Names and titles

In Chinese history and literature, Wu Zetian was known by various names and titles. Mention of her in the English language has only increased their number. A difficulty in English translations is that they tend to specify gender (as in the case of "emperor" versus "empress" or "prince" versus "princess"), whereas, in Classical Chinese, words such as hou (后, "sovereign", "prince", "queen") or huangdi (皇帝, "imperial supreme ruler", "royal deity") are of grammatically indeterminate gender.

Names

In Wu's time, women's birth names were rarely recorded. She changed her name to Wu Zhao after rising to power, often written as 武曌, (曌 has also been written as 瞾 on occasion, and both are derivatives of 照, which may be her original name), with 瞾 being one of the invented characters by Wu. Wu was her patronymic surname, which she retained, according to traditional Chinese practice, after marriage to Gaozong, of the Li family. Emperor Taizong gave her the art name Wu Mei (武媚), meaning "glamorous". Thus, Chinese people often refer to her as Wu Mei or Wu Meiniang (武媚娘) when they write about her youth, as Wu Hou (武后) when referring to her as empress consort and empress dowager, and as Wu Zetian (武则天) when referring to her as empress regnant.

Because her family name, Wu (武), is a homophone for the second character in parrot (鹦鹉), there are many stories and jokes that make use of imagery of a parrot to communicate about Wu and her clan. In particular, Emperor Gaozong's family name, Li (唐), is a homophone with a type of cat -- so a story circulated about a cat eating a parrot at court.

Titles

During her life, and posthumously, Wu was awarded various official titles. Both hou (后) and huangdi (皇帝) are titles (modifications, or added characters to hou are of lesser importance). Born Wu Zhao, she is not properly known as "Wu Hou" (Empress Wu) until receiving this title in 655, nor is she properly known as "Wu Zetian", her regnal name, until 690, when she took the title Emperor.

• During the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang (618–626):

　• Lady Wu (from 624)

• During the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang (626–649):

　• Talented Lady (才人; from 637), 17th rank consort

• During the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (649–683):

　• Imperial Concubine Zhaoyi (昭仪; from 650), 6th rank consort

　• Empress (皇后; from 655), 1st rank consort

　• Heavenly Empress (天后; from 674), 1st rank consort

• During the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (684-684):

　• Empress Dowager Wu (武皇太后; from 683)

• During the reign of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (684–690)

　• Empress Dowager Wu (武皇太后; from 684)

• During her reign as the Empress Regnant of the Zhou dynasty (690–705):

　• Holy Emperor (圣神皇帝; from 690)

　• Holy Golden Emperor (金轮圣神皇帝; from 693)

　• Holy Golden Goddess Emperor (越古金轮圣神皇帝; from 694)

　• Holy Golden Emperor (金轮圣神皇帝; from 695)

　• Emperor Tiance Jinlun (天策金轮大帝; from 695)

　• Emperor Zetian Dasheng (则天大圣皇帝; from 705)

• During the second reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (705–710):

　• Empress Zetian Dasheng (则天大圣皇后; from 705)

• During the second reign of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (710–712):

　• Heavenly Empress (天后; from 710)

　• Holy Empress (大圣天后; from 710)

　• Empress of Heaven (天后圣帝; from 712)

　• Holy Empress (圣后; from 712)

• During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (713–756):

　• Empress Zetian (则天皇后; from 716)

　• Holy Empress Zetianshun (则天顺圣皇后; from 749)

"Empress"

Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort and empress regnant. Generally, the monarch was male and his chief spouse was given a title such as huanghou (皇后), often translated as "empress" or more specifically "empress consort". Upon the emperor's death, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowager, sometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the (male) heir to the position of emperor.

Since the time of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BC), the Emperor of China using the title huangdi (皇帝, translated as "emperor" or "empress (regnant)" as appropriate), Wu was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title huangdi. Her tenure as de facto ruler of China and official regent of the Tang dynasty (first through her husband and then through her sons, from 665 to 690) was not without precedent in Chinese history, but she broke precedent when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhou (周) (interrupting the Tang dynasty), ruling personally under the name Sacred and Divine Huangdi (圣神皇帝), and variations thereof, from 690 to 705.

Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Liu of the Song dynasty are said to be the only women in Chinese history to have worn a yellow robe, ordinarily reserved for the emperor's sole use, as a monarch or co-ruler in their own right.

Background and early life

The Wu family clan originated in Wenshui County, Bingzhou (an ancient name of the city of Taiyuan, Shanxi). Wu Zetian's birthplace is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains disputed. Some scholars argue that Wu was born in Wenshui, some that it was Lizhou (利州) (modern-day Guangyuan, Sichuan), while others insist she was born in the imperial capital of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an).

Wu Zetian was born in the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. In the same year, a total eclipse of the sun was visible across China. Her father, Wu Shiyue, worked in the timber business and the family was relatively well-off. Her mother was from the powerful Yang family, distant relatives of the imperial family of the Sui dynasty. During the final years of Emperor Yang of Sui, Li Yuan, the future Emperor Gaozu of Tang, stayed in the Wu household many times and became close to the Wu family while holding appointments in both Hedong and Taiyuan. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, giving them grain, land, clothing and wealth. Once the Tang dynasty was established, Wu Shihou held a succession of senior ministerial posts, including the governorship of Yangzhou, Lizhou, and Jingzhou (荆州) (modern-day Jiangling County, Hubei).

