Early life

Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui (段啓瑞), his courtesy name was Zhiquan (芝泉). His grandfather was Duan Pei (段佩), an officer in Li Hongzhang's privately raised Huai Army (Huai Jun, 淮军). His father died early and he was raised by his maternal grandmother.

Early career

In 1885 Duan Qirui entered Tianjin Military Academy, specializing in artillery, and graduated at the top of his class. After graduation, he was sent to Lüshun to oversee the construction of artillery fortifications and came to the attention of Li Hongzhang, who sent him to study military science in Germany for two years. After returning to China he was first named as a commissioner to the Beiyang Armory (北洋军械局) and then an instructor at Weihai military academy. Soon he was able to gain the sponsorship of Yuan Shikai, who named him an artillery commander in the New Army.

Duan first saw action in the Boxer Rebellion, where he served Yuan in Shandong province and distinguished himself in combat against the Boxers. Yuan then gave him command over a Beiyang army division in 1904. In 1906 he was appointed director of the Baoding Staff College, which allowed him to begin recruiting his own clique of loyal junior officers. Yuan arranged for the marriage of his niece, whom he had adopted, to Duan in an effort to consolidate his power and solidify Duan's loyalty.

After the outbreak of the Wuchang Uprising of 1911 against the Qing dynasty, Duan commanded the loyalist Second Army Corps against the revolutionary army in the Battle of Yangxia and succeeded in taking back Hankou and Hanyang. After Yuan Shikai altered the course of the Xinhai Revolution by forcing the emperor to abdicate, Duan supported him. For his loyalty Yuan appointed him military governor of both Hunan and Hubei provinces. He was further named to Yuan's cabinet as minister of war in 1912, then premier in 1913 while also keeping his position as war minister. Because he had publicly supported the Emperor's abdication while serving as an envoy of the central government in 1911, Duan's promotions were supported by the Kuomintang.

Politics

Duan rose to power as a close ally of Yuan Shikai, but the two came to increasingly disagree with each other over various issues as time went on. One of the main problems was that Duan began to amass influence over the Beiyang Army as minister of war, thereby undermining Yuan's own control over the soldiers. Realizing his growing power, Duan became more independent and gradually challenged the President over appointments and reforms in the military. As both had volatile tempers, their quarrels became ever more heated, and Yuan eventually started to counter Duan's rise. Using Duan and the Beiyang Army's failure to suppress the Bai Lang Rebellion as reason, he initiated reforms to purge the military of Duan's followers and raise a new army which was supposed to be more capable than the Beiyang Army while also being loyal to Yuan himself. As Duan fell sick in late 1914, he was unable to stop the President's plans, and he was thus dismissed as minister of war in May 1915.

Having expected to eventually succeed Yuan in the presidency, Duan thus came to oppose Yuan's attempt to declare himself Emperor in late 1915. After several provinces declared independence from Yuan's government, Duan tried to play the intermediary between the rebels and Yuan, just as Yuan had done during the Xinhai Revolution. Their friendship never recovered, even after Duan was given the premiership, partially because Yuan had shrewdly stripped that office of its powers. Duan served as premier intermittently from 1913 to 1918, under several governments, as part of a series of shaky coalitions (which often collapsed). Yuan's attempt to establish his own dynasty had destroyed the unity of China, and many provinces had achieved de facto independence from Beijing as early as 1915.

State Premier

In 1916, when Yuan Shikai was on his deathbed, he called several of the most important political and military figures in his government, including Duan, to hear his last political testament. Yuan was only able to say two words: "the Constitution", which no one was able to interpret. Yuan's 1914 constitution stipulated that, in the event of the impending death of China's president, the president would place the names of three men to potentially succeed him after his death. After his death, the box would be opened and one of the men named would be elected.

Yuan died on June 6, 1916. When the box was opened, Duan Qirui, Li Yuanhong and Xu Shichang were named. None initially wanted to take the presidency. Duan consulted with other senior military leaders of northern China, calculated that Li was the weakest and least popular of the three and then successfully pressured him to take the presidency, possibly under the rationale that a weak, unpopular president would be easier to manipulate. Duan served under Li as premier, but dominated him—and the rest of the government—and ruled for a time as the effective dictator of northern China, challenged mostly by semi-independent warlords. Neither Duan nor Li ever attempted to submit Li's appointment as president to a parliamentary or general election, indicating Duan's general contempt for constitutional reform.

