神號、尊其名更為美稱，若曰皇天上帝也。鬼號、若曰皇祖伯某，祇號若曰后土地祇也。牲號、牛曰一元大武，羊曰柔毛之屬也。齊號、黍曰薌合，梁曰香萁之屬也。幣號、玉曰嘉玉，幣曰量幣之屬也。 |
| | The six different names for the "Liu Hao" (six titles) were: divine titles, which elevated and beautified their names; for example, they might be called Huangtian Shangdi. Ghost titles: such as "Huangzu Bo Mou" (Ancestral Emperor Bo...); Deity titles: for example, "Hou Tu Di Zhi" (the deity of the land). Sacrificial animal titles: a bull was called "Yiyuan Dawu," and sheep were referred to as belonging to the category of "Roumao." Titles for offerings: millet was called Xianghe, and grain was categorized under Xiangqi. Titles for ritual objects: jade was referred to as Jia Yu; offerings were classified as Liang Bi.
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凡祭宗廟禮牲之別名：牛曰一元大武，豕曰剛鬣，豚曰腯肥，羊曰柔毛，雞曰翰音，犬曰羹獻，雉曰疏趾，兔曰明視。 |
| | The different names for sacrificial animals used in ancestral temple rituals were: a bull was called Yiyuan Dawu; a pig, Ganglie; a young pig, Tu, as Tufei; a sheep, Roumao; a chicken, Hanyin; a dog, Gengxian; a pheasant, Shuzhi; and a rabbit, Mingshi.
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凡祭號牲物異于人者，所以尊鬼神也。脯曰尹祭，槀魚曰商祭，鮮魚曰脡祭。水曰清滌，酒曰清酌，黍曰薌合，梁曰香萁，稻曰嘉疏，鹽曰鹹鹺，玉曰嘉玉，幣曰量幣。 |
| | All the special names given to sacrificial animals in rituals differ from those used for humans, as they are meant to show reverence toward ghosts and deities. Dried meat was called Yinsi; dried fish, Shangji; and fresh fish, Dianji. Water was called Qingdi; wine, Qingzhuo; millet, Xianghe; grain, Xiangqi; rice, Jiasu; salt, Xianku; jade, Jiayu; and offerings of cloth were termed Liangbi.
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太祝掌六祝之辭：順祝、願豐年也，年祝、求永真也，告祝、祈福祥也，化祝、弭災兵也，瑞祝、逆時雨、寧風旱也，策祝、遠罪病也。 |
| | The Tai Zhu (Grand Priest) was in charge of the six types of blessings: Shunzhu, which expressed hopes for a bountiful harvest; Nianzhu, seeking eternal prosperity; Gaozhu, praying for good fortune and auspicious signs; Huazhu, to eliminate disasters and warfare; Ruizhu, requesting timely rain and calm winds during droughts; and Ce Zhu, to ward off illness and crime.
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宗廟所歌詩之別名：《清廟》、一章八句，洛邑既成，諸侯朝見宗祀文王之所歌也。《維天之命》、一章八句，告太平于文王之所歌也。《維清》、一章五句，奏象武之所歌也。《烈文》、一章十三句，成王即政，諸侯助祭之所歌也。《天作》、一章七句，祝先王公之所歌也。《昊天有成命》、一章七句，郊祀天地之所歌也。《我將》、一章十句，祀文王于明堂之所歌也。《時邁》、一章十五句，巡守告祭柴望之所歌也。《執競》、一章十四句，祀武王之所歌也。《思文》、一章八句，祀后稷配天之所歌也。《臣工》、一章十句，諸侯助祭遣之于廟之所歌也。《噫嘻》、一章八句，春夏祈穀于上帝之所歌也。《振鷺》、一章八句，二王之後來助祭之所歌也。《豐年》、一章七句，烝嘗秋冬之所歌也。《有瞽》、一章十三句，始作樂合諸樂而奏之所歌也。《潛》、一章六句，季冬薦魚、春獻鮪之所歌也。《雍》、一章十六句，禘太祖之所歌也。《載見》、一章十四句，諸侯始見于武王廟之所歌也。《有客》、一章十三句，微子來見祖廟之所歌也。《武》、一章七句，奏大武周武所定一代之樂之所歌也。《閔予小子》、一章十一句，成王除武王之喪，將始即政，朝于廟之所歌也。《訪落》、一章十二句，成王謀政于廟之所歌也。《敬之》、一章十二句，群臣進戒嗣王之所歌也。《小毖》、一章八句，嗣王求忠臣助己之所歌也。《載芟》、一章三十一句，春耤田祈社稷之所歌也。《良耜》、一章二十三句，秋報社稷之所歌也。《絲衣》、一章九句，繹賓尸之所歌也。《酌》、一章九句，告成大武，言能酌先祖之道以養天下之所歌也。《桓》、一章九句，師祭講武類禡之所歌也。《賚》、一章六句，大封于廟、賜有德之所歌也。《般》、一章七句，巡狩祀四嶽、河海之所歌也。右詩三十一章，皆天子之禮樂也。 |
| | The different names of the poems sung in ancestral temple rituals: "Qingmiao," consisting of one chapter with eight lines, was a song performed when feudal lords paid homage and honored King Wen at Luoyi after its completion. "Weitian Zhiming," one chapter of eight lines, was the song sung to announce peace and stability in tribute to King Wen. "Weiqing," consisting of one chapter with five lines, was a hymn performed during the "Zouxiangwu" ritual. "Liewen," one chapter with thirteen lines, was sung when King Cheng assumed power and feudal lords assisted in the sacrificial rites. "Tianzuo," consisting of one chapter with seven lines, was a song sung to bless the ancestors and former kings. "Haotian You Chengming," consisting of one chapter with seven verses, was a song sung during the sacrificial rites to heaven and earth at the suburbs. "Wojiang," consisting of one chapter with ten lines, was a song sung when honoring King Wen in the Mingtang (Hall of Illumination). "Shimai," consisting of one chapter with fifteen lines, was a song sung at the sacrificial rites and offerings performed during imperial tours. "Zhijing," consisting of one chapter with fourteen lines, was a hymn sung in honor of King Wu. "Sivwen," consisting of one chapter and eight lines, was the hymn sung during sacrifices to Houji who was paired with heaven. "Chengong," consisting of one chapter and ten lines, was the song performed by feudal lords when they assisted in temple sacrifices. "Yixi," consisting of one chapter with eight verses, was the song sung during spring and summer prayers for grain offerings to Shangdi (the Supreme Deity). "Zhenlu," consisting of one chapter with eight sentences, was the song sung by descendants of two former kings who came to assist in sacrifices. "Fengnian," consisting of one chapter with seven sentences, was the song sung for sacrificial rites during autumn and winter. "Yougu," consisting of one chapter with thirteen verses, was a hymn sung when various musical instruments were first assembled and played together. "Qian," consisting of one chapter with six lines, was the song sung when offering fish in the last month of winter and tuna in spring. "Yong," consisting of one chapter with sixteen verses, was a hymn chanted during the Di ceremony honoring the Taizu (the great ancestor). "Zaijian," consisting of one chapter with fourteen verses, was a song performed by feudal lords upon their first visit to the temple of King Wu. "Youke," consisting of one chapter with thirteen sentences, was a song sung in the ancestral temple when Weizi came to pay homage. "Wu," consisting of one chapter with seven lines: a song performed during the grand musical composition "Da Wu" established by the Zhou dynasty to honor King Wu. "Minyu Xiaizi," consisting of one chapter with eleven lines, was a song sung by King Cheng when he mourned for King Wu and prepared to assume power at the temple. "Fangluo," consisting of one chapter with twelve lines, was a song sung as King Cheng sought guidance on governance at the temple. "Jingzhi," consisting of one chapter with twelve verses, was a song sung by ministers offering advice to the successor king. "Xiaobi," consisting of one chapter with eight lines: a song sung by the successor king seeking loyal ministers to assist him. "Zaisan," consisting of one chapter with thirty-one lines, was a song sung during spring plowing rituals and prayers for the Sheji (soil and grain deities). "Liangsi," consisting of one chapter with twenty-three lines, was a song sung for autumn offerings to the Sheji (deities of soil and grain). "Siyi," consisting of one chapter with nine lines, was a song sung while performing the Yibinshi ritual (offering to the symbolic spirit). "Zhuo," consisting of one chapter with nine verses, was a song expressing the ability to follow ancestral ways and nurture the world after completing the Da Wu (Great Martial) ritual. "Huan," consisting of one chapter with nine sentences, was a song chanted during military rituals and drills for warfare. "Lai," consisting of one chapter with six sentences, was a song performed at the temple during grand enfeoffments and rewards for virtuous individuals. "Ban," consisting of one chapter with seven lines: a song sung during imperial tours to worship the Four Peaks, rivers, and seas. The thirty-one poems above were all part of the ritual music of the Son of Heaven (emperor).
