History

Founding

According to the 2nd century BC historical text Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, the Qin state traced its origin to Zhuanxu, one of the legendary Five Emperors in ancient times. One of his descendants, Boyi, was granted the family name of Yíng by Emperor Shun. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Yíng clan split in two: a Western branch in Quanqiu (present-day Lixian in Gansu) and another branch that lived east of the Yellow River. The latter became the ancestors of the rulers of the later Zhao state.

The western Yíng clan at Quanqiu were lords over the Xichui ("Western March") region west of Mount Long and served as a barrier for the Shang dynasty against invasions by the Western Rong barbarians. One of them, Elai, was killed defending King Zhou of Shang during the rebellion led by Ji Fa that established the Zhou dynasty. The Yíng clan was however allied with the politically influential marquesses of Shen, whom the Zhou monarch relied upon heavily to manage the Rong people, and was thus allowed to retain their lands and continued serving as an attached vassal under the Zhou dynasty. A younger son of line, Feizi, impressed King Xiao of Zhou so much with his horse breeding skills, that he was awarded a separate fief in the valley of Qin (present-day Qingshui and Zhangjiachuan County in Gansu) northeast of Quanqiu, and his seat was named Qinyi (in present-day Qingtingzhen, Qingshui County). Both branches of the western Yíng clan lived in the midst of the Rong tribes, sometimes fighting their armies and sometimes intermarrying with their kings.

It has been suggested by scholars such as Annette Juliano and Arthur Cotterel that having a horse-breeder as their ancestor may imply that the Yíng family had partial relation to nomadic tribes. As late as 266 BC, it was remarked by a noble of Wei that they shared customs with the Rong and Di tribes; the Central Plains states seemed to hold Qin culture and other peripheral states like Yan and Chu in low regard, due to the marginal location of their states. Qin was the second state after Zhao to adopt cavalry tactics from the nomads. Following the collapse of Zhou Dynasty, the Qin state absorbed cultures from two of the Four Barbarians from the west and north, which made the other warring states see their culture in low esteem.

In 842 BC, the nobles revolted against the corrupt King Li of Zhou, overthrowing him the following year, and the country fell into turmoil. The Xirong tribes used the opportunity to rebel against the Zhou dynasty, attacking and exterminating the senior branch of Yíng clan at Quanqiu, leaving the cadet branch at Qinyi the only surviving Yíng clan in the west. After King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne in 827 BC, he made Qin Zhong, Feizi's great grandson, the commander of his forces in the campaign against Xirong. Two years later in 822 BC, Qin Zhong was killed in battle, was succeeded by his eldest son Duke Zhuang. To commemorating Qin Zhong's loyalty, King Xuan summoned Duke Zhuang and his four younger brothers and gave them 7,000 soldiers. The Qin brothers successfully defeated the Rong and recovered their lost patrimony formerly held by the deceased branch of Yíng clan, and King Xuan further awarded them the territory of Quanqiu. Duke Zhuang moved his seat from Qinyi to Quanqiu, and had three sons. When he died in 778 BC, his eldest son Shifu wanted to stay fighting the Xirong and avenge their grandfather, turning down the succession, so his second son Duke Xiang ascended as the clan leader. Soon afterwards in 777 BC, Duke Xiang married his younger sister Mu Ying to a Rong leader called King Feng (丰王), in an apparent attempt to make peace. The following year he moved the Qin capital eastward from Quanqiu to Qian (汧, in present-day Long County, Shaanxi), but Quanqiu soon fell to the Rong again after he left. His older brother Shifu, who led the defence of Quanqiu, was captured by the Rong but was released a year later.

In 771 BC, the Marquess of Shen collaborated with the Zeng state and the Quanrong nomads, attacked and sacked the Zhou capital Haojing, killing King You of Zhou and ending the Western Zhou dynasty. Duke Xiang led his troops to escort King You's son King Ping to Luoyi, where the new capital city of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was established. In gratitude of Duke Xiang's service, King Ping formally enfeoffed Duke Xiang as a feudal lord and elevated Qin from an "attached state" (附庸 fùyōng, a minor state with limited autonomy under the rule of other liege lord) to a major vassal state, and further promised to permanently give Qin the land west of Qishan, the former heartland of Zhou, if Qin could expel the Rong tribes that were occupying it. The future generations of the Qin rulers were encouraged by this promise, and they launched several military campaigns on the Rong, eventually expanding their territories to beyond the original lands lost by the Western Zhou dynasty. The Qin state therefore viewed the Zhou rulers King Wen and Wu as their predecessors, and themselves as inheritors of their legacy.