Duan Qirui, in his appointment as Premier, refused to recognize the old 1912 constitution. He was opposed by both President Li Yuanhong and Vice President Feng Guozhang, the second most important Beiyang military commander after Duan himself. On June 15, 1917, the admiral of the Chinese First Fleet, Li Tingxin, along with China's most senior naval commanders issued a statement supporting the 1912 constitution and threatened to ignore orders from Beijing if the constitution was not restored, declaring their solidarity with the "National Protection Army" in the southwest, which also claimed to support the constitution. Eventually Feng was able to persuade Duan to relent and the dissident government in the south agreed to dissolve itself when Parliament was reconvened. Nevertheless, the parliament and the country remained as divided as ever between north and south. Duan and the other Beiyang leaders refused to be dictated to by southern parliamentarians, composed mostly of Sun Yat-sen's Guangdong-based Kuomintang party, backed by southern armies outside Beiyang control. Duan decided to take action against southern military commanders by reassigning them to other posts and thereby breaking their control. In order to do this he decided to oust the pro-Kuomintang military commander of Hunan; however, his cabinet refused to do so. In spite of this, Duan's right-hand man and Cabinet Secretary, Xu Shuzheng, issued orders on his own initiative to launch an attack on Hunan.

World War I

In Europe World War I had reached a crucial point by 1916–17. Duan saw an opportunity to ingratiate China with the European powers and the US by declaring on the side of the Allies against Central powers. However, Duan was opposed again by both the president and vice-president, along with most of the parliament. He was impatient to gain parliament's approval through negotiation and resorted to bullying tactics with organized mobs. In response, president Li Yuanhong in May 1917 dismissed Duan as premier after parliament had voted to ask for his resignation.

At this juncture a monarchist general, Zhang Xun, marched his army into Beijing and announced the restoration of the Qing dynasty on July 1, 1917. Outraged, the other Beiyang generals, led by vice-president Feng Guozhang, mobilized their forces and ended the short-lived restoration attempt. Duan was returned to power while Li Yuanhong, having had enough of Beiyang politics, resigned the presidency. A few days later, on August 14, 1917, China entered the First World War on the side of the Allies. Duan declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary Empire and took back Germany's settlement and Austria Hungary's settlement in Tianjin. By entering the war, Duan hoped for some quid pro quo from China's new allies, such as the cancellation of many of the indemnities and concessions that China had been forced to sign in the past. He also hoped that China could gain international prestige by involving itself in "The Great War".

Duan's strategy now was to negotiate financial loans with Japan, in exchange for concessions, to fund a military buildup for the conquest of the south. The political cover for this army was the entry of China into the First World War. With the poor state of the government's credit and European wartime expenses making both Western and domestic financing impossible, he secretly negotiated the first of the Nishihara Loans with Japan on September 29, 1917. In exchange he offered Japan the right to station troops in Shandong province as well as the right to build and run two new Shandong railroads. There would be a high political price to pay when these negotiations came to light later on, but in the meantime Duan got the money for his army. This later became part of the reason for the Shandong Problem.

Anhui clique

After Feng Guozhang had restored him as premier, Duan Qirui quickly began preparations to mobilize troops for conquest of the south. The south responded by forming another rival government against the north and organizing the Constitutional Protection Movement. Duan dispatched two former subordinates of Feng Guozhang to the south to conquer Hunan, the linchpin of central China; one of these commanders was Wu Peifu. Wu supported Feng's preference for peaceful reconciliation with the south and refused to fight. Embarrassed by this fiasco, Duan was forced to resign a second time as premier in November 1917.

Nevertheless, Duan still exercised enormous influence in Beijing due to the various military commanders who were still loyal to him. Feng Guozhang was forced to reappoint him to the cabinet as Minister of War, and once again Duan dispatched troops to the south. He also ordered Zhang Zuolin, military ruler of Manchuria, to send troops to Beijing as a ploy to further pressure Feng to restore him to the premiership. However, Wu Peifu once again refused to follow his orders to invade the southern provinces. Faced with the threat from Feng Guozhang, Cao Kun and Wu Peifu's coalescing "Zhili clique," Duan attempted to strengthen his position by forming his own political party called the "Anhui clique." He also used the funds from the Nishihara Loans to build up his military forces, employing Japanese officers to train his troops.

President Feng Guozhang's term expired on October 10, 1918; in an attempt to placate the south, he agreed not to seek re-election provided Duan also vacate the office of premier on the same day. Duan's position was also weakening as rumours of his secret dealings with the Japanese began to surface. When the Nishihara Loans were exposed, along with the secret treaty between the Allies and Japan to transfer Shandong to the Japanese, at the Versailles peace conference, Beijing and the rest of the nation exploded in protest in what came to be known as the "May Fourth Movement" on May 4, 1919. Duan's rivals Cao Kun and Wu Peifu of the Zhili clique moved to corner him by organizing an alliance of military leaders, including Zhang Zuolin, who opposed Duan. They also engineered the dismissal of Duan's key subordinate Xu Shuzheng on July 4, 1919. In retribution, Duan forced the new president to dismiss both Cao and Wu even though there was no possible way to actually remove them from their posts. He also renamed his army the "National Pacification Army" and mobilized them for war with the Zhili clique and its supporters.