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五等爵之別名：三公者，天子之相，相、助也，助理天下，其地方百里。侯者，候也，逆順也，其地方百里。伯者，白也，明白于德，其地方七十里。子者，滋也，奉天王之恩德，其地方五十里。男者，任也，立功業以化民，其地方五十里。 |
| | The five ranks of nobility had different names: the "San Gong" (Three Dukes) were the emperor's prime ministers, meaning to assist and help in managing state affairs; their fiefs covered an area of one hundred li. The "Hou" (marquis) meant to observe or await, signifying the duty to discern loyalty and treachery; their fiefs also covered an area of one hundred li in size. The "Bo" (viscount) meant clarity, signifying a clear understanding of virtue; their fiefs were seventy li in area. The "Zi" (earl) meant nourishment, indicating the duty to uphold and receive the emperor's grace; their fiefs measured fifty li in size. The "Nan" (baron) meant responsibility, signifying that one should establish achievements and transform the people; their fiefs also measured fifty li in area.
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守者，秦置也。秦兼天下，置三川守，伊、河、洛也。漢改曰河南守，武帝會曰太守，世祖都河陽，改曰正。 |
| | Shou Shi was a title established during the Qin dynasty. After unifying the empire, the Qin dynasty appointed a Shou (governor) for Sanchuan, which referred to the regions of Yi, He, and Luo rivers. The Han dynasty changed it to Henan Shou; Emperor Wu later renamed it Taishou. When Emperor Shizu established his capital at Heyang, he changed the title once more to Zheng.
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諸侯大小之差：諸侯王、皇子封為王者稱曰諸侯王。徹侯、群臣異姓有功封者稱曰徹侯。避武帝諱改曰通侯，或曰列侯也。朝侯、諸侯有功德者，天子特命為朝侯，位次諸卿。 |
| | The differences in rank among feudal lords: a "Zhu Hou Wang" (feudal king) was a prince of the imperial family who had been granted the title of king. Chehou: officials and subjects of different surnames with meritorious service were granted this title, called Chehou. To avoid the taboo name of Emperor Wu, it was changed to Tonghou; sometimes also referred to as Liehou. Chaohou: feudal lords who had virtue and achievements were specially appointed by the emperor as Chaohou, ranking just below the ministers.
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王者耕耤田之別名：天子三推，三公五推，卿諸侯九推。 |
| | The different names for the Son of Heaven's plowing ceremony: The emperor performed three pushes, the San Gong (Three Dukes) five pushes, and ministers and feudal lords nine pushes.
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三代學校之別名：夏曰校，殷曰序，周曰庠，天子曰辟雍，謂流水四面如璧，以節觀者，諸侯曰頖宮，頖、言半也，義亦如上。 |
| | The different names for schools in the three dynasties: In the Xia dynasty, they were called Xiao; in the Yin (Shang), Xu; and in the Zhou, Xiang. For the Son of Heaven, it was known as Biyong, meaning a circular hall with water flowing around all four sides like a jade disc, used to regulate the audience. For feudal lords, it was called Pan Gong. "Pan" meant half, and its significance was similar to that above.
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五帝三代樂之別名：黃帝曰《雲門》，顓頊曰《六莖》，帝嚳曰《五英》，堯曰《咸池》，舜曰《大韶》，一曰《大招》，夏曰《大夏》，殷曰《大濩》，周曰《大武》。天子八佾，八八六十四人，八者，象八風，所以風化天下也。公之樂《六佾》，象六律也。侯之樂《四佾》，象四時也。 |
| | The different names for music in the Five Emperors and Three Dynasties: Huangdi's was called "Yunmen"; Zhuanxu, "Liu Jing"; Emperor Ku, "Wuying"; Yao, "Xianchi"; Shun, "Da Zhao," also known as "Dazhao"; Xia dynasty, "Da Xia"; Yin (Shang) dynasty; "Da Huo"; and Zhou dynasty, "Da Wu." The Son of Heaven performed the Ba Yi (eight rows) dance, consisting of sixty-four people arranged in eight rows. The number "eight" symbolized the Eight Winds and was used to influence and civilize the entire world. The music for a Gong (duke) was called "Liu Yi," representing the Six Laws of pitch. The music for a Hou (marquis) was known as "Si Yi," symbolizing the four seasons.
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朝士卿朝之法：左九棘、孤卿大夫位也，群臣在其後。右九棘、公侯伯子男位也，群吏在其後。三槐、三公之位也，州長眾庶在其後。 |
| | The court etiquette for officials attending a morning audience: on the left were nine thorn trees, representing the positions of Gu (minister), Qing (minister), and Da Fu (high official); other ministers stood behind them. On the right were nine thorn trees as well, representing the ranks of Gong, Hou, Bo, Zi, and Nan; lower officials stood behind them. Three paulownia trees marked the positions of the San Gong (three dukes); state magistrates and common people stood behind them.
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四代獄之別名：唐虞曰士官，《史記》曰皋陶為理，《尚書》曰皋陶作士，夏曰均臺，周曰囹圄，漢曰獄。 |
| | The different names for prisons in the four dynasties: In the Tang and Yu periods, they were called Shi Guan. According to "Shiji," Gao Yao was responsible for justice; according to "Shangshu," Gao Yao established the office of Shi (justice official). In the Xia dynasty it was known as Jun Tai; in the Zhou dynasty as Lingyu; and in the Han, Yu.
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四夷樂之別名：王者必作四夷之樂以定天下之歡心，祭神明和而歌之，以管樂為之聲。東方曰韎，南方曰任，西方曰侏離，北方曰禁。 |
| | The different names for music of the four Yi (barbarian) groups: A Son of Heaven must compose music from these four groups to secure the joy and hearts of all under heaven. During sacrifices, they sang in harmony with this music, using bamboo instruments as accompaniment. The Eastern group was called Ma; the Southern, Ren; the Western, Zhu Li; and the Northern, Jin.
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《易》曰：「帝出乎震。」震者，木也，言虙犧氏始以木德王天下也。木生火，故虙犧氏歾，神農氏以火德繼之。火生土，故神農氏歾，黃帝以土德繼之。土生金，故黃帝歾，少昊氏以金德繼之。金生水，故少昊氏歾，顓頊氏以水德繼之。水生木，故顓頊氏歾，帝嚳氏以木德繼之。木生火，故帝嚳氏歾，帝堯氏以火德繼之。火生土，故帝舜氏以土德繼之。土生金，故夏禹氏以金德繼之。金生水，故殷湯氏以水德繼之。水生木，故周武以木德繼之。木生火，故高祖以火德繼之。 |
| | The "Yi Jing" says: "The Son of Heaven emerges from Zhen." Zhen represents wood, indicating that Fu Xi Shi first ruled the world with the virtue of wood. Wood produces fire; thus, after the reign of Fu Xi Shi ended, Shennong Shi succeeded him with the virtue of fire. Fire produces earth; therefore, when Shennong Shi's reign came to an end, Huangdi succeeded him with the virtue of earth. Earth produces metal; thus, when Huangdi passed away, Shaohao Shi succeeded him with the virtue of metal. Metal produces water; therefore, after Shaohao Shi's reign ended, Zhuanxu Shi succeeded him with the virtue of water. Water produces wood; thus, when Zhuanxu Shi passed away, Emperor Ku succeeded him with the virtue of wood. This completes the cycle. Wood produces fire; therefore, after Emperor Ku's reign ended, Emperor Yao succeeded him with the virtue of Fire. Fire produces earth; thus, Emperor Shun succeeded with the virtue of Earth. Earth produces metal; therefore, Xia Yu Shi succeeded with the virtue of Metal. Metal produces water; thus, Yin Tang Shi succeeded with the virtue of Water. Water produces wood; therefore, King Wu of Zhou succeeded with the virtue of Wood. Wood produces fire; thus Emperor Gaozu succeeded with the virtue of Fire. This completes the cycle once more.