Wu was encouraged by her parents to read books and pursue her education, an uncommon situation for the women at the time. She read and learned about many topics, such as music, calligraphy, literature, history, politics, and other governmental affairs. At age 14, she was taken to be an imperial concubine (lesser wife) of Emperor Taizong of Tang. It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education. She was given the title of cairen (才人), the title for one of the consorts with the 5th rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts. When she was summoned to the palace, her mother, the Lady Yang, wept bitterly when saying farewell to her, but she responded, "How do you know that it is not my fortune to meet the Son of Heaven?" Lady Yang reportedly then understood her ambitions, and therefore stopped crying.

But Consort Wu did not appear to be much favored by Emperor Taizong, though it appears that she did have sexual relations with him at one point. According to her own account (given in a rebuke of Chancellor Ji Xu during her reign), she once impressed Taizong with her fortitude:

When Taizong died in 649, his youngest son, Li Zhi, whose mother was the main wife Wende, succeeded him as Emperor Gaozong. Li Zhi had had an affair with Wu when Taizong was still alive.

Taizong had 14 sons, including three by his beloved Empress Zhangsun (601–636), but none with Consort Wu. Thus, according to the custom by which consorts of deceased emperors who had not produced children were permanently confined to a monastic institution after the emperor's death, Wu was consigned to Ganye Temple (感业寺) with the expectation that she would serve as a Buddhist nun there for the remainder of her life. After Taizong's death, Gaozong met her at the death anniversary of Taizong when he was offering incense. At the time, Consort Xiao and Empress Wang were fighting for favoredness of Gaozong, and Wang asked Gaozong to bring Wu back into the palace, hoping to divert Gaozong's attention. Gaozong agreed and gave Wu the title Lady of Bright Deportment (昭仪). Soon, Gaozong became enamored with Wu, and both Wang and Xiao lost favor.

Rise to power

By early 650, Consort Wu was a concubine of Emperor Gaozong, and she had the title Zhaoyi, the highest ranking concubine of the nine concubines in the second rank. Wu progressively gained immeasurable influence over the governance of the empire throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. Over time, she came to control most major decisions made. She was regarded as ruthless in her endeavors to grab power, and was believed by traditional historians to have killed her own children. This was later proven false, as these rumors seem to have surfaced 400 years after her death. This was likely due to the belief in ancient China that a woman wasn't suited to hold the power of the emperor.

Imperial consort (650–655)

Gaozong became emperor at the age of 21. He was not the first choice, as he was inexperienced and frequently incapacitated with a sickness that caused him spells of dizziness. Gaozong was made heir to the empire only due to the disgrace of his two older brothers.

On or after the anniversary of Emperor Taizong's death, Gaozong went to Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha. When he and Consort Wu saw each other, they both wept. This was seen by Gaozong's wife, Empress Wang. At that time, Gaozong did not favor Wang. Instead, he favored his concubine Pure Consort Xiao. Furthermore, Wang had no children while Xiao had one son (Li Sujie) and two daughters (Princesses Yiyang and Xuancheng).

Wang, seeing that Gaozong was still impressed by Wu's beauty, hoped that the arrival of a new concubine would divert the emperor from Xiao. Therefore, she secretly told Wu to stop shaving her hair and later welcomed her to the palace. (Some modern historians dispute this traditional account. Some think that Wu never left the imperial palace and might have had an affair with Gaozong while Taizong was still alive.)

Wu soon overtook Xiao as Gaozong's favorite. In 652, she gave birth to her first child, a son named Li Hong. In 653, she gave birth to another son, Li Xián. Neither of these sons was in contention to be Gaozong's heir, because Gaozong, at the request of officials influenced by Wang and her uncle (the chancellor Liu Shi), had designated his eldest son Li Zhong as his heir. Li Zhong's mother, Consort Liu, was of lowly birth. Wang did this in order to receive Liu's gratitude.

By 654, both Wang and Xiao had lost favor with Gaozong, and these two former romantic rivals joined forces against Wu, but to no avail. For example, as a sign of his love for Wu, Gaozong conferred posthumous honors on her father, Wu Shiyue. In the same year, Wu gave birth to a daughter. But her daughter died shortly after birth, with evidence suggesting deliberate strangulation. The evidence include allegations made by Wu herself, and she accused Wang of murder. Wang was accused of having been seen near the child's room, with corroborating testimony by alleged eyewitnesses. Gaozong was led to believe that Wang, motivated by jealousy, had most likely killed the child. Wang lacked an alibi and was unable to clear her name.

Scientifically credible forensic pathology information about the death of Wu's daughter does not exist, and scholars lack concrete evidence about her death. However, scholars have many theories and speculations. Because traditional folklore tends to portray Wu as a power-hungry woman unconcerned about whom she hurt or what she did, the most popular theory is that Wu killed her own child in order to accuse Wang. Other schools of thought argue that Wang indeed killed the child out of jealousy and hatred of Wu. The third argument is that the child died of asphyxiation or crib death. The ventilation systems of the time were nonexistent or of poor quality, and the lack of ventilation combined with using coal as a heating method could have led to carbon monoxide poisoning. In any case, Wu blamed Wang for the girl's death, and as a result, tried to remove Wang from her position.

