Names

"Duke Wen of Jin" is a posthumous name bestowed on him as part of his family's ancestral veneration. It literally means the "Cultured Duke of Jin". Duke Wen's given name was Chong'er. His clan name was Ji.

Life

Early life

Prince Chong'er was born to Duke Xian of Jin in 697 BC. The Zuo Zhuan notes that "his ribs were all grown together," a sign of strength and leadership. Chong'er's half-brothers included Shensheng and Xiqi. While Shensheng was the original crown prince, in his later years Duke Xian favoured the concubine Li Ji, who desired her son Xiqi to be heir instead. As such, she plotted to discredit Shensheng before his father, eventually leading to Shensheng's suicide in 656 BC.

Wandering

This event led to a civil war in Jin, known as the Li Ji Unrest, where Duke Xian led several campaigns against his own sons, forcing them to flee Jin. With a retinue of capable men, including Zhao Cui, Hu Yan, Wei Chou (魏犨), Jia Tuo (贾佗), Xian Zhen (先轸), and Jie Zhitui, Chong'er fled to the north. In 651 BC, after the death of Duke Xian led to a succession crisis, Chong'er was invited to return to Jin and assume the duchy, but declined; the throne passed instead to his half-brother Yiwu, who became Duke Hui of Jin.

In 644 BC, after failed assassination attempts by Duke Hui, Chong'er moved to the State of Qi, his mother's homeland. He remained there until yet another succession crisis in Qi in 639 BC, whereupon he fled first to the State of Cao, then the states of Song, Zheng, Chu and finally the State of Qin. Over this 19-year period of exile, Chong'er gained both prestige and talented followers; a lady of a foreign court once commented that "When I look at the followers of the prince of Jin, every one of them is fit to be a premier of a state".

In 636 BC, after the death of Duke Hui, Duke Mu of Qin escorted Chong'er back to Jin with an army, and Chong'er was installed as the Duke of Jin.

Duke of Jin

Duke Wen undertook several major reforms of the state's military and civil institutions, partly in order to fill the gaps that had been caused by the slaughter of the ducal house previously. These included the formation of a three-army system, with an upper, middle and lower army each commanded by a General and a Lieutenant-General. The state was further invigorated by the many capable leaders Duke Wen had gathered from his wanderings, who were given senior military and governmental posts.

With this army, as well as his considerable prestige, Duke Wen was able to absorb many of the states around Jin, greatly increasing its extent, while also subjecting others as vassals; its vassal states included Cao, which he attacked in reprisal for the rude treatment afforded him during his exile. At the same time, he took the political stance of supporting the Eastern Zhou court and King Xiang of Zhou. When in 635 BC King Xiang was deposed and driven out by his brother, Duke Wen led a coalition of states which re-installed him as King.

At the same time, the northward expansion of the State of Chu was also resisted by Duke Wen; the two states' conflict was mostly played out among the smaller states which lay between their territories and formed alliances with one state or another. In 633 BC, Chu invaded the State of Song, which was an ally of Jin; Duke Wen led his coalition, including troops from Qin, Qi and Song, and won a decisive victory over Chu forces at the Battle of Chengpu in 632 BC. This battle checked Chu's northern expansion for decades, while cementing Duke Wen's position; the next year, he convened a large coalition of rulers at Jiantu, and was confirmed as hegemon over the other states, becoming one of the Five Hegemons.

Duke Jin died in 628 BC, and was succeeded by his son Duke Xiang of Jin; his son also inherited the hegemony, which would stay with Jin for nearly a century.

Legends

Ordering the Army to Retreat Three She

When Chong'er stayed at the court of Chu, its king set banquets for him and afforded him good treatment. At one meal, he asked Chong'er how he intended to repay this debt. Chong'er replied that, should Jin and Chu meet on the battlefield in the future, he would order his own troops to retreat three she (舍) or about . After Chong'er was restored to his throne by the duke of Qin, he did meet Chu in battle. Remembering his promise, he ordered his men to retreat three she. He used the occasion, however, to lure the Chu commander Ziyu into an ambush at Chengpu and won the battle there.

Cold Food Festival

Accounts of Chong'er and his retainer and musician Jie Zhitui or Zitui circulated by at least the 4th century BC. Sima Qian relates that Jie was among those who followed the prince through all his years of exile but, crediting Heaven with Qin's willingness to install Chong'er in place of Duke Yu, he declined to present himself at court for reward and insulted those who did so. He and his mother left to become hermits in the forests around MtMian and were never seen again. Chong'er was distracted during this time by the chaos of his installation, as Yu's partisans started riots and even burnt down the ducal palace. He was eventually reminded of Jie by a poem about a dragon and some snakes that was posted on his new palace's main gate; unable to find or reward him, he set aside the fields of Mianshang to endow sacrifices in his honor. This later developed into a temple, and Jie became regarded as a Taoist immortal with power over the weather by the early Han.