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虙犧為太昊氏，炎帝為神農氏，黃帝為軒轅氏，少昊為金天氏，顓頊為高陽氏，帝嚳為高辛氏，帝堯為陶唐氏，帝舜為有虞氏，夏禹為夏后氏，湯為殷商氏，武王為周，高祖為漢。高帝、惠帝、呂后攝政、文帝、景帝、武帝、昭帝、宣帝、元帝、成帝、哀帝、平帝、王莽、聖公、光武、明帝、章帝、和帝、殤帝、安帝、順帝、沖帝、質帝、桓帝、靈帝，從高帝至桓帝，三百八十六年，除王莽、劉聖公，三百六十六年，從高祖乙未至今壬子歲，四百一十年，呂后、王莽不入數，高帝以甲午歲即位，以乙未為元。 |
| | Fu Xi was the Taohao Shi, Yandi was the Shennong Shi, Huangdi was the Xuanyuan Shi, Shaohao was the Jitian Shi, Zhuanxu was the Gaoyang Shi, Emperor Ku was the Gaoxin Shi, Emperor Yao was the Taotang Shi, Emperor Shun was the Youyu Shi, Xia Yu was the Xiahou Shi, Tang was the Yinshang Shi, King Wu was the Zhou dynasty, and Emperor Gaozu was the Han dynasty. Emperor Gao, Emperor Hui, Empress Dowager Lü regent, Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing, Emperor Wu, Emperor Zhao, Emperor Xuan, Emperor Yuan, Emperor Cheng, Emperor Ai, Emperor Ping, Wang Mang, Shenggong, Guangwu, Emperor Ming, Emperor Zhang, Emperor He, Emperor 殇 (Shang), Emperor An, Emperor Shun, Emperor Chong, Emperor Zhi, Emperor Huan, and Emperor Ling. From Emperor Gao to Emperor Huan, it spans 386 years; excluding Wang Mang and Liu Shenggong, it is 366 years. From the year Gaozu's Yiwei (乙未) year up to this year Renzi (壬子), it totals 410 years. Empress Dowager Lü and Wang Mang are not counted in the total. Emperor Gao ascended the throne in the Jiawu (甲午) year, and established the first year of his reign as Yiw ei (乙未).
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帝嫡妃曰皇后，帝母曰皇太后，帝祖母曰太皇太后，其眾號皆如帝之稱。秦漢以來，少帝即位，后代而攝政，稱皇太后，詔不言制。漢興，惠帝崩，少帝弘立，太后攝政。哀帝崩，平帝幼，孝元王皇后以太皇太后攝政。和帝崩，殤帝崩，安帝幼，和憙鄧皇后攝政。孝順崩，沖帝、質帝、桓帝皆幼，順烈梁后攝政。桓帝崩，今上即位，桓思竇后攝政。后攝政則后臨前殿朝群臣，后東面，少帝西面，群臣奏事上書皆為兩通，一詣太后，一詣少帝，一世、二世、三世、四世、五世、六世、七世、八世、九世、十世、十一世、十二世、十三世、十四世、十五世、十六世。 |
| | The empress, the emperor's principal wife, is called Huanghou; the emperor's mother is called Huangtaihou; and the emperor's grandmother is called Taihuangtaihou. Their titles are all analogous to those of the emperor. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, when a young emperor ascended the throne, his mother would act as regent and be titled Huangtaihou, but imperial edicts did not use the term "zhizhao." When the Han dynasty was established, after Emperor Hui died, young emperor Hong ascended the throne and Empress Dowager acted as regent. After Emperor Ai's death, Emperor Ping was still a child, so Wang Huanghou of the Xiaoyuan dynasty acted as Taihuangtaihou and assumed regency. After Emperor He's death, Emperor Shang also died, and Emperor An was still young; Deng Huanghou of Hexi acted as regent. After Emperor Shun's death, Emperors Chong, Zhi, and Huan were all young; Liang Huanghou of Shunlie acted as regent. After Emperor Huan's death, the current emperor ascended the throne and Dou Huanghou of Huansi acted as regent. When the empress dowager acted as regent, she would preside over court sessions in the front hall. The empress dowager faced east while the young emperor faced west. All officials' reports and memorials were submitted in duplicate: one to the 太后 (empress dowager) and one to the young emperor. This system lasted for sixteen generations.
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文帝、弟雖在三，禮、兄弟不相為後，文帝即高祖子，于惠帝、兄弟也，故不為惠帝後而為弟二，宣帝弟次昭帝，史皇孫之子，于昭帝為兄，孫以係祖，不得上與父齊，故為七世。光武雖在十二，于父子之次，于成帝為兄弟，為于哀帝為諸父，于平帝為父祖，皆不可為之後。上至元帝于光武為父，故上繼元帝而為九世。故《河圖》曰赤，九世會昌，謂光武也。十世以光，謂孝明也；十一以興，謂孝章也。成雖在九，哀雖在十，平雖在十一，不稱次。 |
| | Emperor Wen, though having three brothers still alive, according to ritual, siblings do not succeed one another. Emperor Wen was a son of Emperor Gaozu and thus the brother of Emperor Hui; therefore, he did not succeed Emperor Hui but became the second emperor in line. Emperor Xuan succeeded Emperor Zhao as his younger brother. Emperor Xuan was the grandson of Emperor Wu through his son Shihuangsun, making him the elder brother to Emperor Zhao. However, a grandson cannot be ranked equal to his grandfather; thus, he is considered the seventh generation. Although Emperor Guangwu was in the twelfth generation, according to the order of father and son, he was a brother to Emperor Cheng, an uncle (zhufu) to Emperor Ai, and an ancestor or grandfather to Emperor Ping; therefore, none of them could succeed him. Tracing back from Emperor Guangwu to Emperor Yuan, who was his grandfather, thus Emperor Guangwu succeeded Emperor Yuan and is considered the ninth generation. Therefore, the "Hetu" says: "Red (chi), nine generations will flourish," referring to Emperor Guangwu. The tenth generation brings brilliance, referring to Emperor Ming. The eleventh generation will rise again, referring to Emperor Zhang. Emperor Cheng was in the ninth generation, Emperor Ai in the tenth, and Emperor Ping in the eleventh, but none of them were counted as such.
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宗廟之制：古學以為人君之居，前有朝，後有寢，終則前制廟以象朝，後制寢以象寢，廟以藏主，列昭穆；寢有衣冠几杖，象生之具，總謂之宮。《月令》曰：「先薦寢廟。」《詩》云：「公侯之宮。」《頌》曰：「寢廟奕奕。」言相連也，是皆其文也。古不墓祭，至秦始皇出寢起居于墓側，漢因而不改，故今陵上稱寢殿，有起居衣冠象生之備，皆古寢之意也。居西都時，高帝以下，每帝各別立廟，月備法駕遊衣冠，又未定迭毀之禮。元帝時，丞相匡衡、御史大夫貢禹乃以經義處正，罷遊衣冠，毀先帝親盡之廟。高帝為太祖，孝文為太宗，孝武為世宗，孝宣為中宗，祖宗廟皆世世奉祠，其餘惠景以下皆毀，五年而稱殷祭，猶古之禘祫也，殷祭則及諸毀廟，非殷祭則祖宗而已。光武中興，都洛陽，乃合高祖以下至平帝為一廟，藏十一帝主于其中，元帝于光武為禰，故雖非宗而不毀也。後嗣遵承，遂常奉祀光武舉天下以再受命復漢祚，更起廟稱世祖。孝明臨崩遺詔遵儉毋起寢廟，藏主于世祖廟。孝章不敢違，是後遵承藏主于世祖廟，皆如孝明之禮，而園陵皆自起寢廟。孝明曰顯宗，孝章曰肅宗，是後踵前。孝和曰穆宗，孝安曰恭宗，孝順曰敬宗，孝桓曰威宗，唯殤、沖、質三少帝，皆以未踰年而崩，不列于宗廟。四時就陵上祭寢而已。今洛陽諸陵，皆以晦望、二十四氣伏、社臘及四時日上飯。大官送用，園令食監典省其親陵所宮人，隨鼓漏，理被枕，具盥水，陳嚴具。天子以正月五日畢供後上原陵，以次周徧，公卿百官皆從，四姓小侯諸侯家婦，凡與先帝先后有瓜葛者，及諸侯王、大夫郡國計吏、匈奴朝者西國侍子皆會，尚書官屬，陛西除下先帝神座，後大夫計吏皆當軒下，占其郡穀價，四方災異，欲皆使先帝魂神具聞之，遂于親陵各賜計吏而遣之。正月上丁祠南郊，禮畢，次北郊明堂，高祖廟、世祖廟謂之五供。五供畢，以次上陵也。四時宗廟用牲十八太牢，皆有副倅。西廟五主：高帝、文帝、武帝、宣帝、元帝也。高帝為高祖，文帝為太宗，武帝為世宗，宣帝為中宗，其廟皆不毀。孝元功薄當毀，光武復天下，屬弟于元帝為子，以元帝為禰廟，故列于祖宗，後嗣因承，遂不毀也。 |
| | The system of ancestral temples: According to ancient scholarship, the residence of a ruler had a court in front and a sleeping chamber at the back. After death, a temple was built in front to symbolize the court, and a chamber behind it to symbolize the sleeping quarters. The temple housed the spirit tablets (zhu) and arranged them according to their positions as Zhaomu. The chamber contained clothing, hats, stools, canes, and other items symbolizing the deceased's life; collectively, they were referred to as a palace. The "Yueling" says: "First present offerings at the chamber and temple." The "Shijing" states: "The palace of marquises and dukes." The "Song" says: "The chamber and temple are grand and imposing." They refer to the same place; these are all descriptions of it in literature. In ancient times, sacrifices were not made at tombs. It was only during the reign of Qin Shi Huang that a chamber for daily rituals and items symbolizing life were built beside the tomb; the Han dynasty followed this practice without change. Hence, today's mausoleums are called Qindian (chamber halls), where daily rituals, clothing, hats, and symbolic objects are prepared—these all reflect the ancient concept of the sleeping chamber. When residing in the western capital, from Emperor Gaozu onward, each emperor had a separate temple built for him. Monthly ceremonies were held with full ritual processions and symbolic