Because of the child's death, an angry Gaozong also wanted to depose Wang and replace her with Wu. But first he needed to make sure that he had the support of the government chancellors. So Gaozong met with his uncle Zhangsun Wuji, the head chancellor. During the meeting, Gaozong repeatedly brought up Wang's childlessness. Childlessness was a sufficient excuse to depose Wang, but Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation. Subsequent visits made by Wu's mother, Lady Yang, and an official allied with Wu, Xu Jingzong, to seek support from Zhangsun were met with disappointment.

In the summer of 655, Wu accused Wang and her mother, Lady Liu, of using witchcraft. In response, Gaozong barred Liu from the palace and demoted Wang's uncle, Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Wu, including Li Yifu, Xu, Cui Yixuan (崔义玄), and Yuan Gongyu (袁公瑜). That autumn, Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Ji, Yu Zhining, and Chu Suiliang to the palace. Chu had deduced that the summons were about changing the empress. Li Ji claimed illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move. When Gaozong asked Li Ji again he responded, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?"

Gaozong therefore resolved to demote Chu to commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha, Hunan), and then deposed both Wang and Xiao. He placed them under arrest and made Wu empress. Later that year, Gaozong showed signs of considering their release. Because of this, Wang and Xiao were killed on Empress Wu's orders. After their deaths, they often haunted Wu's dreams over the years.

Wu came to believe their spirits were after her. For this reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace (大明宫), into Penglai Palace (蓬莱宫). When Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall (含元殿), was completed in 663, Gaozong and Wu moved there. It was later renamed Hanyuan Palace, yet Empress Wang and Consort Xiao still continued to appear in her dreams. Therefore, for the rest of Gaozong's reign, he and Wu often took up residence at the eastern capital Luoyang and only infrequently spent time in Chang'an.

Empress consort

Involvement in politics (655–660)

In 655, Wu became Tang Gaozong's new empress consort (皇后, húanghòu). In 656, on the advice of Xu Jingzong, Emperor Gaozong deposed Consort Liu's son Li Zhong from being his heir apparent. He changed Li Zhong's status to Prince of Liang and designated Empress Wu's son, Li Hong as the title of Prince of Dai and crown prince (that is, Heir Apparent). In 657, Empress Wu and her allies began reprisals against officials who had opposed her ascension. She first had Xu and Li Yifu, who were by now chancellors, falsely accuse Han Yuan and Lai Ji of being complicit with Chu Suiliang in planning treason. The three of them, along with Liu Shi, were demoted to being prefects of remote prefectures, with provisions that they would never be allowed to return to Chang'an. In 659, she had Xu accuse Zhangsun Wuji of plotting treason with the low-level officials Wei Jifang (韦季方) and Li Chao (李巢). Zhangsun was exiled and, later in the year, was forced to commit suicide in exile. Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of his titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu (褚彦甫) and Chu Yanchong (褚彦冲) were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before the execution order reached his location.

It was said that after this time, no official dared to criticize the emperor. In 660, Li Zhong, Gaozong's first-born son (to consort Liu) was targeted. Li Zhong had feared that he would be next and had sought out advice of fortune tellers. Wu had him exiled and placed under house arrest.

Ruling with Emperor Gaozong (660–683)

In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had the opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related. He began to have Empress Wu make rulings on daily petitions by officials. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's.

By 664, Wu was said to be interfering so much in the empire's governance that she was angering Gaozong with her controlling behavior. Furthermore, she had engaged the Taoist sorcerer Guo Xingzhen (郭行真) in using witchcraft—an act prohibited by regulations, which led to Empress Wang's downfall—and the eunuch Wang Fusheng (王伏胜) reported this to Gaozong, angering him further. He consulted the chancellor Shangguan Yi, who suggested that he depose Wu. He had Shangguan draft an edict. But as Shangguan was doing so, Wu received news of what was happening. She went to the emperor to plead her case just as he was holding the edict that Shangguan had drafted. Gaozong could not bear to depose her and blamed the episode on Shangguan. As both Shangguan and Wang had served on Li Zhong's staff, Wu had Xu falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of planning treason. Shangguan, Wang, and Shangguan's son Shangguan Tingzhi (上官庭芝) were executed, while Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. Shangguan Tingzhi's daughter Shangguan Wan'er, then an infant, and her mother, Lady Zheng, became slaves in the inner palace. After Shangguan Wan'er grew up, she became Empress Wu's trusted secretary.