Spring and Autumn period

Because their main concern was the Rongs to the west, Qin's interaction with other states in central China remained minimal throughout the Spring and Autumn period (722481BC), except with its immediate eastern neighbour Jin, a large vassal of the Zhou. Qin maintained good diplomatic relations with Jin and there were also marriages between members of the royal clans of both states, but relations between both sides had also deteriorated to the point of armed conflict before.

During the early reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the Jin state was a formidable power under the leadership of Duke Xian of Jin. However, after the death of Duke Xian, Jin plunged into a state of internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought over the succession. One of them won the contention and became Duke Hui of Jin, but Jin was struck by a famine not long later and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu sent relief food supplies and agricultural equipment to Jin. However, Qin was struck by famine later and by then, Jin had recovered and it turned to attack Qin. Qin and Jin engaged in several battles over the next few years.

During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu heard that one of Duke Xian's exiled sons, Chong'er, was taking refuge in the Chu state. After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissary to Chu to invite Chong'er over, and helped Chong'er defeat his brother Duke Hui and become the new ruler of Jin, with his title as "Duke Wen". Duke Wen was grateful to Duke Mu and relations between Qin and Jin improved. With his eastern front stable, Duke Mu used the opportunity to launch military campaigns against the minority tribes in the west.

In 627 BC, Duke Mu planned a secret attack on the State of Zheng, but the Qin army retreated after being tricked into believing that Zheng was already prepared for Qin's invasion. Duke Wen had died and his successor, Duke Xiang of Jin, ordered his troops to lay an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated at the Battle of Xiao (near present-day Luoning County, Henan) and suffered heavy casualties, and all three of its generals were captured but later released. Three years later, Qin attacked Jin for revenge and scored a major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance further east after holding a posthumous funeral service for those killed in action at the Battle of Xiao, and went back to focus on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's borders in the west. Duke Mu's achievements in the western campaigns and his handling of foreign relations with Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period.

In 506 BC, King Helü of Wu defeated Chu in the Battle of Boju and captured the Chu capital Ying (present day Jingzhou). Helü's advisor Wu Zixu, who was previously forced into exile by the already deceased King Ping of Chu and craved vengeance for the brutal execution of his father and brother, exhumed the King Ping's corpse and lashed it posthumously. This was a great humiliation for the Chu state, so Shen Baoxu, a Chu official and a former friend of Wu Zixu, travelled to the Qin court and pleaded for assistance from Duke Ai of Qin to recover the capital. After Duke Ai initially refused to help, Shen spent seven days crying in the palace courtyard, and Duke Ai was eventually moved by his devotion and agreed to send troops to assist Chu. The famous poem named "No Clothes" (无衣 Wú Yī), recorded in the Classic of Poetry, was a battle hymn personally composed by Duke Ai to boost the morale of the Qin troops. In 505 BC, the Qin and Chu armies jointly defeated Wu in several battles, allowing King Zhao of Chu to be restored and return to the recaptured capital.

Warring States Period

Early decline

During the early Warring States period, as its neighbours in the Central Plains began rapidly developing, Qin was still in a state of underdevelopment and decline. The Wei state, formed from the Partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin most relied on natural defenses, such as the Hangu Pass (函谷关; northeast of present-day Lingbao, Henan) and Wu Pass (武关, in present day Danfeng County) in the east, to protect its Guanzhong heartland. Between 413 and 409 BC during the reign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army led by Wu Qi, with support from Zhao and Han, attacked Qin and conquered some Qin territories west of the Yellow River.

Legalist reforms

After suffering losses in the battles with rival states such as Wei, the Qin rulers actively pursued legal, economic social reforms. When Duke Xiao came to the throne of Qin, he issued an announcement calling forth men of talent (including scholars, administrators, theorists and militarists) from other states to enter Qin and help him with his reforms, promising rewards of high offices and lands in return.