clothing and hats; however, the rites of alternating destruction (diehui) had not yet been established. During the reign of Emperor Yuan, Chancellor Kuang Heng and Grand Censor Gong Yu cited classical principles to justify their actions, abolishing the practice of ceremonial processions with symbolic clothing and hats, and destroying temples of emperors whose descendants had died out. Emperor Gaozu was honored as Taizu, Emperor Wen as Taizong, Emperor Wu as Shizong, and Emperor Xuan as Zhongzong. The temples of these ancestral emperors were perpetually maintained with regular sacrifices. All other temples, from Emperor Hui and Emperor Jing onward, were destroyed. Every five years, a grand sacrifice known as "Yinji" was held, similar to the ancient rites of di and xia. During Yinji, offerings extended to all the destroyed temples; otherwise, only the ancestral emperors' temples received sacrifices. When Emperor Guangwu revived the dynasty, he established Luoyang as his capital and combined the temples of all emperors from Gaozu down to Emperor Ping into one temple. The spirit tablets of eleven emperors were enshrined there. Emperor Yuan was a grandfather (ni) to Emperor Guangwu; therefore, although not an ancestral emperor, his temple was preserved and not destroyed. Later descendants followed this tradition, continuing to worship Emperor Guangwu as the one who had revived the Han dynasty by taking over the mandate of heaven. A new temple was built for him and he was honored with the title Shizu (Progenitor Ancestor). On his deathbed, Emperor Ming left an edict instructing that no chamber or temple be built for him and that his spirit tablet should simply be enshrined in the Shizu Temple. Emperor Zhang dared not disobey and, from then on, followed the practice of enshrining spirit tablets in the Shizu Temple according to Emperor Ming's rites. However, each mausoleum still had its own chamber and temple built separately. Emperor Ming was posthumously honored as Xianzong, Emperor Zhang as Suzong; after that, this practice continued in succession. Emperor He was honored as Muzong, Emperor An as Gongzong, Emperor Shun as Jingzong, and Emperor Huan as Weizong. Only the three young emperors—Shang, Chong, and Zhi—who died before completing their first year on the throne were not enshrined in the ancestral temples. Sacrifices are made at the mausoleum's chamber only during the four seasons. Nowadays, all the tombs in Luoyang are honored with offerings of food on the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month, during the twenty-four solar terms, at the beginning of summer (Fu), during the spring and autumn soil-sacrifices (She and La), and on the four seasonal days. The Grand Officials deliver food supplies, while the head of the tomb and the supervisor of meals oversee the palace attendants at the emperor's mausoleum. They follow the drum and clepsydra signals to arrange bedding and pillows, prepare water for washing, and present ritual items in order. On the fifth day of the first lunar month, the emperor completes his offerings at the Yuanling mausoleum and proceeds in order to visit all other tombs. The Grand Commanders and officials accompany him. Women from the four noble families, small marquises, feudal lords' families, those related by marriage or blood to previous emperors or empresses, as well as feudal kings,大夫 (dow), local officials responsible for reporting statistics, and Xiongnu envoys and foreign attendants all gather. The Secretariat officials stand west of the steps before the ancestral spirit seats; afterward, the 大夫 (dow) and statistical officers stand beneath the 轩 (xuan) pavilion to report on grain prices in their respective regions, natural disasters, and unusual phenomena, so that the spirits of previous emperors may be fully informed. Finally, at each mausoleum, the officials are individually granted gifts by the emperor before being dismissed. On the first Ding day of the first lunar month (the first "Ding" day), a sacrifice is held at the southern altar. After the ceremony, it continues with sacrifices at the northern altar and Mingtang Hall; the temples of Gaozu and Shizu are included in this ritual, collectively known as the Five Offerings. After completing the Five Offerings, the emperor proceeds to visit the mausoleums in order. For the four seasonal ancestral temple sacrifices, eighteen grand sacrificial ceremonies (tai lao) are used, each with accompanying secondary offerings. The five ancestral tablets in the western temple were those of Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wen, Emperor Wu, Emperor Xuan, and Emperor Yuan. Emperor Gaozu is known as Taizu (Progenitor), Emperor Wen as Taizong (Great Ancestor), Emperor Wu as Shizong (Eternal Ancestor), and Emperor Xuan as Zhongtong (Central Ancestor); their temples are all preserved and never destroyed. Emperor Yuan's contributions were relatively minor and his temple should have been destroyed, but Emperor Guangwu restored the Han dynasty. By making Emperor Yuan a grandfather (ni) of his own lineage, he elevated him to the status of an ancestor. Thus, Emperor Yuan was included among the ancestral emperors; later generations followed this precedent and did not destroy his temple.
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東廟七主：光武、明帝、章帝、和帝、安帝、順帝、桓帝也。光武為世祖，明帝為顯宗，章帝為肅宗，和帝為穆宗，安帝為恭宗，順帝為敬宗，桓帝為威宗，廟皆不毀。少帝未踰年而崩，皆不入廟，以陵寢為廟者三：殤帝康陵、沖帝懷陵、質帝靜陵是也。追號為后者三：章帝宋貴人曰敬隱后，葬北陵，安帝祖母也。清河孝德皇后、安帝母也。章帝梁貴人曰恭懷后，葬西陵，和帝母也。安帝張貴人曰恭敏后，葬北陵，順帝母也。 |
| | The seven ancestral tablets in the eastern temple were those of Emperor Guangwu, Emperor Ming, Emperor Zhang , Emperor He, Emperor An, Emperor Shun and Emperor Huan. Emperor Guangwu is known as Shizu (Eternal Progenitor), Emperor Ming as Xianzong (Illustrious Ancestor), Emperor Zhang as Suzong (Solemn Ancestor), Emperor He as Muzong (Mourning Ancestor), Emperor An as Gongzong (Respectful Ancestor), Emperor Shun as Jingzong (Reverent Ancestor), and Emperor Huan as Weizhong (Authoritative Ancestor); all their temples remain intact and are never destroyed. The young emperors who died before completing their first regnal year were not enshrined in temples. Three mausoleums served as substitute temples: the Kangling of Emperor Shang, the Huailing of Emperor Chong, and the Jingling of Emperor Zhi. Three posthumous titles were bestowed as "Hou": Song Guiren, the honored mother of Emperor Zhang, was posthumously titled Jingyin Hou and buried in Beiling; she was the grandmother of Emperor An. Qinghe Xiaode Huanghou was the mother of Emperor An. Liang Guiren, an honored lady of Emperor Zhang, posthumously titled Gonghuai Hou and buried in Xiling, was the mother of Emperor He. Zhang Guiren of Emperor An posthumously titled Gongmin Hou and buried in Beiling, was the mother of emperor Shun.
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兩廟十二主、三少帝、三后，故用十八太牢也。 |
| | With two temples housing twelve ancestral tablets, three young emperors, and three empresses, this is why eighteen grand sacrificial ceremonies are used.