She and Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints" (二圣, Er Sheng) both inside the palace and in the empire. The Later Jin historian Liu Xu, in Old Book of Tang, commented:

Meanwhile, on Empress Wu's account, her mother Lady Yang had been made the Lady of Rong, and her older sister, now widowed, the Lady of Han. Her half-brothers Wu Yuanqing and Wu Yuanshuang and cousins Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun, despite the poor relationships that they had with Lady Yang, were promoted. But at a feast that Lady Yang held for them, Wu Weiliang offended Lady Yang by stating that they did not find it honorable for them to be promoted on account of Empress Wu. Empress Wu, therefore, requested to have them demoted to remote prefectures—outwardly to show modesty, but in reality to avenge the offense to her mother. Wu Yuanqing and Wu Yuanshuang died in effective exile. Meanwhile, in or before 666, Lady of Han died as well. After Lady of Han's death, Emperor Gaozong made her daughter the Lady of Wei and considered keeping her in the palace—possibly as a concubine. He did not immediately do so, as he feared that Empress Wu would be displeased. It was said that Empress Wu heard of this and was nevertheless displeased. She had her niece poisoned, by placing poison in food offerings that Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun had made and then blaming them for the death of the Lady of Wei. Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun were executed.

In 670, Wu's mother, Lady Yang, died, and by Gaozong's and Wu's orders, all of the imperial officials and their wives attended her wake and mourned her. Later that year, with the realm suffering from a major drought, Wu offered to be deposed, which Gaozong rejected. At her request, he further posthumously honored Wu Shiyue (who had previously been posthumously honored as the Duke of Zhou) and Lady Yang by giving them the titles of the Prince and Princess of Taiyuan.

Meanwhile, the son of Empress Wu's older sister the Lady of Han, Helan Minzhi (贺兰敏之), had been given the surname Wu and allowed to inherit the title of Duke of Zhou. But as it was becoming clear to Empress Wu that he suspected her of murdering his sister, the Lady of Wei, Wu began to take precautions against him. (Helan was also said to have had an incestuous relationship with his grandmother Lady Yang.) In 671, Helan was accused of disobeying mourning regulations during the period of mourning for Lady Yang and raping the daughter of the official Yang Sijian (杨思俭), whom Gaozong and Wu had previously selected to be the wife and crown princess for Li Hong. On Wu's orders, Helan was exiled and either was executed in exile or committed suicide. In 673, Wu provided 20,000 cash for a gigantic statue of Maitreya at Longmen Grottoes. In 674, she had Wu Yuanshuang's son Wu Chengsi recalled from exile to inherit the title of Duke of Zhou.

In 675, as Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened, he considered having Empress Wu formally rule as regent. The chancellor Hao Chujun and the official Li Yiyan both opposed this, and he did not formally make her regent, and did not formally bestow she with such authorities. But the Empress Wu's as so powerful that she even surpassed Emperor Gaozong and he was afraid of Wu because of her high intelligence and skills in manipulating officials; thus, until the end of his reign, she has decision-making power on most events in the governmental and border matters, and appoints civil ministers and military generals.

Also in 675, a number of people fell victim to Empress Wu's ire. She had been displeased at the favor that Emperor Gaozong had shown his aunt, Princess Changle. Changle was married to General Zhao Gui (赵瓌) and had a daughter who became the wife and princess consort of Wu's third son, Li Xiǎn, the Prince of Zhou. Princess Zhao was accused of unspecified crimes and placed under arrest, eventually starving to death. Zhao Gui and Changle were exiled. Meanwhile, later that month, Li Hong, the Crown Prince—who urged Wu not to exercise so much influence and authority on Gaozong's governance and offended her by requesting that his half-sisters, Consort Xiao's daughters, Princess Yiyang and Xuancheng (under house arrest) be allowed to marry—died suddenly. Traditional historians generally believed that Wu poisoned Li Hong to death. At her request, Li Xián, then carrying the title of Prince of Yong, was created crown prince. Meanwhile, Consort Xiao's son Li Sujie and another son of Gaozong's, Li Shangjin, were repeatedly accused of crimes by Wu and were subsequently demoted.

Soon, Empress Wu's relationship with Li Xián also deteriorated because Li Xián had become unsettled after hearing rumors that he was not born to Empress Wu—but to her sister, the Lady of Han. When Empress Wu heard of his fearfulness, she became angry with him. In 678, contemporary poet Luo Binwang criticizes Empress Wu's involvement in governmental affairs: "She whispered slander from behind her sleeves, and swayed emperor with vixen flirting." Luo Binwang remarks angered Empress Wu and he dismissed and imprisoned.

Furthermore, the sorcerer Ming Chongyan (明崇俨), whom both she and Emperor Gaozong respected, had stated that Li Xián was unsuitable to inherit the throne and was assassinated in 679. The assassins were not caught—causing Wu to suspect that Li Xián was behind the assassination. In 680, Li Xián was accused of crimes and during an investigation by the officials Xue Yuanchao, Pei Yan, and Gao Zhizhou, a large number of weaponry was found in Li Xián's palace. Empress Wu formally accused Li Xián of treason and the assassination of Ming. Emperor Gaozong wanted to forgive Li Xián for treason, but Empress Wu refused and he surrendered at her insistence. Li Xián was deposed and exiled, and at her request, he was placed under house arrest as a normal person.

At Empress Wu's request, after the exile of Li Xián, his younger brother Li Xiǎn name but different Chinese characters (now renamed Li Zhe) was named crown prince.