Among these foreign talents, Shang Yang successfully conducted a series of Legalist reforms in Qin with the support of Duke Xiao, despite facing strong opposition from conservative Qin politicians. Dire primogeniture were abolished, with all commoners granted citizenship rights. Many were resettled in new clusters focusing on increasing agricultural output. Meritocracy was practised throughout, especially in the military, with soldiers and officers receiving due rewards according to their contributions, regardless of their backgrounds. However, tough and strict laws were imposed as well, with draconian punishments being meted out for the slightest of offences, and even the nobility and royalty were not spared. After decades, the reforms strengthened Qin economically and militarily, and transformed it into a highly centralized state with an efficient administrative system.

After Duke Xiao's death, King Huiwen became the new ruler of Qin and he put Shang Yang to death by chariot-tearing on charges of treason, but some believed that the king harboured a personal grudge against Shang because he was harshly punished for a minor infraction in his adolescence under Shang's reformed system. However, King Huiwen and his successors retained the reformed systems and they helped to lay the foundation for Qin's eventual unification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC. Shang Yang's theories were further elaborated later by Han Fei, another Legalist scholar who combined Shang's ideas with those of Shen Buhai and Shen Dao, that would form the core of the philosophies of Legalism. Qin rose to prominence in the late 3rd century BC after the reforms and emerged as one of the dominant superpowers of the Seven Warring States.

Ascendancy

Qin's power continued growing in the following century after Shang Yang's reform, owing the success to the industriousness of its people. The Qin kings authorized many state development projects, including large public works such as irrigation canals and defensive structures.

One of the most obvious results of the reforms was the change in Qin's military. Previously, the army was under the control of Qin's nobles and comprised feudal levies. After Shang Yang's reforms, the aristocracy system was abolished and replaced by one based on meritocracy, in which ordinary citizens had equal opportunities as the nobles to be promoted to high ranks. In addition, military discipline was strongly enforced and the troops were trained to adapt better to different battle situations. Qin's military strength increased largely with the full support of the state. In 318 BC, the states of Wei, Zhao, Han, Yan and Chu formed an alliance and attacked Qin, but did not manage to advance beyond Hangu Pass, and were defeated by counter-attacking Qin forces. The alliance crumbled due to mistrust and suspicion and lack of coordination among the five states.

Apart from the effects on Qin's military, Shang Yang's reforms also increased labour for numerous public works projects aimed at boosting agriculture, and made it possible for Qin to maintain and supply an active military force of more than a million troops. This feat could not be accomplished by any other state, except Chu, during that time. Qin's conquests of the southern states of Ba and Shu in present-day Sichuan province also provided Qin with major strategic advantages. The lands in the new territories were very fertile, and helped serve as a "backyard" for supplies and additional manpower. It was hard for Qin's rivals to attack Ba and Shu, since the territories were located deep in the mountains upstream of the Yangtze River. At the same time, Qin's strategic position in Ba and Shu provided it with a platform for launching attacks on the Chu state, which lies downstream of the Yangtze.

Wars against Chu, Han, and Wei

During the reign of King Huiwen of Qin, the Chu state to the southeast became a target for Qin's aggression. Although Chu had the largest operation-ready army of all the Seven Warring States at over a million troops, its administrative and military strength was plagued by corruption and divided among the nobles. Zhang Yi, a Qin strategist, suggested to King Huiwen to exercise Qin's interest at the expense of Chu. Over the following years, Zhang engineered and executed a number of diplomatic plots against Chu, supported by the constant military raids on Chu's northwestern border. Chu suffered many defeats in battles against Qin and was forced to cede territories to Qin. King Huai I of Chu was furious and ordered a military campaign against Qin, but he was tricked by Zhang Yi into breaking diplomatic ties with his allies, and his angered allies joined Qin in inflicting a crushing defeat on Chu. In 299 BC, King Huai I was tricked into attending a diplomatic conference in Qin, where he was captured and held hostage until his death. In the meantime, Qin launched several attacks on Chu and eventually sacked the Chu capital city of Chen (陈; present-day Jiangling County, Hubei province). The crown prince of Chu fled east and was crowned King Qingxiang of Chu in the new capital city of Shouchun (寿春; present-day Shou County, Anhui province).

In the next five decades after King Huiwen's death, King Zhaoxiang of Qin shifted his attention to the Central Plains after the victories in the south against Chu. In the early years of King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Marquis of Rang (穰侯) served as Qin's chancellor and he actively pushed for military campaigns against the Qi state in the far eastern part of China. However, the marquis had his personal motives, as he intended to use Qin's powerful military to help him conquer a fief in Qi territories, since the lands were not directly linked to Qin and would not be under the Qin government's direct administration.