The bombing of the Forbidden City

Aisin Gioro Puyi was restored to the Emperor's throne at the Forbidden City by the warlord and Qing loyalist Zhang Xun in July 1917, and ordering his army to keep their queues in loyal service to the Qing emperor. However, there was extensive opposition across China to return to imperial monarchy, and as a show of force, Duan Qirui ordered a Caudron Type D aircraft, piloted by Pan Shizhong (潘世忠) and bombardier Du Yuyuan (杜裕源) from Nanyuan airbase to drop three bombs over the Forbidden City, causing the death of an eunuch, but otherwise minor damage. This is the first recorded instance of aerial bombardment by the early-Republican era Chinese Air Force.

Fall from power

The conflict came to be known as the Zhili–Anhui War and lasted from July 14 to July 18, 1920. Although Duan's army had been equipped and trained by Japan, it succumbed easily to Wu Peifu-led Zhili forces and their allies. His military power shattered, Duan fled to a Japanese settlement in Tianjin and became an apartment landlord. The Anhui clique began to lose its coherency, as some of its members became affiliated with either the Zhili clique or Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian faction. Only Zhejiang remained in the hands of the Anhui clique, although it eventually fell in 1924. Shandong was allowed by the Zhili clique to later be taken over by an Anhui warlord under strict conditions of neutrality. Nevertheless, some Anhui clique politicians remained active in government as the Zhili clique and Fengtian faction began to maneuver against each other. Jin Yunpeng, who had been a protege of Duan, was appointed premier in August 1920. Other Anhui members secretly mediated between Zhang Zuolin and Feng Yuxiang, an important leader in the Zhili clique, when the latter decided to revolt against his former allies in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War.

Return as chief executive

Feng Yuxiang's defection resulted in the defeat of Wu Peifu and the Zhili clique and forced them to withdraw to the south. The victorious Zhang Zuolin unpredictably named Duan Qirui as the new Chief Executive of the nation on November 24, 1924. Duan's new government was grudgingly accepted by the Zhili clique because, without an army of his own, Duan was now considered a neutral choice. In addition, instead of "President" Duan was now called the "Chief Executive," implying that the position was temporary and therefore politically weak. Duan Qirui called on Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang in the south to restart negotiations towards national reunification. Sun demanded that the "unequal treaties" with foreign powers be repudiated and that a new national assembly be assembled. Bowing to public pressure, Duan promised a new national assembly in three months; however he could not unilaterally discard the "unequal treaties," since the foreign powers had made official recognition of Duan's regime contingent upon respecting these very treaties. Sun died on March 12, 1925, and the negotiations fell apart.

With his clique's military power in a shambles, Duan's government was hopelessly dependent on Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zuolin. Knowing that those two did not get along, he secretly tried to play one side against the other. On March 18, 1926, a protest march was held against continued foreign infringement on Chinese sovereignty and a recent incident in Tianjin involving a Japanese warship. Duan dispatched military police to disperse the protesters, and in the resulting melee 47 protesters were killed and over 200 injured, including Li Dazhao, co-founder of the Communist Party. The event came to be known as the March 18 Massacre. The next month Feng Yuxiang again revolted, this time against the Fengtian clique, and deposed Duan, who was forced to flee to Zhang Zuolin for protection. Zhang, tired of his double-dealings, refused to restore him after re-capturing Beijing. Most of the Anhui clique had already sided with Zhang. Duan Qirui exiled himself to Tianjin and later moved to Shanghai where he died on November 2, 1936.

Personal life

Duan gained a reputation as tough and authoritarian, but without a great love for public office. He was observed to have a "Buddhist inclination", and enjoyed solitude. He delegated great authority to his subordinates, and generally supported their decisions. His chief professional interest was the training of soldiers. In government, he favored a cabinet system, in which decisions were made among a small group of powerful men, rather than either the one-man dictatorship favored by Yuan Shikai or the open, consultative form of government proposed by Sun Yat-sen.