In 681, Princess Taiping was married to Xue Shao (薛绍), the son of Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Chengyang, in a grand ceremony. Empress Wu, initially unimpressed with the lineages of Xue Shao's brothers' wives, wanted to order his brothers to divorce their wives—stopping only after it was pointed out to her that Lady Xiao, the wife of Xue Shao's older brother Xue Yi (薛顗), was a grandniece of the deceased chancellor Xiao Yu. The official Feng Yuanchang was appointed by Gaozong, and he trusted him very much. In 682, Feng also lamented Empress Wu's power and involvement in the administration of the empire and told the emperor: "The queen's authority is very strong, should it be reduced?" Gaozong opposed it, and he was afraid of her, and there was nothing he could do. Upon learning of Feng's ineffective advice to the emperor, Wu became very angry with Feng, and accused him of corruption and degraded him.

In late 683, Gaozong died at Luoyang. Li Zhe took the throne as Emperor Zhongzong, but Wu retained the real authority as empress dowager and regent.

Empress dowager

Plenipotentiary regent for Emperor Zhongzong

Upon the death of her husband Emperor Gaozong, Wu became empress dowager (皇太后, húangtàihòu) and then regent and she automatically gained full power over the empire. She had the power to remove and install emperors. Just as before, government decisions were made by her. Wu had already poisoned the crown prince Li Hong and had enough other princes exiled that her third son, Li Zhe, was made heir apparent. Furthermore, Gaozong's will included provisions that Li Zhe should ascend immediately to the imperial throne, he should look to Empress Wu in regards to any important matter, either military or civil, and Empress Wu should claim the senior authority in the Empire for herself. In the second month of 684, Li Zhe ascended to the imperial throne, known as his temple name Zhongzong, for a short six weeks.

The new emperor was married to a woman of the Wei family. Because Zhongzong was as weak and incompetent as his father, the new Empress sought to place herself in the same position of great authority that Empress Wu had enjoyed.

Immediately, Emperor Zhongzong showed signs of disobeying Empress Dowager Wu. Emperor Zhongzong was under the thumb of his wife, Empress Wei. Under her influence, the Emperor, appointed his father-in-law as prime minister. He also tried to make his father-in-law Shizhong (侍中, the head of the examination bureau of government, 门下省, Menxia Sheng, and a post considered one for a chancellor) and gave a mid-level office to his wet nurse's son—despite stern opposition by the chancellor Pei Yan, at one point remarking to Pei:

Pei reported this to Empress Dowager Wu, and she, after planning with Pei, Liu Yizhi, and the generals Cheng Wuting (程务挺) and Zhang Qianxu (张虔勖), deposed Emperor Zhongzong and replaced him with her youngest son, Li Dan, the Prince of Yu (as Emperor Ruizong). Wu had Zhongzong's father-in-law, Wei Xuanzhen (韦玄贞), brought up on charges of treason. Wei Xuanzhen was sent into seclusion. Zhongzong was reduced to the title of Prince of Luling and exiled. Wu also sent General Qiu Shenji (丘神绩) to Li Xián's place in exile and forced Li Xián to commit suicide.

Plenipotentiary regent for Emperor Ruizong

Wu was the absolute ruler in both substance and appearance during the reign of her youngest son, Emperor Ruizong. She did not follow the customary pretense of hiding behind a screen or curtain and, in whispers, issued commands for the nominal ruler to formally announce. Her reign was fully recognized. Ruizong never moved into the imperial quarters, or appeared at imperial function, and remained a virtual prisoner in the inner quarters. He held the title of emperor, but Wu firmly controlled the imperial court, and officials were not allowed to meet with Ruizong, nor was he allowed to rule on matters of state. It was to Wu that officials reported, with Ruizong not even nominally approving official actions. Soon after Ruizong took the throne, Wu carried out a major renaming of governmental offices and banners. Wu elevated Luoyang's status, making it a coequal capital. At her nephew Wu Chengsi's suggestion, she expanded the shrine of the Wu ancestors and gave them greater posthumous honors, and made Wu's ancestral shrine the size of the emperor's ancestral shrine.

Soon thereafter, Li Ji's grandson Li Jingye, the Duke of Ying, who had been disaffected by his own exile, started a rebellion at Yang Prefecture (扬州, roughly modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu). The rebellion initially drew popular support in the region, but Li Jingye progressed slowly in his attack and did not take advantage of that support. Meanwhile, Pei suggested to Empress Dowager Wu that she return imperial authority to the Emperor, arguing that doing so would cause the rebellion to collapse on its own. This offended Wu, and she accused him of being complicit with Li Jingye and had him executed; she also demoted, exiled, and killed a number of officials who, when Pei was arrested, tried to speak on his behalf. She sent General Li Xiaoyi (李孝逸) to attack Li Jingye, and while Li Xiaoyi was initially unsuccessful, he pushed on at the urging of his assistant Wei Yuanzhong and eventually crushed Li Jingye's forces. Li Jingye fled and was killed in flight.