Subsequently, King Zhaoxiang's foreign advisor, Fan Sui, advised the king to abandon those fruitless campaigns against distant states. King Zhaoxiang heeded Fan's advice and changed Qin's foreign policy to adopting good diplomatic relations with distant states (Yan and Qi), while concentrating on attacking nearby states (Zhao, Han and Wei). As a consequence, Qin began to launch constant attacks on Han and Wei over the next decades, conquering several territories in its campaigns. By then, Qin's territories had expanded to beyond the eastern shore of the Yellow River and Han and Wei were reduced to the status of "buffers" from Qin for the other states in the east.

Wars against Zhao

Starting from 265 BC, Qin launched a massive invasion on Han and forced Han to cede its territory of Shangdang (上党; in present-day Shanxi province). However, Han offered Shangdang to Zhao instead, which led to a conflict between Qin and Zhao for control of Shangdang. Qin and Zhao engaged in the three-year-long Battle of Changping, followed by another three-year siege by Qin on Zhao's capital city of Handan. The conflict at Changping was deemed as a power struggle, as both sides pitted their forces against each other not only on the battlefield, but also in the domestic context. Although Qin had an abundance of resources and vast manpower, it had to enlist every man above the age of 15 for war-related duties, ranging from front-line service to logistics and agriculture. King Zhaoxiang of Qin even personally directed his army's supply lines. The extent of mobilization and the exhaustion in the aftermath was not seen in world history for another 2,000 years, until this concept of total war re-entered the stage during World War I. Qin's eventual victory in 260 BC was attributed to its use of schemes to stir up internal conflict in Zhao, which led to the replacement of Zhao's military leaders.

Following the Qin victory at the Battle of Changping, the Qin commander Bai Qi ordered the 400,000 prisoners-of-war from Zhao to be executed by burying them alive. Subsequently, the Qin forces marched on the Zhao capital city of Handan in an attempt to conquer Zhao completely. However, the Qin troops were unable to capture Handan as they were already exhausted and also because the Zhao forces put up fierce resistance. King Xiaocheng of Zhao offered six cities to Qin as a peace offer and King Zhaoxiang of Qin accepted the offer after being persuaded by Fan Sui. Within Zhao, many officials strongly opposed King Xiaocheng's decision to give up the cities and subsequent delays caused the siege on Handan to be prolonged until 258 BC. Meanwhile, Bai Qi was consecutively replaced by Wang Xi, Wang Ling and Zheng Anping as the Qin commander at the siege.

In 257 BC, Qin was still unable to penetrate Handan after besieging it for three years, and Zhao requested aid from the neighbouring states of Wei and Chu. Wei was hesitant to help Zhao initially, but launched an attack on Qin after seeing that Qin was already exhausted after years of war. The Qin forces crumbled and retreated and Zheng Anping surrendered. The combined forces of Wei and Chu continued to pursue the retreating Qin army and Wei managed to retake part of its original lands that were lost to Qin earlier.

Infrastructural works

In the middle of the 3rd century BC, Zheng Guo, a hydraulic engineer from the Han state, was sent to Qin to advise King Zhaoxiang of Qin on constructing irrigation canals. Qin had a penchant for building large-scale canals, as evident from its Min River irrigation system. King Zhaoxiang approved Zheng Guo's idea on constructing an even bigger canal. The project was completed in 264 BC and the canal was named after Zheng. Qin benefitted from the project as it became one of the most fertile states in China due to the good irrigation system, and also because it could now raise more troops as a consequence of increased agricultural yield.

Unification

In 247 BC, the 13-year-old Ying Zheng became king of Qin after the sudden death of King Zhuangxiang. However, Ying Zheng did not wield state power fully in his hands until 238 BC, after eliminating his political rivals Lü Buwei and Lao Ai. Ying formulated a plan for conquering the other six states and unifying China with help from Li Si and Wei Liao.