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漢家不言禘祫，五年而再殷祭，則西廟惠帝、景、昭皆別祠，成、哀、平三帝以非光武所後，藏主長安，故高廟四時祠于東廟，京兆尹侍祠衣冠車服，如太常祠行陵廟之禮，順帝母故云姓李，或姓張。高祖得天下，而父在，上尊號曰太上皇，不言帝，非天子也。孝宣繼孝昭帝，其父曰史皇孫，祖父曰衛太子，太子以罪廢，及皇孫皆死。宣帝但起園陵長承奉守，不敢加尊號于祖父也。光武繼孝元，亦不敢加尊號于父祖也。世祖父南頓君曰皇考，祖鉅鹿都尉曰皇祖，曾祖鬱林太守曰皇曾祖。高祖舂陵節侯曰皇高祖，起陵廟，置章陵以奉祠之而已。至殤帝崩，無子弟，安帝以和帝兄子從清河王子即尊號，依高帝尊父為太上皇之義，追號父清河王曰孝德皇。順帝崩，沖帝無子弟，立樂安王子，是為質帝。帝偪于順烈梁后父大將軍梁冀未得尊其父而崩。桓帝以蠡吾侯子即尊位，追尊父蠡吾先侯曰孝崇皇，母匡太夫人曰孝崇后，祖父河間孝王曰孝穆皇，祖母妃曰孝穆后。桓帝崩，無子，今上即位，追尊父解犢侯曰孝仁皇，母董夫人曰孝仁后，祖父河間敬王曰孝元皇，祖母夏妃曰孝元后。 |
| | The Han dynasty did not speak of the rites of di or xia, but held a grand sacrifice (Yinji) every five years. During such ceremonies, Emperor Hui, Emperor Jing, and Emperor Zhao in the western temple were separately honored with sacrifices. Emperors Cheng, Ai, and Ping, who were not direct ancestors of Emperor Guangwu, had their spirit tablets stored in Chang'an. Thus, the four seasonal sacrifices for Gaozu's temple were conducted at the eastern temple. The governor of Jingzhao You served as a substitute officiant, wearing ceremonial clothing and driving a ritual carriage according to the rites practiced by the Taichang Temple when performing ceremonies at imperial mausoleums. As for Emperor Shun's mother, her surname was sometimes recorded as Li or Zhang. When Gaozu gained the empire, his father was still alive; he honored him with the title Taishang Huang (Grand Emperor), but did not refer to him as an emperor, for he was not a Son of Heaven. Emperor Xuan succeeded Emperor Zhao; his father was Shi Huangsun, and his grandfather was Wei Taizi. The crown prince had been deposed for crimes, and both he and the imperial grandson died. Emperor Xuan merely established a mausoleum to be maintained by descendants for perpetual worship, but dared not bestow any honorific title upon his grandfather. Emperor Guangwu succeeded Emperor Yuan as well and also did not dare to bestow honorific titles on his father or grandfather. Shizu's grandfather, Nandun Jun, was honored as Huangkao; his great-grandfather, Ju Lu Duwei, as Huangzu; and his great-great-grandfather, Yulin Taishou, as Huangcengzu. Gaozu's ancestor, Chongling Jiehou, was honored as Huanggaozu; a mausoleum and temple were built for him, with Zhangling established to house the sacrifices. That was all that was done. When Emperor Shang died without any brothers or sons, Emperor An ascended the throne as the nephew of Emperor He and a grandson of Qinghe Wang. Following the precedent set by Gaozu in honoring his father as Taishang Huang, he posthumously bestowed the title Xiaode Huang on his father, Prince of Qinghe. After Emperor Shun died, Emperor Chong had no brothers or sons; the throne was succeeded by a son of Prince Le'an, who became Emperor Zhi. The emperor was pressured by Liang Ji, the father-in-law of Empress Dowager Liang Shunlie and Grand General, and did not have the opportunity to honor his own father before he died. Emperor Huan ascended the throne as a son of Ligu Hou. He posthumously honored his father, Ligu Xianhou, as Xiaochong Huang; his mother, Kuang Taifuren, as Xiaochong Hou; his grandfather, Hejian Xiaowang, as Xiaomu Huang; and his grandmother, Fei, as Xiaomu Hou. After Emperor Huan died without a son, the current emperor ascended to the throne. He posthumously honored his biological father, Jiedu Hou, as Xiaoren Huang; his mother, Dong Furen, as Xiaoren Hou; his grandfather, Hejian Jingwang, as Xiaoyuan Huang; and his grandmother, Xia Fei, as Xiaoyuan Hou.
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天子大社，以五色土為壇，皇子封為王者，受天子之社土以所封之方色，東方受青，南方受赤，他如其方色，苴以白茅授之，各以其所封方之色。歸國以立社，故謂之受茅土。漢興以皇子封為王者得茅土，其地功臣及鄉亭他姓公侯，各以其戶數租入為限，不受茅土，亦不立社也。 |
| | The Son of Heaven's great earth altar is constructed with five-colored soil. When a prince was enfeoffed as a king, he received from the emperor a portion of the sacred soil in the color corresponding to his fiefdom: green for the east, red for the south, and so on according to the directional colors. The soil was wrapped in white rush grass and presented to him, each in the color representing his assigned direction. Upon returning to their fiefdoms, they would establish an earth altar; thus it was called "receiving rush grass and soil." When the Han dynasty was founded, only princes enfeoffed as kings received rush grass and soil. For meritorious ministers or others of different surnames who were granted marquisates in towns or villages, their fiefs were determined by household numbers and tax revenues; they did not receive rush grass and soil, nor did they establish earth altars.
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漢制：皇子封為王者，其實古諸侯也。周末諸侯或稱王，而漢天子自以皇帝為稱，故以王號加之，總名諸侯王子弟。封為侯者，謂之諸侯。群臣異姓有功封者，謂之徹侯。後避武帝諱改曰通侯。法律家皆曰列侯。功德優盛朝廷所異者，賜位特進，位在三公下。其次朝侯，位次九卿下，皆平冕文衣，侍祠郊廟，稱侍祠侯。其次下士，但侍祠無朝位。次小國侯，以肺腑宿衛親公主子孫奉墳墓，在京者亦隨時見會，謂之猥朝侯也。 |
| | The Han dynasty system: a prince enfeoffed as king was in fact equivalent to an ancient feudal lord (zhuhou). At the end of the Zhou dynasty, some feudal lords were called kings; however, the Han Son of Heaven himself used the title "emperor," so he bestowed the rank of king upon them. This was a general term for the sons and brothers of feudal lords. Those enfeoffed as marquises were called feudal lords (zhuhou). Ministers of different surnames granted fiefs for meritorious service were known as Chehou. Later, to avoid the taboo name of Emperor Wu, it was changed to Tonghou. Legal scholars referred to them as Liehou. Those who had particularly outstanding virtue and merit, distinguished by the court, were granted the special title of Tejin, ranking below the Three Excellencies. Next in rank were Chouhou (attending marquises), who ranked below the Nine Ministers. They all wore ceremonial caps and embroidered robes, served as attendants during sacrifices at altars and temples, and were known as Shici Hou (sacrificial attendant marquises). Next in rank were the lower scholars; they merely served as attendants at sacrifices but had no official court position. Next were the small kingdom marquises, whose descendants of close relatives and princesses maintained ancestral tombs. Those residing in the capital could also attend court meetings at appropriate times; they were known as Wei Chouhou (petty attending marquises).
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巡狩校獵還，公卿以下陳洛陽都亭前街上，乘輿到，公卿下拜，天子下車。公卿親識顏色，然後還宮。古語曰：「在車則下。」惟此時施行。 |
| | When the emperor returned from a tour of inspection and hunting, officials at the level of Grand Commanders and below would gather on the streets in front of Luoyang Du Ting. When the imperial procession arrived, these officials would kneel to pay homage, and the Son of Heaven would descend from his carriage. The emperor personally observed their appearances before returning to the palace. An ancient saying states: "When a superior is in his carriage, one must descend from his own." This was the only time this practice was carried out.
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正月朝賀，三公奉璧上殿，向御座北面，太常贊曰：「皇帝為君興，三公伏，皇帝坐，乃進璧。」古語曰：「御坐則起。」此之謂也。舊儀三公以下月朝，後省，常以六月朔、十月朔旦朝，後又以盛暑省六月朝，故今獨以為正月、十月朔朝也。冬至陽氣始，起，麋鹿解角，故寢兵鼓，身欲寧，志欲靜，不聽事，送迎五日，臘者，歲終大祭，縱吏民宴飲，非迎氣，故但送不迎。正月歲首，亦如臘儀。冬至陽氣起，君道長，故賀。夏至陰氣起，君道衰，故不賀。鼓以動眾，鐘以止眾。夜漏盡，鼓鳴則起。晝漏盡，鐘鳴則息也。 |
| | During the New Year's court ceremony, the Three Excellencies presented jade discs on the hall. Facing north toward the imperial throne, the Taichang official announced: "The Son of Heaven rises for his ministers; the Three Excellencies kneel down. When the emperor sits, they may present the jade discs." An ancient saying states: "When the ruler is seated, one must rise." This is what it refers to. Originally, officials of the Three Excellencies and below were required to attend court monthly. Later this was reduced, and they attended only on the first day of June and October. Subsequently, due to the intense summer heat, the June court session was also suspended; thus today, court attendance is held only on the first days of January and October. On the winter solstice, yang energy begins to rise; deer shed their antlers. Therefore, weapons and drums are put away, the body seeks rest, and the mind desires tranquility. No official business is conducted during this time. Officials and commoners may celebrate for five days with feasts and drinking. The "La" sacrifice marks the end of the year's great ritual offering; it does not involve welcoming yang energy, so only a farewell rite is performed without a welcome ceremony. The first day of the first lunar month marks the beginning of the year and follows the same rites as the La sacrifice. On the winter solstice yang energy begins to rise, symbolizing the Son of Heaven's authority growing stronger; thus a celebration is held. On the summer solstice yin energy begins to rise, signifying the decline of the Son of Heaven's power; therefore no celebration is held. Drums are used to assemble people, while bells are used to disperse them. When the night drum signals the end of the watch, it is time to rise. When the daylight drum signals the end of work hours, the bell rings and people rest.