Duan was also well known as a player and patron of weiqi (Go). He usually won because his opponents feared defeating him, with the exception of his son-in-law, who was also a patron of weiqi and was not afraid of defeating his father-in-law. Duan had four daughters. After Duan's retirement from politics he became a devoted Buddhist, built a worship hall within his own home and prayed every morning. Many of his former subordinates frequently came to pray with him. On the first and the 15th days of each month (lunar calendar), Duan would go to temples to participate in various Buddhist events. He supposedly became a vegetarian after the March 18 Massacre to repent for his involvements in the massacre. Douchi was his favorite food and was served at every meal. Duan also kept a hen farm at home to provide him with eggs, but kept no roosters, as he claimed that without fertilization, the eggs remained vegetarian.

生平

早年

段氏祖籍江西饶州，明末迁英山，清初迁安徽寿县，清末再迁安徽六安。祖父段佩，属李鸿章组建的淮军，以军功累提督，授振威将军，曾杀当地土豪刘楠、刘枢，与刘家结怨。父段从文，在乡务农，母范氏。

幼年及入伍

1865年（同治四年），段祺瑞生于安徽六安太平集，为段佩长孙。

1868年，段佩在外，刘家寻仇，父母携段祺瑞避安徽寿州。1870年，段佩回乡，声势浩大，全家迁合肥西乡，置田百馀亩。

1872年，段佩驻江苏宿迁，统领刘铭传军马队三营，他把段祺瑞接到身边，送私塾读书，又为段氏定下姻亲，女方为宿迁举人吴懋伟的女儿。

1878年，段佩卒于任所，段祺瑞转学合肥西乡，一年多后因贫辍学。

1881年，段祺瑞只身投奔族叔、威海某营管带段从德，补军营哨书。

1882年，父亲在探访回家途中遭劫杀，不久破案，凶手伏诛。次年，母亲悲伤过度去世。段祺瑞将父母合葬于合肥西乡。

学习经历

1885年，李鸿章在天津紫竹林创办武备学堂，杨宗濂为总办，段祺瑞以优异成绩考入炮科一期。在天津，段祺瑞学习兵法、地形、军器、炮台、算法、测绘、国文等课程，「力学不倦，每届学校试验，辄冠其侪辈，与王士珍等齐名于时。」还修好从德国进口的管退炮瞄准器，受学校器重。1886年，段祺瑞赴合肥与吴氏完婚。李鸿章至武备学堂考察，其他学生连射六炮都未中浮靶，段祺瑞每发必中。李鸿章又问了一些试题，段祺瑞对答如流，李鸿章叹：熟知军事，俾易造就，是一个可用之材！

1887年，以最优等从天津武备学堂毕业，分配旅顺炮台监修。次年生子宏业。冬，李鸿章奏派天津武备学堂毕业生赴德意志帝国，第一批共五人，名单初呈时未有段祺瑞名，李鸿章予以修改。另一说段祺瑞考取第一名。另外四人为：商德全、吴鼎元、滕毓藻、孔庆塘。

1889年春，五人抵柏林，在普鲁士军官学校学理论与操练，之后到埃森市克虏伯兵工厂实习。与李鸿章交好，曾亲往梅喷射击场授课。次年春，光绪帝特使洪春偕弗里茨探望留学生，五人操演各式口径的大炮，十分成功。其他四人先行回国，段祺瑞继续学习弹壳加工、铣磨来福线、灌制优等钢技术，以及火炮构造、保养等课程。冬，回国。

回国初期

段祺瑞入禀李鸿章，李审视一番他的辫子，和颜悦色地说：你的责任是报效国家而不是剪辫子。段祺瑞感到惭愧，因为他很想剪掉。先任天津机器制造局委员，1891年改任威海随营武备学堂教习。

1895年，日军围困威海卫，段祺瑞带学生搬运炮弹，又操作大炮与日军激战。

中年

清朝

结交袁世凯

甲午战争大清惨败，刘坤一、张之洞等举荐浙江温处道袁世凯练兵，光绪帝下令袁世凯在天津小站练兵。新军采德国建制，按德军教条训练，装备全由德国进口。袁世凯又从淮军、天津武备学堂和李鸿章等处选拔一批军官，段祺瑞主管炮兵，又任炮兵学堂监督。

1898年，段祺瑞升叙加衔。12月，袁世凯新军编入武卫军，改称武卫右军，由北洋大臣、直隶总督荣禄节制。冬，荣禄派段祺瑞等赴日本观操。回国后编纂《训练操法详析图说》。

光绪廿六年二月，袁世凯任山东巡抚镇压义和团，段祺瑞随往。次年吴氏病逝于济南。袁世凯将表侄女张佩蘅许配给段。张佩蘅幼年丧父，由袁世凯夫妇养大，其祖母即袁世凯之姑母。袁世凯又请段总办随营学堂。萧县徐树铮投奔段氏，拜为记室。1902年，袁世凯奏段氏总办学堂卓有成效，镇压广宗、威县义和团有功，遂赏戴花翎、加奋勇巴图鲁。