By 685, Empress Dowager Wu was having an affair with the Buddhist monk Huaiyi, and over the next few years, Huaiyi received progressively greater honors. In 686, Wu offered to return imperial authorities to Emperor Ruizong, but Ruizong, knowing that she did not truly intend to do so, declined, and she continued to exercise imperial authority. Meanwhile, she installed copper mailboxes outside the imperial government buildings to encourage the people of the realm to report secretly on others, as she suspected many officials of opposing her. Wu personally read all the reports of betrayal. Secret police officials, including Suo Yuanli, Zhou Xing, and Lai Junchen, began to rise in power and carry out systematic false accusations, torture, and executions.

In 688, Empress Dowager Wu was set to make sacrifices to the deity of the Luo River (洛水, flowing through the Henan province city of Luoyang, then the "Eastern Capital"). She summoned senior members of Tang's Li imperial clan to Luoyang. Worried that she planned to slaughter them and secure the throne for herself, the imperial princes plotted to resist her. But before a rebellion could be comprehensively planned, Li Zhen and his son Li Chong, the Prince of Langye rose first, at their respective posts as prefects of Yu Prefecture (豫州, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan) and Bo Prefecture (博州, roughly modern Liaocheng, Shandong). The other princes were not yet ready, and did not rise, and forces sent by Empress Dowager Wu and the local forces crushed Li Chong and Li Zhen's forces quickly. Wu took this opportunity to arrest Emperor Gaozong's granduncles Li Yuanjia (李元嘉) the Prince of Han, Li Lingkui (李灵夔) the Prince of Lu, and Princess Changle, as well as many other members of the Li clan, and forced them to commit suicide. Even Princess Taiping's husband Xue Shao was implicated and starved to death. In the subsequent years, there continued to be many politically motivated massacres of officials and Li clan members.

In 690, Wu took the final step to become the empress regnant of the newly proclaimed Zhou dynasty, and the title Huangdi. Traditional Chinese order of succession (akin to the Salic law in Europe) did not allow a woman to ascend the throne, but Wu was determined to quash the opposition and the use of the secret police continued after she took the throne. While her organization of the civil service system was criticized for its laxity of the promotion of officials, Wu was still considered capable of evaluating the officials' performance once they were in office. The Song dynasty historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, writes:

As empress regnant

In 690, Wu had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her and established the Zhou dynasty, with herself as the imperial ruler (Huangdi).

The early part of her reign was characterized by secret police terror, which moderated as the years went by. On the other hand, she was recognized as a capable and attentive ruler even by traditional historians who despised her, and her ability to select capable men to serve as officials was admired for the rest of the Tang dynasty as well as in subsequent dynasties.

Wu Zetian's reign was a pivotal moment for the imperial examination system. The reason for this was because up until that point, the Tang rulers had all been male members of the Li family. Wu Zetian, who officially took the title of emperor in 690, was a woman outside the Li family who needed an alternative base of power. Reform of the imperial examinations featured prominently in her plan to create a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins. Both the palace and military examinations were created under Wu Zetian which were based solely on merit.

Early reign (690–696)

Shortly after Wu took the throne in her newly established dynasty, she elevated the status of Buddhism above that of Taoism. She officially sanctioned Buddhism by building temples named Dayun Temple (大云寺) in each prefecture belonging to the capital regions of the two capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, and created nine senior monks as dukes. She enshrined seven generations of Wu ancestors at the imperial ancestral temple, while continuing to offer sacrifices to the Tang emperors Gaozu, Taizong, and Gaozong.

Wu faced the issue of succession. At the time she took the throne, she created Li Dan, the former Emperor Ruizong, crown prince, and bestowed the name Wu on him. The official Zhang Jiafu convinced the commoner Wang Qingzhi (王庆之) to start a petition drive to make her nephew Wu Chengsi crown prince, arguing that an emperor named Wu should pass the throne to a member of the Wu clan. Wu Zetian was tempted to do so, and when the chancellors Cen Changqian and Ge Fuyuan opposed sternly, they, along with fellow chancellor Ouyang Tong, were executed. She ultimately declined Wang's request to make Wu Chengsi crown prince, but for a time allowed Wang to freely enter the palace to see her.

On one occasion, when Wang angered her by coming to the palace too much, she asked the official Li Zhaode to batter Wang as punishment. Li Zhaode exploited the opportunity to batter Wang to death, and his group of petitioners scattered. Li Zhaode then persuaded Wu Zetian to keep Li Dan as crown prince—pointing out that a son was closer in relations than a nephew, and that if Wu Chengsi became emperor, Gaozong would never again be worshiped. Wu Zetian agreed, and for some time did not reconsider the matter. At Li Zhaode's warning that Wu Chengsi was becoming too powerful, Wu Zetian stripped Wu Chengsi of his chancellor authority and bestowed on him largely honorific titles without authority.

Meanwhile, the secret police officials' power continued to increase, until they appeared to be curbed, starting in about 692, when Lai Junchen was foiled in his attempt to have the chancellors Ren Zhigu, Di Renjie, Pei Xingben, and other officials Cui Xuanli (崔宣礼), Lu Xian (卢献), Wei Yuanzhong, and Li Sizhen (李嗣眞) executed. Di, under arrest, had hidden a secret petition inside a change of clothes and had it submitted by his son Di Guangyuan (狄光远). The seven were exiled. After this incident, particularly at the urging of Li Zhaode, Zhu Jingze, and Zhou Ju (周矩), the waves of politically motivated massacres decreased, although they did not end entirely. Wu Zetian utilized the imperial examination system to find talented poor people or people without backgrounds to stabilize her regime.