In 230 BC, Qin attacked Han, the weakest of the Seven Warring States, and succeeded in conquering Han within a year. Since 236 BC, Qin had been launching several assaults on Zhao, which had been devastated by its calamitous defeat at the Battle of Changping three decades ago. Although Qin faced strong resistance from the Zhao forces, led by general Li Mu, it still managed to defeat the Zhao army by using a ploy to sow discord between King Qian of Zhao and Li Mu, causing King Qian to order Li Mu's execution and replace Li with the less competent Zhao Cong. Zhao eventually fell to Qin in 228 BC after the capital city of Handan was taken. However, a Zhao noble managed to escape with remnant forces and proclaim himself king in Dai. Dai fell to Qin six years later.

After the fall of Zhao, Qin turned its attention towards Yan. Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent Jing Ke to assassinate Ying Zheng but the assassination attempt failed and Qin used that as an excuse to attack Yan. Yan lost to Qin at a battle on the eastern bank of the Yi River in 226 BC and King Xi of Yan fled with remnant forces to Liaodong. Qin attacked Yan again in 222 BC and annexed Yan completely. In 225 BC, the Qin army led by Wang Ben invaded Wei and besieged Wei's capital city of Daliang for three months. Wang directed the waters from the Yellow River and the Hong Canal to flood Daliang and King Jia of Wei surrendered and Wei was conquered.

In 224 BC, Qin prepared for an attack on Chu, its most powerful rival among the six states. During a discussion between Ying Zheng and his subjects, the veteran general Wang Jian claimed that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, but the younger general Li Xin thought that 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng put Li Xin in command of the Qin army to attack Chu. The Chu defenders, led by Xiang Yan, took Li Xin's army by surprise and defeated the Qin invaders. The defeat was deemed as the greatest setback for Qin in its wars to unify China. Ying Zheng put Wang Jian in command of the 600,000 strong army as he had requested and ordered Wang to lead another attack on Chu. Wang scored a major victory against the Chu forces in 224 BC and Xiang Yan was killed in action. The following year, Qin pushed on and captured Chu's capital city of Shouchun, bringing an end to Chu's existence. In 222 BC, the Qin army advanced southward and annexed the Wuyue region (covering present-day Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces).

By 221 BC, Qi was the only rival state left. Qin advanced into the heartland of Qi via a southern detour, avoiding direct confrontation with the Qi forces on Qi's western border and arrived at Qi's capital city of Linzi swiftly. The Qi forces were taken by surprise and surrendered without putting up resistance. Following the fall of Qi in 221 BC, China was unified under the rule of Qin. Ying Zheng declared himself "Qin Shi Huang" (meaning "First Emperor of Qin") and founded the Qin Dynasty, becoming the first sovereign ruler of a united China.

Culture and society

Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu, composed in the 4th or 5th century BC and included in the Book of Documents, there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail in this book. The work focuses on the travels of the titular sage, Yu the Great, throughout each of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations.

One of these texts was The Book of Master Wu, written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the military threat posed by competing states. Wu Qi, the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of the terrain they live in. Of Qin, he said:

According to Wu, the nature of the people is a result of the government, which is in turn a result of the roughness of the terrain. Each of the states is expounded upon by Wu in this manner.

Following a visit to Qin in 264 BC, the Confucian philosopher Xun Kuang noted that Qin society was "simple and unsophisticated" and their people stood in awe of their officials, but was completely devoid of Confucian literati. Though disliked by many Confucians of its time for "dangerously lacking in Confucian scholars," Confucian Xun Kuang wrote of the later Qin that "its topographical features are inherently advantageous," and that its "manifold natural resources gave it remarkable inherent strength. Its people were unspoiled and exceedingly deferential; its officers unfailingly respectful, earnest, reverential, loyal, and trustworthy; and its high officials public-spirited, intelligent, and assiduous in the execution of the duties of their position. Its courts and bureaus functioned without delays and with such smoothness that it was as if there were no government at all."

In his Petition against driving away foreigners (谏逐客书), Li Si mentioned that guzheng and percussion instruments made of pottery and tiles were characteristic of Qin music.

Rulers

List of Qin rulers based on the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, with corrections by Han Zhaoqi:

In popular culture

The events during the reigns of Duke Xiao, King Huiwen, King Wu and King Zhaoxiang are romanticised in a series of historical novels by Sun Haohui. The novels are adapted into the television series The Qin Empire (2009), The Qin Empire II: Alliance (2012) and The Qin Empire III (2017).