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天子出，車駕次弟謂之鹵簿：有大駕、有小駕、有法駕。大駕、則公卿奉引大將軍參乘太僕御，屬車八十一乘，備千乘萬騎。在長安時，出祠天于甘泉備之，百官有其儀注，名曰甘泉鹵簿。中興以來希用之。先帝時，時備大駕上原陵，他不常用，唯遭大喪，乃施之法駕。公卿不在鹵簿中，唯河南尹執金吾洛陽令奉引侍中參乘奉車郎御屬車三十六乘，北郊明堂，則省諸副車。小駕、祠宗廟用之，每出，太僕奉駕上鹵簿于尚書，侍中、中常侍、侍御史、主者郎令史皆執注以督整諸軍車騎。春秋上陵令又省于小駕，直事尚書一人從令以下皆先行。 |
| | When the Son of Heaven leaves his palace, the procession in order is called "lubu": it includes a grand procession (da jia), a small procession (xiao jia), and an official procession (fa jia). In the grand procession, senior officials and high-ranking ministers lead the way; the Grand General rides alongside in attendance while the Tai Pu drives the carriage. Eighty-one attendant carriages follow, with thousands of chariots and tens of thousands of horsemen on standby. When in Chang'an, the Son of Heaven would prepare for a ceremony to worship heaven at Ganquan. All government officials followed established rituals and procedures; this was known as the "Ganquan Lubu." Since the revival period, it has rarely been used. During the reign of the late emperor, a grand procession was occasionally prepared for visiting Shangyuan Ling. Otherwise it was not commonly used; only in times of great mourning would an official procession be employed. The Three Excellencies and senior ministers did not participate in the procession. Only the governor of Henan, the Jinyu official, the magistrate of Luoyang, the Attendant-in-Ordinary rode alongside as escort, while the carriage attendant drove the thirty-six attendant carriages. For ceremonies at the Northern Suburban Sacrificial Site or Mingtang Hall, all secondary carriages were omitted. The small procession was used for ancestral temple sacrifices. Each time the Son of Heaven departed, the Tai Pu presented the procession list to the Shangshu (Ministry of Works). The Attendant-in-Ordinary, the Zhongchangshi, the Chief Justice, and other officials including clerks in charge all held records to supervise and organize the military carriages and horsemen. For spring and autumn visits to the imperial tombs, even fewer attendants were used than in the small procession; only one official from the Shangshu Office accompanied the decree. All officials below that rank proceeded ahead of time.
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法駕、上所乘曰金根車，駕六馬，有五色，安車五色，立車各一，皆駕四馬，是為五時副車。俗人名之曰五帝車，非也。又有戎立車以征伐，三蓋車名耕根車，一名芝車，親耕耤田乘之。又有蹋豬車，慢輪有畫，田獵乘之，綠車名曰皇孫車，天子孫乘之，以從。 |
| | The official procession: the Son of Heaven rode in a "Jinguo" carriage, drawn by six horses and decorated with five colors. There were also five colored sedan carriages for sitting and one standing carriage each; all were pulled by four horses, making up the Five Periods Attendant Carriages. Common people call them "Wudi" carriages, but this is incorrect. There were also military standing carriages used for campaigns; three covered carriages known as "Genggen" or "Zhi" carriages, which the Son of Heaven rode when personally plowing the ceremonial fields. There were also "Ta zhu" carriages with slow-turning wheels and painted designs, used for hunting or farming. Green-painted carriages called "Huangsun Che" were ridden by the emperor's grandsons as attendants.
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凡乘輿車皆羽蓋金華瓜，黃屋左纛，金鍐方釳，繁纓重轂副牽。 |
| | All imperial carriages had feathered canopies with golden lotus decorations, yellow roofs and left-side banners, golden tassels on square-shaped fittings, elaborate reins, and double hubs for the attached horses.
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黃屋者，蓋以黃為裏也。 |
| | The "huangwu" refers to a canopy with yellow lining.
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左纛者，以氂牛尾為之，大如斗。在最後左騑馬騣上。金鍐者，馬冠也。高廣各四寸，如玉華形，在馬騣前。方釳者，鐵廣數寸，在騣後，有三孔，插翟尾其中，繁纓在馬膺前，如索裙者是也。 |
| | The left-side banner was made from the tail of a young yak, as large as a basin. It was placed on the mane of the lead horse on the left side at the rear. The "jinluan" is a golden headpiece for horses. It was four cun high and wide, shaped like jade flowers, placed in front of the horse's mane. The "fangta" was an iron plate several cun wide, placed behind the horse's mane with three holes. The tail of a pheasant was inserted into it; the elaborate tassels were in front of the horse's chest and resembled a hanging skirt.
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重轂者，轂外復有一轂，施舝其外，乃復設牽施銅，金鍐形如緹，亞飛軨以緹油，廣八寸，長注地，左畫蒼龍，右白虎，繫軸頭，今二千石亦然，但無畫耳。 |
| | The "zhonggu" refers to a wheel with an additional outer ring. A metal pin was inserted on the outside, and copper fittings were added again in the shape of golden lotus flowers. The yafeilin (a type of carriage decoration) was dyed red with oil, eight cun wide and long enough to reach the ground. On the left side it depicted a blue dragon, and on the right a white tiger; these were attached at the axle head. Today, officials ranked as "erqianshi" also use this design, but without the painted images.
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前驅有九斿雲罕闟戟皮軒鑾旗，車皆大夫載鑾旗者，編羽毛引繫橦旁，俗人名之曰雞翹車，非也。後有金鉦黃鉞黃門鼓車。古者諸侯貳車九乘，秦滅九國兼其車服，故大駕屬車八十一乘也。尚書御史乘之，最後一車懸豹尾，以前皆皮軒虎皮為之也。 |
| | The vanguard included nine streamers, cloud-shaped canopies, closed halberds, leather-draped carriages, and luan flags. All these vehicles were carried by officials of the rank of 大夫 (da fu). The luan flag was attached with woven feathers on either side of a pole; common people call this type of carriage "jiquan che," but this is incorrect. Behind were golden cymbals, yellow halberds, and yellow gate drum carriages. In ancient times, feudal lords had nine secondary carriages; the Qin dynasty conquered the Nine States and incorporated their carriage and costume systems. Hence, in a grand procession there were eighty-one attendant carriages. The Shangshu and Yushi rode in these, while the last carriage displayed a leopard's tail. All carriages before it were covered with tiger-skin-draped leather canopies.
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永安七年，建金根、耕根諸御車，皆一轅，或四馬，或六馬。金根箱輪皆以金鎛正黃，兩臂前後刻金，以作龍虎鳥龜形，上但以青縑為蓋，羽毛無後戶。 |
| | In the seventh year of Yong'an, golden root and farming root carriages for imperial use were constructed; all had a single pole, drawn by either four or six horses. The Jinguo carriage had a box and wheels gilded in pure yellow. The front and back of the two sides were engraved with gold to depict dragons, tigers, birds, and turtles. However, it was only covered with blue silk fabric on top, without feathered decorations or a rear door.