训练新军

1903年10月，清政府决定设立练兵处，统辖新军训练，同年12月袁世凯兼任练兵处会办大臣，因袁世凯推荐，段祺瑞升任练兵处军令司正使、加副都统衔。此时段祺瑞与冯国璋、王士珍并称为「北洋三杰」，段被称为「北洋之虎」。1904年，段祺瑞兼任常备军第三镇翼长署理；1905年2月正式升任新军陆军第四镇统制，驻军天津马厂，同年进行的河间秋操演习段祺瑞担任北军总统。

1906年，段祺瑞改任陆军第三镇统制兼北洋武备学堂督理，1906年3月被任命为福建省汀洲镇总兵，段祺瑞南下赴任。5月8日，陆军行营军官学堂在保定成立，段祺瑞任督办。段祺瑞在北洋军系影响力是基于他长期主掌军队训练及养成，新军逐渐编练成形的同时，段祺瑞也逐渐在军队中植入属于他专属的伦理性影响力。

1909年1月2日，袁世凯一度失势，遭清政府下令「著即开缺，回籍养疴」，袁世凯临别前将北京私宅赠与段祺瑞。段祺瑞则在同年12月回任陆军第六镇统制。

1910年5月25日，清廷以段祺瑞督办北洋陆军学务有功，赏头品顶戴。12月18日加侍郎衔，外放任江北提督，驻江苏淮安清江浦，负责本地治安。

共和双电

1911年武昌起义爆发后，清政府重新启用袁世凯，袁世凯将段祺瑞召回北京，10月25日段祺瑞升任清军第二军军统；第二军随后开拔南下与第一军（军统冯国璋）一同清剿革命党，清廷增封段祺瑞为湖广总督。由于袁世凯与革命党间持续进行谈判，南下清军并未尽全力扫除武汉当地之敌；待11月13日袁世凯担任内阁总理大臣取得职权后，段祺瑞除湖广总督之位外会办抚剿事宜；由于冯国璋攻克武汉三镇进度过顺，11月28日袁世凯任命段祺瑞调任第一军军统，第二军军统换由冯国璋担任。12月5日，段祺瑞下令第一军退出汉阳，开始进行南北议和，革命军黄兴、孙文等同意，倘能促使宣统退位，可由袁世凯担任中华民国临时大总统。

1912年1月26日，在袁世凯授意下，段祺瑞等北洋军联名发布徐树铮起草的《段祺瑞等要求共和电》，向隆裕太后逼宫，不久，段祺瑞又发表《第二电》，直接挑明「谨率全军将士入京，与王公剖陈利害」，直接以武力恐吓隆裕太后，隆裕于2月12日颁降懿旨，接受优待条件，溥仪退位，中华民国正式成立。

中华民国

袁段反目

中华民国成立后，1912年3月10日袁世凯出任中华民国临时大总统，段祺瑞同时出任陆军总长。

1913年7月，段祺瑞代理国务总理，组成段祺瑞临时内阁，调兵镇压二次革命；12月陆军总长一职由周自齐接任。此后又署理湖北都督兼领河南都督，镇压白朗起义。

1914年2月，袁世凯召段祺瑞回北京述职，其湖北都督由段芝贵接任，河南都督在4月由田文烈接任；1914年5月，袁世凯增设海陆军大元帅统率办事处，试图收回由陆军部主控的军权，段祺瑞担任陆军总长；段祺瑞因不满这个调任，在陆军总长一职任内主要业务都由亲信徐树铮定夺。6月30日，段祺瑞获授建威上将军，兼管理将军府事务。11月，日本军队占领青岛，段祺瑞主张与日本决一死战。此后，袁世凯与段祺瑞的不和日趋浮上台面。

1915年5月「二十一条」签订后，段祺瑞告病辞职，赴西山养病，8月29日，袁世凯批准他辞去陆军总长一职，由王士珍接任，但仍留管理将军府事务及统率办事处办事员。袁世凯在1915年底推行洪宪帝制时，段表示不拥护帝制。1916年3月22日，袁世凯被迫取消帝制，恢复共和制，23日，委任段祺瑞为参谋总长，4月22日，改任国务卿。

府院之争

6月6日，袁世凯病逝，7日，黎元洪接任大总统，段祺瑞依旧担任国务总理，但二人对政事处理方向不同，21日，段祺瑞提出辞职，虽然段祺瑞同意留任，府院之间不和，由此而起。8月，总统府秘书长丁世峄与国务院秘书长徐树铮互争事权，段祺瑞又再辞职，虽然段很快便被劝回，但两方互斗，没有停息。段祺瑞成为北洋政府内皖系的领袖。