The Japanese manga, "Kingdom" by Hara Yasuhisa, tells a fictionalised story of the life of Qin Shi Huang and the unification of China with some references to the era of Duke Mu.

Qin is a playable faction in the PC game Oriental Empires by Iceberg Interactive.

A Step into the Past tells about a 21st-century Hong Kong VIPPU officer who travels back in time to the Warring States period of ancient China. He is involved in a number of important historical events that leads to the first unification of China under the Qin dynasty. The series' first original broadcast ran from 15 October to 7 December 2001 on the TVB Jade network in Hong Kong.

Qin in astronomy

Qin is represented by two stars, Theta Capricorni ( Qín yī, literally First Star of Qin) and 30 Capricorni ( Qín èr, literally Second Star of Qin), in Twelve States asterism. Qin is also represented by the star Delta Serpentis in asterism Right Wall, Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation).

历史

起源

根据《史记秦本纪》记载，秦人的先祖，据说为大业之子伯益。在周朝时受封在陇西建立诸侯国。

秦国先祖中潏为商朝「保西垂」。其子蜚廉是商朝末年帝辛的宠臣。据清华简《系年》的第三章，周初三监之乱平定后，蜚廉」东逃于商奄氏。成王伐商奄，杀蜚廉，西迁商奄之民于邾，以御奴之戎，是秦先人。」。李学勤先生鉴于秦人和东方的奄国同姓，同主少皞，又蜚廉东逃于此，认为秦人可能最初起源于东方，和奄国同源。在西周初年因获罪及曾「保西垂」，被谪戍西方。

西周周穆王之后，秦人地位继续提升，其家族首领大骆与周人也有姻亲关系的申侯结为婚姻。因此据司马迁的说法，大骆之子非子被别封于秦，为周王室的大夫。后来升格为附庸。天子之附庸与诸侯之附庸级别是不同的，其地位相当于一个畿内诸侯。司马迁也补充，秦人成为附庸后，长期对西部戎人作战，实力得到扩充。

根据史记，相传秦的先祖为三皇五帝时期的伯益，最早为夏朝诸候，后归顺商汤，灭夏。在殷商大戊时，中衍成为重要的诸侯。其子蜚廉，其孙恶来、季胜。武王克殷时，恶来被杀。蜚廉一系在此时分为两支，恶来之子孙为秦国之祖，其弟季胜为赵氏之祖。季胜后人造父在周穆王时为周王御者，受封赵城，遂为赵氏。恶来一系居于犬丘，在周孝王时受封秦邑。

秦国部落迁至西垂地区，有两种说法，一据战国末年的《孟子》说是在晚商时期，因为周武王讨伐殷商时，蜚廉支持殷商，因此被杀，其氏族被强迫迁至西垂。另一个传说是，在商朝时，戎胥轩时，与郦山之女通婚生下中潏，迁至西垂。

蜚廉生下恶来、季胜二子。恶来被周武王所杀，其后为大骆，居犬丘，以畜牧为生。大骆生成与非子，并与周朝申侯通婚。周孝王封非子，成为秦国先祖。季胜一系则成为赵国先祖。

在秦景公一号大墓中发现过一片石罄，铭文如下：天子郾喜，龚桓是嗣；高阳有灵，四方以鼐。大意为天子举行宴飨，（作罄者是）（秦）共公、（秦）桓公的继承者，先祖高阳在天有灵，国内得以四方生平。高阳氏，即颛顼，黄帝之孙，位列「五帝」。由此看来秦人源自华夏人群，早期秦文化源自中原商周文化，与西戎差异甚大，但由于长期辟居西隅，亦吸收了不少戎狄文化，在长期与戎狄的战争中，秦人养成了粗犷好战的性格。

秦最初领地在当时属于周朝的边缘地区，西接西戎。公元前905年，周孝王封非子于秦邑（今甘肃省甘肃省天水市清水县东北）为天子之附庸，使复嬴氏祀，号曰「秦嬴」，秦国伊始。