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冕冠：周曰爵弁，殷曰冔，夏曰收，皆以三十升漆布為殼，廣八寸，長尺二寸，加爵冕其上，周黑而赤，如爵頭之色，前小後大，殷黑而微白，前大後小，夏純黑而赤，前小後大，皆有收以持笄。《詩》曰：「常服黼冔，禮朱干玉，戚冕而舞《大武》。」《周書》曰：「王與大夫盡弁，古皆以布，中古以絲。」孔子曰：「麻冕、禮也。今也純儉。」漢雲翹冠，樂祠天地五郊，舞者服之，冕冠垂旒，周禮、天子冕前後垂延朱綠藻有十二旒。公侯大夫各有差別。漢興至孝明帝永平二年，詔有司采《尚書·皋陶篇》及《周官》《禮記》定而制焉，皆廣七寸，長尺二寸，前圓後方，朱綠裏而玄上，前垂四寸，後垂三寸，繫白玉珠于其端，是為十二旒，組纓如其綬之色。三公及諸侯之祠者，朱綠九旒青玉珠。卿大夫七旒黑玉珠，皆有前無後，組纓各視其綬之色，旁垂黈纊當耳，郊天地、祠宗廟、祀明堂則冠之，衣黼衣，佩玉佩，履絇履。孔子曰：「服周之冕。」鄙人不識，謂之平天冠。 |
| | The ritual headdress: in the Zhou dynasty it was called "jue bian," in the Yin (Shang) dynasty "xu," and in the Xia dynasty "shou." All were made with a shell of thirty-sheng lacquered cloth, eight cun wide, twelve cun long. A ceremonial cap ("juan") was placed on top: during the Zhou it was black with red tones like the color of a jiao bird's head, smaller in front and larger at the back; during the Yin dynasty it was dark but slightly white, larger in front and smaller at the back; in the Xia dynasty it was purely black with red, also smaller in front and larger behind. All had "shou" (a cap brim) to hold the hairpins. The "Shi Jing" says: "Wearing the usual robes with fu patterns and xu caps, holding red halberds and jade weapons, wearing ceremonial headdresses while dancing 'Da Wu.'" The "Zhou Shu" says: "The king and officials all wore bian caps; in ancient times they were made of cloth, but from the middle period onward silk was used." Confucius said: "Hemp headdresses are in accordance with ritual." "Today, they are purely made of silk for simplicity." The Han dynasty's Yun Qiao headdress was worn by dancers during musical ceremonies to worship heaven, earth, and the five directions. The ceremonial headdress with pendants followed Zhou ritual: for the Son of Heaven, twelve red and green jade pendants hung in front and behind. Marquises, marquisates, and officials each had their own distinctions. When the Han dynasty was founded, until Emperor Ming of Han issued an edict in the second year of Yongping ordering officials to compile and establish regulations based on "The Book of Documents: Gao Tao Pian," as well as "Rites of Zhou" and "Book of Rites," it was determined that all ceremonial headdresses would be seven cun wide, twelve cun in length. The front was round while the back was square; they were red and green on the inside with black on top. They hung four cun at the front and three cun at the back, with white jade beads attached to their ends—this formed the twelve pendants. Their tassels matched the color of their sashes. The Three Excellencies and feudal lords who performed ancestral rites wore headdresses with nine red and green pendants, each ending in a blue jade bead. Ministers and senior officials wore headdresses with seven pendants ending in black jade beads, all having a front but no back. Their tassels corresponded to the color of their sash; yellow silk streamers hung on either side by the ears. These were worn during sacrifices at the altars of heaven and earth, ancestral temple ceremonies, or rites at Mingtang Hall: they wore embroidered robes with fu patterns, jade pendants, and shoes with decorative tassels. Confucius said: "Wear the Zhou dynasty's ceremonial headdress." Common people, not understanding it, called it the "Pingtian" hat.
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天子冠通天冠，諸侯王冠遠遊冠，公侯冠進賢冠，公王三梁，卿大夫、尚書、二千石博士冠兩梁，千石、六百石以下至小吏冠一梁。天子、公卿、特進朝侯祀天地明堂皆冠平冕。 |
| | The Son of Heaven wore the "Tongtian" headdress; feudal kings and marquises wore the "Yuanyou" hat. Marquises and marquisates wore the "Jinxian" cap: dukes and kings had three beams, ministers, officials, Shangshu, erqianshi, and doctors wore two-beamed caps, while officials ranked at qianshi or liushishi down to minor clerks wore one-beamed caps. The Son of Heaven, the Three Excellencies, and special envoys who attended court ceremonies for sacrifices at heaven, earth, or Mingtang Hall all wore flat ceremonial headdresses.
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天子十二旒，三公九，諸侯卿七，其纓與組各如其綬之色，衣玄上纁下，日月星辰，山龍華蟲，祠宗廟則長冠袀玄。其武官太尉以下及侍中常侍皆冠惠文冠，侍中常侍加貂蟬，御史冠法冠，謁者冠高山冠。其鄉射行禮，公卿冠委貌，衣玄端，執事者皮弁服，宮門僕射冠卻非，大樂郊社祝舞者冠建華，其狀如婦人縷簏，迎氣五郊舞者所冠，亦為冕，車駕出後有巧士冠，似高山冠而小。 |
| | The Son of Heaven had twelve pendants; the Three Excellencies nine, feudal lords and ministers seven. Their tassels and sashes matched their respective colors. They wore black robes above with yellow-red skirts below, embroidered with patterns of sun, moon, stars, mountains, dragons, and flowers. During ancestral temple sacrifices they wore long caps and solid black robes. Military officials, from Taiwei downwards and Attendants-in-Ordinary and Zhongchangshi all wore the "Huiwen" hat. The Attendant-in-Ordinary and the Zhongchangshi added sable fur and cicada decorations. Yushi (Chief Justice) wore the "Faguan," while Ye Zhe officials wore the "Gao Shan Guan." During archery ceremonies, the Three Excellencies wore "Weimao" caps and black formal robes. Attendants wore leather 弁 (bian) attire. Palace gate attendants wore "Quefei" hats; musicians, suburban sacrifice officials, and dancers at altars wore "Jianhua" hats, which resembled a woman's lacquered bamboo basket. Dancers welcoming the five directional energies also wore ceremonial headdresses. When the imperial procession departed, there were skilled artisans who wore small caps similar to the Gao Shan Guan.
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幘者，古之卑賤執事不冠者之所服也。孝武帝幸館陶公主家，召見董偃，偃傅青褠綠幘，主贊曰：主家庖人臣偃昧死再拜謁，上為之起，乃賜衣冠，引上殿。董仲舒、武帝時人，其上兩書曰：執事者皆赤幘，知皆不冠者之所服也。元帝額有壯髮，不欲使人見，始進幘服之，群臣皆隨焉，然尚無巾。如今半幘而已。王莽無髮，乃施巾，故語曰：「王莽禿，幘施屋，冠進賢者宜長耳，冠惠文者宜短耳，各隨所宜。」 |
| | The zhe was a head covering worn by lowly and menial attendants who did not wear formal caps in ancient times. Emperor Wu of Han visited the home of Princess Guantao, and summoned Dong Yan for an audience. Yan wore a blue robe with a green zhe head covering. The princess introduced him: "A servant from this household, Minister Yan, respectfully bows twice in fear of death to pay homage." The emperor rose for him, then granted him official robes and a hat, and led him onto the hall. Dong Zhongshu was a man of Emperor Wu's time. In his two memorials he stated: "All attendants wear red zhe caps, which are the head coverings worn by those who do not wear formal hats." Emperor Yuan had thick hair on his forehead and did not want others to see it, so he began wearing the zhe cap. All court officials followed suit, but at that time they still did not use headscarves. Nowadays it is only a half-zhe style. Wang Mang had no hair, so he wore a headscarf. Hence the saying: "Wang Mang was bald; his zhe cap covered like a roof. Those wearing Jinxian caps should have long ears (brims), while those in Huiwen hats should have short ones—each according to their needs."
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通天冠、天子常服，漢服受之秦，禮無文。遠遊冠、諸侯王所服，展筩無山，《禮》無文。高山冠、齊冠也，一曰側注，高九寸，鐵為卷梁，不展筩無山，秦制：行人使官所冠。今謁者服之，《禮》無文。太傅胡公說曰：「高山冠、蓋齊王冠也。秦滅齊，以其君冠賜謁者。」 |
| | The Tongtian hat was the Son of Heaven's regular attire. The Han dynasty adopted it from the Qin, but there were no formal ritual records for it. The Yuanyou hat was worn by feudal kings; it had a cylindrical shape without any mountain-shaped decorations, and there were no references to it in the "Rites." The Gao Shan hat was a cap from Qi, also called "Ce Zhu." It was nine cun high with an iron curved beam. It had no cylindrical shape or mountain decorations; it was a Qin dynasty regulation: worn by officials accompanying envoys on diplomatic missions. Nowadays, Ye Zhe officials wear it, but there are no references to this in the "Rites." Tai Fu Hu Gong said: "The Gao Shan hat is originally the cap of a Qi king. "When the Qin destroyed Qi, they took its royal headdress and granted it to Ye Zhe officials."
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進賢冠、文官服之，前高七寸，後三寸，長八寸。公侯三梁，卿大夫、尚書、博士兩梁，千石、六百石以下一梁。漢制：《禮》無文。 |
| | The Jinxian hat was worn by civil officials. It was seven cun high at the front, three cun in back, and eight cun long. Dukes and marquises had three beams; ministers, officials, Shangshus, and doctors wore two beams. Officials ranked at qianshi or below liushishi wore one beam. The Han dynasty system: there are no references for this in the "Rites."