Also in 692, Wu Zetian commissioned the general Wang Xiaojie to attack the Tibetan Empire. Wang recaptured the four garrisons of the Western Regions that had fallen to the Tibetan Empire in 670 – Kucha, Yutian, Kashgar, and Suyab.

In 693, after Wu's trusted lady-in-waiting Wei Tuan'er (韦团儿), who hated Li Dan because he rejected her advances, falsely accused Li Dan's wife Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou of using witchcraft, Wu had Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou killed. Li Dan, fearful that he was next, did not dare speak of them. When Wei planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, someone informed on her, and she was executed. Wu had Li Dan's sons demoted in their princely titles. When the officials Pei Feigong (裴匪躬) and Fan Yunxian (范云仙) were accused of secretly meeting Li Dan, she executed Pei and Fan and further barred officials from meeting Li Dan.

There were then accusations that Li Dan was plotting treason. Under Wu's direction, Lai launched an investigation. He arrested Li Dan's servants and tortured them. The torture was such that many of them were ready to falsely implicate themselves and Li Dan. One of Li Dan's servants, An Jincang, proclaimed Li Dan's innocence and cut his own belly open to swear to that fact. When Wu heard what An did, she had doctors attend to An and barely saved his life, and then ordered Lai to end the investigation, saving Li Dan.

In 694, Li Zhaode, who had become powerful after Wu Chengsi's removal, was thought to be too powerful, and Wu Zetian removed him. Also around this time, she became highly impressed with a group of mystic individuals—the hermit Wei Shifang (on whom she bestowed a chancellor title briefly), who claimed to be more than 350 years old; an old Buddhist nun who claimed to be a Buddha and capable of predicting the future; and a non-Han man who claimed to be 500 years old. During this time, Wu briefly claimed to be and adopted the cult imagery of Maitreya in order to build popular support for her reign.

In 695, after the imperial meeting hall (明堂 ) and the Heavenly Hall ( 天堂 ) were burned by Huaiyi, who was jealous at Wu's taking another lover, the imperial physician Shen Nanqiu (沈南璆), Wu became angry at these mystics for failing to predict the fire. The old nun and her students were arrested and made into slaves. Wei committed suicide. The old non-Han man fled. Wu put Huaiyi to death. After this incident, she appeared to pay less attention to mysticism and became even more dedicated than before to the affairs of state.

Middle reign (696–701)

Wu's administration soon faced various troubles on the western and northern borders. In spring 696 she sent an army commanded by Wang Xiaojie and Lou Shide against the Tibetan Empire, which was soundly defeated by Tibetan generals, the brothers Gar Trinring Tsendro (论钦陵 ) and Gar Tsenba ( 论赞婆 ). As a result, she demoted Wang to commoner rank and Lou to a low-level prefectural official, though she eventually restored both to general positions. In April of the same year, Wu recast the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, the symbol of ultimate power in ancient China, to reinforce her authority.

A much more serious threat arose in summer 696. The Khitan chieftains Li Jinzhong and Sun Wanrong, brothers-in-law, angry over the mistreatment of the Khitan people by the Zhou official Zhao Wenhui (赵文翽), the prefect of Ying Prefecture (营州 , roughly Zhaoyang County, Liaoning), rebelled, with Li assuming the title of Wushang Khan (无上可汗). Armies that Wu sent to suppress Li and Sun's rebellion were defeated by Khitan forces, which attacked Zhou proper. Meanwhile, Qapaghan Qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate offered to submit, while also launching attacks against Zhou and Khitan. The attacks included one against the Khitan base of operations during the winter of 696, shortly after Li's death, which resulted in the capturing of Li's and Sun's families and temporarily halted Khitan operations against Zhou.

Sun, after taking over as khan and reorganizing Khitan forces, again attacked Zhou territory and had many victories over Zhou forces, including a battle during which Wang Shijie was killed. Wu tried to allay the situation by making peace with Ashina Mochuo on fairly costly terms—the return of Tujue people who had previously submitted to Zhou and providing Mochuo with seeds, silk, tools, and iron. In summer 697, Mochuo launched another attack on Khitan's base of operations, and this time, after his attack, Khitan forces collapsed and Sun was killed in flight, ending the Khitan threat.

Meanwhile, also in 697, Lai Junchen, who had at one point lost power but then returned to power, falsely accused Li Zhaode (who had been pardoned) of crimes, and then planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, Li Zhe, the Wu clan princes, and Princess Taiping of treason. The Wu clan princes and Princess Taiping acted first against him, accusing him of crimes, and he and Li Zhaode were executed together. After Lai's death, the secret police's reign largely ended. Gradually, many of the victims of Lai and the other secret police officials were exonerated posthumously. Meanwhile, around this time, Wu began relationships with two new lovers—the brothers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, who became honored within the palace and were eventually created dukes.