早期历史

非子死后，其子秦侯即位，秦侯元年（前855年），秦国始有确切纪年。秦侯在位十年，死后其子秦公伯即位，公伯在位三年，死后其子秦仲即位。秦仲三年（前842年），周厉王暴虐无道，西戎反叛周王室，灭掉犬丘大骆之族，秦仲二十一年（前824年），周宣王以秦仲为大夫，命其率军讨伐西戎。秦仲二十三年（前822年），秦仲在与西戎的战争中战死，秦仲有子五人，由长子嬴祺即位，史称秦庄公；少子康(第五子)嬴庆为梁伯康(春秋时期梁国国君)。周宣王召见秦庄公兄弟五人，授予他七千士卒，命其讨伐西戎，大获全胜，重新夺取犬丘之地，随后庄公迁都犬丘，秦庄公因为战功被周宣王封为西陲大夫。庄公生子三人，长子名世父，世父对祖父秦仲被西戎杀死的事情耿耿于怀，于是带兵攻打西戎，将太子之位让与其弟襄公。 秦襄公元年（前777年），将妹妹缪嬴嫁予西戎丰王，以缓和秦戎关系。次年（前776年），西戎围犬丘，世父率军奋力御敌，不幸被俘，由于秦戎联姻，一年之后世父又被戎人放归秦国。

春秋时期

获封为伯

秦襄公七年（前771年），申侯联合犬戎攻打周王室，杀死周幽王，秦襄公率军救周，屡立战功，随后秦襄公审时度势，支持周平王，并护送周室东迁洛邑。秦襄公因此被周平王封为秦伯，又被赐封岐山以西之地，秦正式成为诸侯国。

向东扩张

秦襄公得到周平王的许诺后，大力征伐犬戎，秦襄公十二年（前766年)，率军伐犬戎抵达周朝故地岐山，战死。其子德即位，是为秦文公，秦文公四年（前762年），在渭水与汧水交汇处营建新的都邑，文公十六年（前750年），秦文公驱逐戎人，收纳周朝的遗民，将疆域扩展到岐山。文公之子静公（史记作靖公）早死，文公死后由其孙宪公即位（史记误作宁公），秦宪公二年（前714年），迁都平阳，三年（前713年），伐灭荡社，其君亳王逃往戎地，十二年（前704年），灭亡荡氏。

秦晋关系

到了秦穆公时代，降服西戎八国，亦同时参与中原争霸，成为与晋国、楚国的霸主级别强国。晋献公时，秦晋两国维持著良好关系，而秦亦致力巩固及开拓西陲。公元前651年，晋献公死，众晋公子争位，晋国陷入动乱，而秦穆公亦开始把战略目标东移。晋公子夷吾流亡国外，并许诺秦穆公若以秦助继晋侯位，则以黄河以西的土地报答秦国。及秦军送夷吾回晋，立为晋惠公，而秦却没有得河西土地。秦穆公亦没有追究。过了数年晋国旱灾，晋求粮于秦，穆公卖粮食及农具与晋。翌年，秦国大旱，穆公欲购粮于晋，而惠公不许。秦穆公大怒伐晋，战于韩，俘虏了晋惠公。因晋惠公的姐姐是穆公的夫人，才得以被放回晋国。以后数年秦晋之间皆有徵战。后来秦穆公听说晋献公有一公子重耳流亡于楚国，遂请重耳到秦，并举兵助其回晋国。时晋惠公已死，其子晋怀公刚立不足一年，被公子重耳和秦军攻杀。公元前636年，重耳继位为晋文公，在位九年，秦晋修好。

公元前628年，晋文公去世，晋襄公立。这一年秦穆公秘密攻打郑国，秦军于行军途中被贩牛的郑国商人弦高识破，失去了突袭的先机，遂收兵回秦。当时晋襄公探得秦军回军的路径，两军大战于淆，秦军覆没。消息传回秦国，穆公懊悔悲恸，秦人大愤。前625年，秦穆公发兵伐晋复仇，又败于彭衙。过了一年，秦穆公亲自率兵再次讨伐晋国，渡过黄河以后，将渡船全部焚毁，表示誓死克敌的决心。晋军拒不出战。穆公在当年的淆战场埋葬尸骨及树立标记，然后班师回国。