1917年5月，段祺瑞因对德国宣战一事，与国会闹翻，督军团又从旁怂恿，要求解散国会，迫使大总统黎元洪于23日将段祺瑞免职，引发由张勋领导的溥仪复辟。复辟历时十二日后即被段于天津马厂誓师镇压。

战败下野

虽然溥仪复辟失败，但黎元洪拒绝复总统任，只得由冯国璋继任；段祺瑞无意重开国会，使孙文等革命党人有藉口在广州发起护法运动，南北因此分裂，冯、段二人对于统一中国的方式，意见相阻，发生第二次府院之争。1917年8月14日，中国对德国及奥匈帝国宣战，正式加入一战，并派华工到欧洲，及换取列强对中国如大国的待遇。9月下旬，湘南护法战争爆发，段祺瑞派兵入湖南讨伐护法军。11月14日，北军总司令王汝贤和副司令范国璋二人突然通电全国，要求停战，段祺瑞大吃一惊，11月22日，他辞去了总理职务。为要安抚段祺瑞皖系军阀，12月18日，冯国璋任命段为督办参战事务。

1918年3月18日，北军夺回湖南岳州，主战派士气大振，翌日（19日），曹锟等二十多人联名请段祺瑞出山，段便于23日复职总理。同年10月10日，冯国璋大总统的任期届满，安福国会选举徐世昌为大总统。段表面与冯国璋约定共同下野，但持续透过安福系在幕后操纵政权。1920年7月直皖战争爆发，皖军战败被击溃。皖系势力自此被完全瓦解，段亦随即彻底失势下野，退隐天津并甚少过问政事。

晚年

南北和议

1924年10月23日，冯玉祥发动甲子政变，推翻大总统曹锟，先邀请孙中山北上，后与奉系妥协，请段祺瑞出山，出任任中华民国临时政府的国家元首。段祺瑞被推为「临时执政」，称「外崇国信」，承认一切不平条约继续有效。针对孙中山主张召开国民会议，段祺瑞宣布召开善后会议，只限各省首领、各省区长官、有功勋及特殊资望者，不包括人民代表。

1925年4月24日，段祺瑞正式下取消法统令，废除断续运行12年的中华民国第一届国会，由中华民国临时参政院替代之。

隐居天津

1926年3月18日，发生北洋政府镇压北京学生运动的三·一八惨案，同年4月9日被鹿锺麟驱逐，避入东交民巷法使馆。后联奉军不成，20日下野返天津日租界隐居，作寓公潜心礼佛，自号「正道居士」。

1928年7月3日蒋抵北平后，听闻段祺瑞之安福系在天津活动之说，乃以学生身分致书段氏，劝其爱惜令名：「弟子蒋介石谨致敬于芝泉夫子座前，而问起居……中正与先生别垂二十三年，知先生或忆当年弟子中有蒋志清其人者。此二十三年中，先生几度秉国大政，备极喧赫；而中正始终追随先总理，奔走革命，致力扑灭奉先生为领袖之北洋军阀，历尽艰苦，而未尝偶一修音问者公也。今燕云收复，北伐即告完成，中正身临旧都，未遑宁处，上书敬候居者私也。公私之间，截然有鸿沟在。……中正对于先生已往翊赞共和之勋绩，深知尊重，无敢或忘；并深愿先生爱惜令名，善用勋望，以固革命之基，而奠共和之实，使天下后世皆知先生救国爱民之真诚，而不终为奸邪宵小之所误，是则公私之幸也。语曰：君子爱人以德。辄敢以弟子之私，布其诚悃，惟希鉴察。」

移居上海

1931年「九一八」事变之前，日本关东军特务机关长土肥原贤二，就多次到天津日本租界区秘密会晤溥仪、郑孝胥、段祺瑞、吴佩孚等人，欲在东三省和华北地区扶植代理人。

1932年，据阎锡山日记，段祺瑞使人来访，欲出兵平津攻打张学良，掌权华北以对抗国民政府：「合肥（即段祺瑞）使人来云：北方军人均一致倒张，倒后段可收回东省，北方另成政府以抗南，只俟公一诺。余答曰：未闻内乱愈张而外患能息者。日，大国也，不可测度，请段公勿受其欺。此为四月间事。五月间复专使来云……七月下旬，复由王军长寄语云：外交、内部均已办妥，拟入宋哲元军中，效马厂誓师法，通电抗日驱张，只得公一诺即行发动。余曰：外患已成，国固不幸，然负咎有人，段公此举，恐以救国之心，蒙乱国之责。」