Later legends embellished this story: after the retinue of exiles were robbed by bandits while traveling through the Chinese countryside, they ran so low on food that Chong'er was at risk of starvation. Jie prepared him a hearty soup of meat and wild herbs that revitalized him and, under questioning, revealed that he had used flesh from his own thigh to prepare it. Upon the prince's restoration in Jin, he proclaimed that "awards may be divided into three grades: the first-grade award goes to those who followed me into exile; the second-grade award goes to those who donated money; and the third grade goes to those who welcomed the return of my dukedom" and that even "those who have supported me in other ways but not yet been rewarded may report their names for awards". Jie, however, was overlooked and felt so sad that he retired to the countryside, carrying his mother on his back. Recalling his loyal follower months or years later, Chong'er personally wandered the forests and ridges looking for them. His new advisors suggested using a forest fire to drive Jie out, since his duty to his mother would overwhelm any other concerns. The fire was started on one or three sides, and men waited on the open end to welcome the official back into public service. Instead, the fire raged for three days and nights and the mother and son were found burnt to death beneath a willow. In his sorrow and guilt, Chong'er renamed the mountain after Jie. (The surrounding territory would also later take the name "Jiexiu" or "of Jie's Final Rest".) He also ordered a period of prohibition against fire in Jie's honor, forcing the people to eat cold food during three days around the Qingming solar term.

In fact, the Cold Food Festival is not attested before the Han and began as a month-long popular observance to placate Jie's spirit in the depths of winter. The hardship this caused—including death among infants and the elderly—caused it to be repeatedly banned over a period of centuries. The regulations succeeded in moving the festival to the end of spring (by Chinese reckoning), but it never died out in Shanxi and spread through the rest of China under the Sui and Tang. Aspects of ancestral veneration added to it from the old Double Third Festival eventually overshadowed the stories of Chong'er and Jie Zhitui, however, causing it to develop into the modern Tomb-Sweeping Festival instead.

Offspring

Huan （驩）. Born by Bi Ji (逼姞). He succeeded his father and was known as Duke Xiang of Jin. He was regarded as a good successor as he defeated Qin and Di, but died too early in 621 BC. His son became Duke Ling of Jin, and Duke Dao of Jin was the grandson of his another son named Jie.

Bo Ji (伯姬). Also born by Bi Ji (逼姞). She was married to Zhao Cui (赵衰), and was praised highly for returning the wifehood to the first wife Shu Wei (叔隗), thereby making herself a concubine. She bore three sons named Zhao Yingqi (赵婴齐), Zhao Tong (赵同) and Zhao Kuo (赵括). Also known as Zhao Ji (赵姬) and Junjishi.

Yong (雍). Born by Du Qi （杜祁）. He was initially sent to the State of Qin to be a minister in Qin to avoid the probable conflict among his brothers. When Duke Xiang of Jin died, Zhao Dun decided to let Yong succeed the throne, since he was elder and had a good reputation. Therefore, Yong was returning to Qin guarded by Qin troops. However, when Yong and the Qin troops were at border, Dun changed his mind and created Yigao (夷皋) as Duke Ling of Jin and attacked the Qin troops. Yong was killed in the attack from the State of Jin.

Le (Yue?) (乐). Born by Chen Ying （辰嬴） from the State of Qin. He was initially sent to the State of Chen to avoid the probable conflict among his brothers. When Duke Xiang died, another noble minister, Hu Shegu (狐射姑), wanted to make Le the duke and secretly fetched him from Chen. However, he was ambushed and killed on the way by fellows led by Gongsun Chujiu, one of the men of Zhao Dun.

Heitun (黑臀). Born by Zhou Nü (周女). He was initially sent to Zhou. When Duke Ling was murdered, he succeeded the throne and became Duke Cheng of Jin. He died in 600 BC.

Family

• Father: Duke Xian of Jin

• Stepmother: Li Ji

• Brother: Shensheng, Hereditary Duke of Jin / Xiqi, Duke of Jin / Duke Hui of Jin

• Nephew: Duke Huai of Jin

Legacy

Duke Wen's military and civil reforms created a framework of government which helped ensure the stability and preeminence of the Jin for subsequent decades. At the same time, though, it laid the framework for the political situation in the later years of Jin, when several houses of nobles came to dominate the ducal court. The houses of Wei and Zhao, for example, were consolidated by their military appointments in Duke Wen's court, setting the ground for their eventual domination and the partition of Jin two and a half centuries later.