及后，因秦国东进的路被晋国堵塞，秦国的战略转回传统的经营西陲。秦康公，桓公，景公时期，秦晋一再发生战争，几经拉锯。秦国国势亦随著战争被拖至逐渐衰弱。

弭兵之会

公元前546年，秦景公在位期间，宋国、晋国、楚国、齐国、秦国等14国举行弭兵之会，签订的盟约是：「晋、楚之从，交相见也。」（奉晋、楚两国为共同霸主，除齐、秦外，各国须向晋、楚同样纳贡，晋的仆从国要朝贡楚国，而楚的仆从国要朝贡晋国，齐国作为晋国的盟国，不朝拜楚国，秦国为楚国的盟国，亦不朝于晋国），秦哀公在位期间，申包胥曾前往秦庭痛哭求师助楚昭王复国，留下「申包胥哭秦庭」这一典故。

战国时期

战国初期魏国连年进攻秦国，夺取河西之地，设立西河郡(见河西之战)，秦国被迫退守洛水以西，走入下坡。这形势一直到商鞅变法才开始改变。

公元前356年，秦孝公任命商鞅为左庶长，商鞅开始第一次变法。主要内容为：第一，「令民为什伍」，实行连坐法；第二，重农抑商，奖励耕织；第三奖励军功，按功受爵，贵族无军功不再受爵；第四，「燔诗书而明法令」。前350年商鞅又进行第二次变法，主要内容有：统一秦国的度量衡；废分封，行县制；「为田开阡陌封疆」，废除井田制，以法律形式确立土地私有制度。商鞅变法后，秦国逐步强盛起来，军队的战斗力也有所提高，使秦国成为当时最强盛的诸侯国，为后来秦统一六国奠定了基础。但是商鞅实行的严刑峻法和文化高压政策，对后来的秦朝有消极影响。商鞅变法遭到了旧贵族的强烈反对。秦孝公死后，商鞅被施以车裂之刑。但商鞅变法的措施在秦国继续下去，他主张的法家思想，也成为秦国占统治地位的政治思想。

公元前三世纪以后，东方各国衰落下去，秦国无敌于天下。秦昭襄王时，其母宣太后与义渠通婚，使诈杀义渠戎王于甘泉，将义渠并入秦国。公元前279年的郢之战和前278年的鄢之战，白起统帅的秦军攻占当时政治核心在南阳和丹阳一带的楚国，攻陷楚国首都，所得领土改置南阳郡、南郡、临江郡（江夏郡）、黔中郡，楚迁都寿郢；至此南方大国楚国因为丧失大片疆土和人口而走向衰落，公元前260年白起在长平之战重创赵国，秦国消灭及坑杀赵国降卒共四十馀万，这是战国时期兼并战争中规模最大、杀伤最多的一次战役，秦国威震天下。公元前256年秦国灭西周国，周王朝统治的最后象徵被消灭。

前247年秦王政登基，开始征服六国。从前230年秦灭韩国起，到前221年秦灭齐国，统一中国。中国历史结束诸侯封建时代，进入中央集权君主专制时代。

社会经济

秦国社会经济仍以农业为主。

• 春秋时代晚期，出现了铸铁农具。

• 战国时代，修建了郑国渠、都江堰等水利工程，进一步促使农业生产发展。

• 手工业以冶铜和制陶最为发达。发明了铬盐氧化处理兵器的新工艺；建筑材料颇具特色，瓦当更是精美的艺术品。

• 重视小儿的健康与教育，有专门的小儿医生。

葬仪

秦国国君陵园在雍城陵区发现13座，芷阳陵区发现4座，士大夫与国人墓葬已发掘至近千座，国君称王之前使用「中」字形诸侯级墓制，称王之后使用「亚」字形王级墓制，广泛使用人殉（秦献公废除），殉葬物品丰富，规模宏大。其中秦公一号大墓（及秦景公墓地）殉葬186人，为中国有史以来发掘坟墓中殉葬人数最多的一座。

人口

西元前360年，约130万~160万

军事

秦国军队自商鞅变法实行奖励军功政策后愈战愈勇。武器装备不断改进。军队数量多时达到「带甲之士百万」，出现了尉缭、白起、王翦、蒙恬等著名军事家和将领。

人物简表

春秋时期 （前770年～前5世纪）

战国时期 （前5世纪～前221年）

秦朝|秦朝时期（前221年～前207年）

楚汉|楚汉时期（前207年～前202年）

世系简表

衍生作品

影视

• 《大秦帝国之裂变》

• 《大秦帝国之纵横》

• 《大秦帝国之崛起》

• 《大秦赋》

• 《秦始皇》

• 《东周列国战国篇》

动画

• 《王者天下》

注释