1933年1月，日军攻占山海关，华北情势危急，蒋恐段祺瑞为日人利用，乃请交通银行董事长钱新之作为特使，持其亲笔函赴天津，往见段氏，邀请南下；段氏亦恐遭日人劫持，经思考后决定接受，于1月21日凌晨离开天津南下，1月22日抵达南京，蒋亲自于下关码头迎接。1月23日，蒋复陪同段氏往谒中山陵，向孙致意，并「与之畅谈辛亥年要求共和通电以前之历史」，谓：「此老骨格与精神，求之当世不可多得也」，午夜蒋送段氏登车赴上海定居。2月段祺瑞移居上海，其宅邸位于法租界霞飞路（今淮海中路）的盛宣怀公馆；日后该公馆先后成为日本国驻沪领事馆、日本国驻沪总领事官邸，旁边为上海图书馆，美国驻上海领事馆在其附近。

对于段祺瑞的悬崖勒马，国民政府财政部每月支付2万元的巨款，用以维持段祺瑞及其家人旧属的生活。1935年，段被任命为国民政府委员，但没有就职。

逝世

1936年11月2日，段氏于上海病逝，享年71岁。遗嘱：

11月3日，蒋致电中央，以其「赞成共和与再造之功，殊不可没」、「实为元勋」，建议国葬，指示军事委员会及军政部派员协助治丧；又亲撰挽联。

褒恤令：

前临时执政段祺瑞，持躬廉介，谋国公忠。辛亥倡率各军赞助共和，功在民国。及袁氏僭号，洁身引退，力维正义，节概凛然。嗣值复辟变作，誓师马厂，迅遏逆氛，卒能重奠邦基，巩固政体，殊功硕望，薄海同钦。兹闻在沪溘逝，老成凋谢，惋悼实深，应即予以国葬，并发给治丧费一万元。生平事迹，存备宣付史馆。用示国家笃念耆勋之至意。此令！

中华民国行政院　　　　

蒋审视此令后，又说：「段氏对于国家确有不没之功，于己之师生关系尤无任哀悼也。」

段氏葬于万安公墓。

历代内阁

1916年段祺瑞第一次内阁

1916年4月23日成立。国务总理段祺瑞，外交总长陆徵祥（后由曹汝霖兼署），内务总长王揖唐，财政总长孙宝琦，陆军总长段祺瑞兼，海军总长刘冠雄，司法总长章宗祥，教育总长张国淦，农商总长金邦平，交通总长曹汝霖（大半由梁士诒决定），参谋总长王士珍，审计院长庄蕴宽。1916年6月30日改组，1917年5月23日因府院之争结束。

国务总理段祺瑞，外交总长唐绍仪（唐未到前由陈锦涛兼署，9月唐抵达，因督军团通电反对，旋即辞职，伍廷芳接任），内务总长许世英，财政总长陈锦涛，陆军总长段祺瑞（兼任），海军总长程璧光，司法总长张耀曾（张耀曾未到前由张国淦兼署），教育总长孙洪伊（次长吴闓生代理，范源濂继任总长，孙洪伊改任内务总长，原内务总长许世英改任交通总长），农商总长张国淦，交通总长汪大燮。

1917年段祺瑞第二次内阁

1917年7月17日成立，11月22日因第二次府院之争结束。国务总理段祺瑞、外交总长汪大燮、内务总长汤化龙、财政总长梁启超、陆军总长段祺瑞兼、海军总长刘冠雄、司法总长林长民、教育总长范源濂，农商总长张国淦、交通总长曹汝霖。

1918年段祺瑞第三次内阁

1918年3月29日成立，12月13日因新国会（安福国会）成立结束。国务总理段祺瑞、外交总长陆徵祥、内务总长钱能训、财政总长曹汝霖兼，陆军总长段芝贵、海军总长刘冠雄、司法总长朱深、教育总长傅增湘、农商总长田文烈、交通总长曹汝霖、机密院院长曹泾沅。

西原借款

西原借款为1917年至1918年间段祺瑞政府和日本签订的一系列公开和秘密借款的总称。

1917年7月，段祺瑞重任中华民国国务总理后，为推行「武力统一」政策，镇压孙中山倡导的护法运动，以中国权利为抵押品，向日本大量借款。1917-1918年，段祺瑞共向日本借款5亿日元。其中由西原龟三与段祺瑞政府的曹汝霖、陆宗舆、章宗祥商办议定的有吉会铁路、满蒙四铁路、吉林、黑龙江两省的森林和金矿、有线电信、参战、交通银行等八项借款，共计1.45亿日元。