Hong Kong's TVB made a television drama series about Duke Wen in the early 1990s called The Legend of Duke Wen (晋文公传奇), starring Leon Lai. The series was semi-fictional, with many episodes featuring wuxia ("kung fu") scenes. Other dramatizations of his life include the 2011 Chinese series Song of Spring and Autumn, with the duke played by Gallen Lo.

出生

前671年，晋献公与戎族通婚，娶狐季姬，生下重耳。

流亡生涯

前665年，继母骊姬生下一子，取名奚齐，骊姬与优施通奸，淫乱后宫，两人开始排挤陷害申生、重耳、夷吾。在前665年，晋献公派重耳守护蒲城。

前655年，重耳之兄申生被骊姬害死，重耳也遭到骊姬之乱的迫害，离开了晋国都城绛，到蒲城，他父亲晋献公派勃鞮谋杀重耳，勃鞮割断了重耳的袖子，重耳爬墙侥幸逃走。重耳的母亲是戎族，他决定往狄族人的地方逃跑，至翟国，在翟国被晋国攻打后，又逃往其他国家，自此流亡19年，经历狄、卫、齐、曹、宋、郑、楚、秦八国。

至狄(前655年-前644年)

前651年，晋献公逝世，荀息当国相，继母骊姬立自己的儿子奚齐为国君，里克砍死奚齐，又活活鞭杀了骊姬，荀息自杀，里克派人迎接重耳回国即位，重耳辞谢。前650年，重耳的弟弟夷吾自立，是为晋惠公。重耳在狄国住了十二年。前644年，晋惠公派勃鞮第二次追杀重耳，重耳没死，决定不能在狄国多留。

至卫(前644年)

重耳逃到卫国。卫国看他是个倒运的公子，不肯接待他。他们一路走去。走到五鹿（今濮阳东南）地方，实在饿得厉害，正瞧见几个庄稼人在田边吃饭。重耳他们看得更加口馋，就叫人向他们讨点吃的。

庄稼人懒得理他们，其中有一个人跟他们开个玩笑，拿起一块泥巴给他们。重耳冒了火，他手下的人也想动手揍人了。重耳的舅舅狐偃连忙拦住，接过泥巴，安慰重耳说：「泥巴就是土地，百姓给我们送土地来啦，这不是一个好兆头吗？」

重耳也只好趁此下了台阶，苦笑著向前走去。

至齐(前644年-前639年)

重耳听说齐桓公的宰相管仲去世了，决定去齐国给齐桓公效劳，他同时希望得到齐国的帮助和保护。重耳在齐国过安逸的生活，放弃了恢复君位的愿望。齐桓公赠送他20辆车马，并且主持了将宗室女齐姜嫁给重耳。

前639年，齐桓公死后，齐国发生内乱。赵衰、咎犯有一天在一棵桑树下商量如何离开齐国，一个宫女在桑树上听到他们的对话，回宫以后偷偷的告诉了重耳的妻子齐姜。齐姜因为怕宫女泄露秘密，不但没有给宫女奖赏，而且马上把她杀了。齐姜也劝告重耳赶快离开齐国，但是重耳不肯。因此，赵衰等人让重耳喝醉了，把重耳抬到马车上离开齐国国都临淄。重耳醒来的时候已经太晚了，感到非常愤怒，拿了戈追杀狐偃，幸亏没有成功。

至曹(前639年)

重耳和他的忠臣到了曹国。曹共公听说重耳的肋骨连成一片，很好奇，所以趁重耳洗澡的时候，偷看了他的裸体。曹共公如此无礼，重耳颇生怨心。

至宋(前638年)

前638年，楚国打败宋襄公军队不久以后，重耳到了宋国。宋襄公热情地款待了他，并赠送了20辆车马给他。

至郑(前637年)

前637年（周襄王十五年、鲁僖公二十三年、郑文公三十六年），重耳路过郑国，郑国大夫叔詹劝郑文公要以礼待重耳，郑文公却以「诸侯亡公子过此者众，安可尽礼！」为由，不听叔詹劝告，对重耳不予礼遇接待。

（这即是日后晋文公邀秦穆公兴问罪之师的起源，加上郑文公在城濮之战起兵助楚，让晋文公有了问罪的理由。更造成日后秦、晋之间的几场战争（淆之战、王官之战和一些边境冲突）埋下伏笔（事见左传）。）

至楚(前637年)

到了楚国，楚成王设宴接待他，并问他以后打算如何报答楚国。重耳回答「万一晋国和楚国之间发生了战争，我愿意命令军队撤退三舍（即九十里）」。楚国大夫成得臣（子玉）建议楚成王马上杀死重耳，以免给自己留下后患，但是楚成王没有采纳他的意见。

至秦(前636年)