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法冠、楚冠也。一曰柱後惠文冠，高五寸，以纚裹鐵柱卷。秦制執法服之。今御史廷尉監平服之，謂之獬豸冠。獬豸、獸名，蓋一角。今冠兩角，以獬豸為名，非也。太傅胡公說曰：「《左氏傳》有南冠而縶者。」《國語》曰：「南冠、以如夏姬。」是知南冠蓋楚之冠，秦滅楚，以其君冠賜御史。武冠或曰繁冠，今謂之大冠，武官服之。侍中、中常侍加黃金，坿貂蟬鼠尾飾之。太傅胡公說曰：「趙武靈王效胡服，始施貂蟬之飾，秦滅趙，以其君冠賜侍中。齊冠或曰長冠，竹裹以纚，高七寸，廣三寸，形如板。」 |
| | The Faguan was a cap from the State of Chu. It is also called "Zhou Hou Huiwen Guan," five cun high, with a silk-wrapped iron column. It was worn by law enforcement officials under the Qin system. Nowadays, Yushi, Tingwei, Jianping wear it; it is called the "Xiezhi" hat. Xiezhi is the name of an animal with a single horn. Nowadays, the hat has two horns but still bears the Xiezhi name—this is incorrect. Tai Fu Hu Gong said: "The 'Zuo Zhuan' mentions those who were bound in southern caps." "The Guo Yu" says: "Southern caps, worn as when going to Xia Ji." This shows that the Nan Guan was originally a cap from Chu. When the Qin destroyed Chu, they took its royal hat and granted it to Yushi officials. The Wu Guan, also called Fan Guan, is now known as the Da Guan; it was worn by military officers. Attendants-in-Ordinary (Shizhong) and Zhongchangshi officials added golden decorations, attaching sable fur, cicada shapes, and rat-tail ornaments. Tai Fu Hu Gong said: "King Wuling of Zhao imitated Hu clothing, and first introduced sable fur and cicada ornaments. When the Qin destroyed Zhao, they took its royal cap and granted it to Shizhong officials." The Qi Guan or Chang Guan was a hat wrapped in silk-covered bamboo, seven cun high and three cun wide, shaped like a board.
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高祖冠、以竹皮為之，謂之劉氏冠。楚制：《禮》無文。鄙人不識，謂之鵲尾冠。 |
| | The Gaozu cap was made of bamboo skin; it was called the Liu family hat. Chu system: there are no references for this in "Rites." Common people, not knowing its name, called it the Quewei hat.
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建華冠、以鐵為柱卷貫，大珠九枚，今以銅為珠，形制似縷簏。《記》曰：「知天文者服之。」《左傳》曰：「鄭子臧好聚鷸冠。」前圖以為此制是也。天地五郊、明堂月令舞者服之。 |
| | The Jianhua Guan had an iron column with nine large pearls; nowadays copper is used instead. Its shape resembles a lacquered bamboo basket. "The Records" say: "Those who understand astronomy wear it." The "Zuo Zhuan" says: "Zheng Zizang loved to collect Yu Guan hats." Earlier illustrations consider this the correct system. Dancers at the altars of Heaven and Earth, the Five Directions, Mingtang Hall, and those following the lunar calendar wear them.
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方山冠、以五采縠為之，漢祀宗廟大享，《八佾》樂五行舞人服之。衣冠各從其行之色，如其方色而舞焉。 |
| | The Fangshan Guan was made of five-colored gauze; during major Han dynasty ancestral temple sacrifices, the "Ba Yi" music and Five Elements dance performers wore it. Their robes and hats followed the color of their respective elements; they danced in accordance with the directional colors.
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術士冠、前圓，吳制邐迤四重，趙武靈王好服之，今者不用，其說未聞。 |
| | The Shuxi Guan had a round front; the Wu system had four overlapping layers. King Wuling of Zhao liked to wear it, but nowadays it is no longer used—its explanation has not been heard.
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巧士冠、高五寸，要後相通埽除，從官服之，《禮》無文。 |
| | The Qiaoshi Guan was five cun high; it connected at the back for sweeping and cleaning, worn by attendants. There are no references to this in "Rites."
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卻非冠、宮門僕射者服之，《禮》無文。 |
| | The Quefei Guan was worn by palace gate attendants; there are no references for it in the "Rites."
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樊噲冠，漢將軍樊噲造次所冠，以入項籍營，廣七寸，前出四寸，司馬殿門大護衛士服之。 |
| | The Fan Kuai Guan was the hat worn by General Fan Kuai of Han during a hasty entry into Xiang Ji's camp. It was seven cun wide with four cun extending forward; it was later worn by senior guards at Sima Hall and palace gates.
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卻敵冠、前高四寸，通長四寸，後高三寸，監門衛士服之，《禮》無文。 |
| | The Que Di Guan was four cun high in front, with an overall length of four cun and three cun height at the back. It was worn by gate guards; there are no references to it in "Rites."
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珠冕、爵冔收、通天冠、進賢冠、長冠、緇布冠、委貌冠、皮弁、惠文冠，古者天子冠所加者，其次在漢禮。 |
| | The Zhu Juan, Jue Xu Shou, Tongtian Guan, Jinxian Guan, Chang Guan, Zhi Bu Guan, Weimao Guan, Bian Guan, and Huiwen Guan—these were the headdresses added by ancient emperors; their order is recorded in Han dynasty rituals.
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帝謚：違拂不成曰隱，靖民則法曰黃，翼善傳聖曰堯，仁聖盛明曰舜，殘人多壘曰桀，殘義損善曰紂，慈惠愛親曰孝，愛民好與曰惠，聖善同文曰宣，聲聞宣遠曰昭，克定禍亂曰武，聰明睿智曰獻，溫柔聖善曰懿，布德執義曰穆，仁義說民曰元，安仁立政曰神，布綱治紀曰平，亂而不損曰靈，保民耆艾曰明，辟土有德曰襄，貞心大度曰匡，大慮慈民曰定，知過能改曰恭，不生其國曰聲，一德不懈曰簡，夙興夜寐曰敬，清白自守曰貞，柔德好眾曰靖，安樂治民曰康，小心畏忌曰僖，中身早折曰悼，慈仁和民曰順，好勇致力曰莊，恭人短折曰哀，在國逢難曰愍，名實過爽曰繆，壅遏不通曰幽，暴虐無親曰厲，致志大圖曰景，辟土兼國曰桓，經緯天地曰文，執義揚善曰懷，短折不成曰殤，去禮遠眾曰煬，怠政外交曰攜，治典不敷曰祈。 |
| | Posthumous titles of emperors: one who defied and failed to achieve anything was called Yin; one who governed the people with established laws was Huang; one who assisted virtue in passing on sainthood was Yao; one whose benevolence and saintliness were widely recognized was Shun; one who harmed many people and built numerous fortifications was Jie; one who destroyed righteousness and damaged goodness was Zhou; one who showed kindness and loved his family was Xiao; one who loved the people and gave generously was Hui; one whose virtue and wisdom harmonized culture was Xuan; one whose reputation spread far and wide was Zhao; one who quelled disasters and chaos was Wu; one who was wise, intelligent, and perceptive was Xian; one with gentle and saintly virtue was Yi; one who spread virtue and upheld righteousness was Mu; one who practiced benevolence and won the people's favor was Yuan; one who established peace through virtuous governance was Shen; one who restored order by establishing laws and discipline was Ping; one whose realm fell into chaos but without personal loss was Ling; one who protected his people with wisdom and experience was Ming; one who expanded territory with virtue was Xiang; one of steadfast heart and great tolerance was Kuang; one who had grand plans for the people's welfare was Ding; one who recognized mistakes and corrected them was Gong; one whose name did not originate in their own state was Sheng; one who remained devoted to a single virtue without tiring was Jian; one who rose early and worked late was Jing; one who maintained personal integrity and self-discipline was Zhen; one with gentle virtue and popularity among the people was Jing (again); one who brought peace and good governance to his people was Kang; one who lived cautiously and feared misdeeds was Xi; one whose life ended prematurely in middle age was Dao; one known for kindness and harmony with the people was Shun (again); one valiant and dedicated to achievement was Zhuang; one of virtue but died young was Ai; one who encountered hardship while ruling his state was Min; one whose name and deeds were mismatched or exaggerated was Miu; one who obstructed and failed to communicate effectively was You; one cruel and without affection for others was Li; one with grand aspirations and vision was Jing (again); one known for expanding territory and uniting states was Huan; one who structured the heavens and earth through wisdom was Wen; one who upheld righteousness and promoted goodness was Huai; one whose life was cut short before achieving much was Shang; one who abandoned ritual and alienated people was Yang; one negligent in governance and involved in foreign affairs was Xie; and one who failed to properly implement established principles was Qi.
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