通过这一借款，段祺瑞把中国山东和东北地区的铁路、矿产、森林等权益大量抵押给日本。

西原借款所得款项，日后用于财政性支出占65.22%，军费占总支出占25.40%。

中日协定

1918年5月16日，日本陆军少将与段祺瑞政府代表靳云鹏，在北京秘密签订《中日陆军共同防敌军事协定》。19日又签订《中日海军共同防敌军事协定》。

「协定」的主要内容是：中国与日本采取「共同防敌」的行动；日本在战争期间可以进驻中国境内；日军在中国境外作战时，中国应派兵声援；作战期间，两国互相供给军器和军需品。

通过「协定」，日本派出大批军队进入中国东北，此时沙俄于第一次世界大战东线对上德国处于苦战状态，于是日本迅速取代了沙俄在东三省的战略地位，中国东北面临沦为日本殖民地的局面。

六不总理

段祺瑞是当时少有的人品高尚的廉洁官员。他一生做人信条是「不抽、不喝、不嫖、不赌、不贪、不占」，人称「六不总理」。当时，达官贵人多有三妻六妾，段祺瑞的第四位姨太太貌美且知礼，段祺瑞很喜欢。但得知她已经有了意中人之后，段祺瑞便忍痛割爱，成全她和意中人的婚事。段祺瑞让姨太出嫁的事，在当时民国社会传为佳话，此外，段祺瑞一生没有房产，从来不收礼，晚年保持气节，拒绝与日本军部合作。其人格与作风，是中国政治中的一股清流。

评价

• 1918年3月，段祺瑞复任总理时，有评论说：「段氏头脑简单，目光不远，固尽人而知之；然此外段氏尚有极大之病，卽止以包围其左右之二三人为人物。盖彼以为全国之人物止有徐树铮、吴光新等，此外，彼概无所感触。自此点言之，谓段氏为澈头澈尾之军人，甚为妥当；谓澈头澈尾之非政治家，亦极妥当……或谓其最大之病在好好而不能用，恶恶而不能去，殊不知彼实不知何为好何为恶，盖一单纯浑朴之人也。以上所言，指其短处，然尚有长处 —— 卽有肝胆、重言诺、肯负责。此三长处虽不足掩其短，然求诸全中国露头角之人物，无一可以比肩。」

• 1924年3月，北京大学纪念25周年活动中，大学生进行国内大人物票选，段祺瑞与胡适同居第四名，前三名为孙中山、陈独秀和蔡元培。

• 段祺瑞因致电要求清帝退位、抵制洪宪帝制和讨伐张勋复辟这三件事，有「三造共和」的美誉。梁啓超评价段祺瑞：「其人短处固所不免，然不顾一身利害，为国家勇于负责，举国中恐无人能比。」吴佩孚：「天下无公，正未知几人称帝，几人称王，奠国著奇功，大好河山归再造；时局至此，皆误在今日不和，明日不战，忧民成痼疾，中流砥柱失元勋。」

• 1924年，冯玉祥发动北京政变，段祺瑞被推为中华民国临时执政。1926年，中国国民党与中国共产党联合发动学生抗议，北京军警镇压请愿学生，造成「三·一八惨案」，旋被冯玉祥赶下台。「三一八」惨案发生后，有说法认为段祺瑞随即赶到现场，向死者长跪不起，并决定终身食素，至死都没有违背这一决定。根据当时新闻档案，段祺瑞根本没有去「三一八」惨案现场，也没有出现在「悼念三一八惨案死难同胞大会」，并且段政府称示威学生为「暴徒」。有回忆者称段祺瑞在三一八之后在家中也吃荤，在其他场合吃素只是与信佛有关。

著作

段祺瑞晚年喜好吟咏，有《正道居诗》、《正道居诗续集》、《正道居感世集》、《正道居感世续集》等，后合编为《正道居集》，计有文八篇，诗三十五题五十四篇。

香港学者陈炜舜积数年之力，在《正道居集》的基础上补辑逸作，包括文（联、颂）三十二篇、诗十题十篇，集合近三十位青年学人撰写解题、注释，附以〈剪影集锦〉与〈公文电报选辑〉，编成《段祺瑞正道居诗文注解》（台北：万卷楼，2020年3月）。

影视作品

• 赵本山：2011年中国大陆电影：《建党伟业》

• 戴志伟：2009年香港无綫电视：《蔡锷与小凤仙》

• 马仑：2003年中国大陆电视剧：《走向共和》

• 郑榕：1986年中国大陆电影：《直奉大战》