最后，重耳到了秦国，秦穆公热烈地接待了他，并主持将宗室女子五人许配与他，其中就有秦穆公的亲生女儿怀嬴。（参考《左传·僖公二十三年》）

返国即位

据《左传》，周襄王十六(鲁僖公二四年，秦穆公二四年，前636年)春二月(夏历十二月)，秦穆公护送重耳回晋国。重耳即位后，在诸侯中威信很高。侍奉晋惠公的旧臣吕省和郤芮害怕遭到晋文公的迫害，所以想谋杀他。他们计划放火烧他的宫室。

勃鞮听闻了他们的阴谋，想告诉晋文公，但是文公拒绝见他，因为他曾试图刺杀文公两次。勃鞮说他当时纯属奉命行事，提醒他「过去齐桓公没有记恨管仲向他射箭」，晋文公听了，便接待了勃鞮，勃鞮就揭露了吕省和郤芮的阴谋。吕省和郤芮逃走，后为秦穆公所俘获并处决。

《公羊传》的记载有所不同。据《公羊传》，前636年底，怀公死后重耳才篡夺了晋国。

孔子为晋文公重耳避讳篡位，并未在《春秋》正文中提及晋文公即位细节。

称霸

尊王

前635年，周襄王的弟弟王子带发起动乱，周襄王逃到郑国并向晋文公紧急请求援助。同时，秦国正准备去救周王。晋文公想当霸主，他趁这个机会显示了他的权力和威望，所以不顾晋国刚刚才安定，决定在行动之前拯救天子，不让秦国得到功劳。因此，他答应了周襄王，打败了王子带，并护送周襄王返京。为了感谢晋文公的恩惠，周王将河内、阳樊等地赐与晋。

攘夷

当时齐桓公已卒，中原群龙无首，楚国乘势堀兴。晋文公先翦除楚国的羽翼，击败曹国、卫国，使二国与楚国绝交。

前633年（周襄王二十年），宋国都城商丘被楚军包围。前632年初，晋文公率兵救宋，为报答楚国在他流亡国外时楚国的款待，下令军队退避三舍（九十里），在卫国的城濮（今山东濮县南）大败楚军。晋文公主持践土之盟，成为霸主。

晋文公继而联合秦国，攻打亲楚的郑国，阻止日后楚国的北进。

执政

晋文公在位期间，执政为：郤縠、郤溱、先轸、赵衰、狐毛、狐偃、栾枝、胥臣、先且居、箕郑、胥婴、先都。

逝世

前628年冬，晋文公去世，其子晋襄公即位。

年龄

史书并未明确记载晋文公的出生时间，对于他流亡时的年龄有两种说法。

• 《史记》的说法，则鲁僖公五年（前655年），流亡时就已经四十三岁，到六十二岁回国，于七十岁时去世。

• 《左传·庄公二十八年》：「又娶二女于戎，大戎狐姬生重耳，小戎子生夷吾。」《左传·昭公十三年》记载：「……我先君文公 狐季姬之子也 ……生十七年……亡十九年」，晋文公是十七岁时因乱出奔，在外流亡达十九年才最终回国接位，在位八年后去世，终年四十四岁。杨伯峻考证史记的记载为误，左传记载的晋文公生年正确。重耳当生鲁庄公二十三年（前671年），其姊伯姬于鲁僖公五年（前655年），嫁于秦穆公时，年龄在十七岁左右，不可能四十四岁矣。《左传·昭公十三年》原文记载：「我先君文公，狐季姬之子也，有宠于献。好学而不贰，生十七年，有士五人。有先大夫子余、子犯以为腹心，有魏犨、贾佗以为股肱，有齐、宋、秦、楚以为外主，有栾、郤、狐、先以为内主。亡十九年，守志弥笃。惠、怀弃民，民従而与之。献无异亲，民无异望，天方相晋，将何以代文？」

• 《国语》：「晋公子生十七年而亡。」与《左传》记载一致。

家庭

父母

• 父亲：晋献公

• 母亲：狐季姬，又称大戎狐姬

妻妾

• 文嬴

• 逼姞

• 季隗

• 杜祁

• 齐姜

• 怀嬴

• 南威

• 妾周氏，祖籍秦国，晋成公母

• 另有两位秦国妾。

儿子

• 伯鯈，母季隗

• 叔刘，母季隗

• 公子驩，即晋襄公，母逼姞

• 公子雍，母杜祁

• 公子乐，辰嬴所生

• 公子黑臀，母周女，即晋成公

女儿

• 伯姬，又作赵姬、君姬氏

注解

参考书目

• 顾颉刚：《浪口村随笔》（渖阳：辽宁教育出版社，1998），「晋文侵曹伐卫之故」条，页151-152。

• 除了《左传》和《史记》等文献以外，子犯和钟的铭刻也记载了关于晋文公的生活的重要信息。