Around 698, Wu Chengsi and another nephew of Wu Zetian's, Wu Sansi, the Prince of Liang, repeatedly made attempts to have officials persuade Wu Zetian to make one of them crown prince—again arguing that an emperor should pass the throne to someone of the same clan. But Di Renjie, who by now had become a trusted chancellor, firmly opposed the idea, and proposed that Li Zhe be recalled instead. He was supported in this by fellow chancellors Wang Fangqing and Wang Jishan, as well as Wu Zetian's close advisor Ji Xu, who further persuaded the Zhang brothers to support the idea. In spring 698, Wu agreed and recalled Li Zhe from exile. Soon, Li Dan offered to yield the crown prince position to Li Zhe, and Wu created Li Zhe crown prince. She soon changed his name back to Li Xiǎn and then Wu Xian.

Later, Ashina Mochuo demanded a Tang dynasty prince for marriage to his daughter, part of a plot to join his family with the Tang, displace the Zhou, and restore Tang rule over China, under his influence. When Wu sent a member of her own family, grandnephew Wu Yanxiu (武延秀), to marry Mochuo's daughter instead, he rejected him. Mochuo had no intention to cement the peace treaty with a marriage. Instead, when Wu Yanxiu arrived, he detained him and then launched a major attack on Zhou, advancing as far south as Zhao Prefecture (赵州, in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei) before withdrawing.

In 699, the Tibetan threat ceased. Emperor Tridu Songtsen, unhappy that Gar Trinring was monopolizing power, slaughtered Trinring's associates when Trinring was away from Lhasa. He then defeated Trinring in battle, and Trinring committed suicide. Gar Tsenba and Trinring's son, Lun Gongren (论弓仁), surrendered to Zhou. After this, the Tibetan Empire underwent internal turmoil for several years, and there was peace for Zhou in the border region.

Also in 699, Wu, realizing that she was growing old, feared that after her death, Li Xian and the Wu clan princes would not have peace with each other. She made him, Li Dan, Princess Taiping, Princess Taiping's second husband Wu Youji (a nephew of hers), the Prince of Ding, and other Wu clan princes to swear an oath to each other.

Late reign (701–705)

As Wu grew older, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong became increasingly powerful, and even the princes of the Wu clan sought their favour. She increasingly relied on them to handle the affairs of state. This was secretly discussed and criticized by her grandson Li Chongrun, the Prince of Shao (Li Xian's son), granddaughter Li Xianhui (李仙蕙) the Lady Yongtai (Li Chongrun's sister), and Li Xianhui's husband Wu Yanji (武延基) the Prince of Wei (Wu Zetian's grandnephew and Wu Chengsi's son). Somehow the discussion was leaked, and Zhang Yizhi reported this to Wu. She ordered the three of them to commit suicide.

Despite her age, Wu continued to be interested in finding talented officials and promoting them. People she promoted in her old age included Cui Xuanwei and Zhang Jiazhen.

By 703, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong had become resentful of Wei Yuanzhong, who by now was a senior chancellor, for dressing down their brother Zhang Changyi (张昌仪) and rejecting the promotion of another brother, Zhang Changqi (张昌期). They also were fearful that if Wu died, Wei would find a way to execute them, and therefore accused Wei and Gao Jian (高戬), an official favored by Princess Taiping, of speculating on Wu's old age and death. They initially got Wei's subordinate Zhang Shuo to agree to corroborate the charges, but once Zhang Shuo was before Wu, he instead accused Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong of forcing him to bear false witness. As a result, Wei, Gao, and Zhang Shuo were exiled, but escaped death.

Removal and death

In autumn 704, accusations of corruption began to be levelled against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, as well as their brothers Zhang Changqi, Zhang Changyi, and Zhang Tongxiu (张同休). Zhang Tongxiu and Zhang Changyi were demoted, but even though the officials Li Chengjia (李承嘉) and Huan Yanfan advocated that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong be removed as well, Wu Zetian, taking the suggestion of the chancellor Yang Zaisi, did not do so. Subsequently, charges of corruption against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were renewed by the chancellor Wei Anshi.

In winter 704, Wu Zetian became seriously ill for a period, and only the Zhang brothers were allowed to see her; the chancellors were not. This led to speculation that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were plotting to take over the throne, and there were repeated accusations of treason. Once her condition improved, Cui Xuanwei advocated that only Li Xian and Li Dan be allowed to attend to her—a suggestion she did not accept. After further accusations against the Zhang brothers by Huan and Song Jing, Wu allowed Song to investigate, but before the investigation was completed, she issued a pardon for Zhang Yizhi, derailing Song's investigation.

By spring 705, Wu was seriously ill again. Zhang Jianzhi, Jing Hui, and Yuan Shuji planned a coup to kill the Zhang brothers. They convinced the generals Li Duozuo, Li Zhan (李湛), and Yang Yuanyan (杨元琰) and another chancellor, Yao Yuanzhi, to be involved. With agreement from Li Xian as well, they acted on 20 February, killing Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, and had Changsheng Hall (长生殿), where Wu was residing, surrounded. They then reported to her that the Zhang brothers had been executed for treason, and forced her to yield the throne to Li Xian. On 21 February, an edict was issued in her name that made Li Xian regent, and on 22 February, an edict was issued in her name passing the throne to him. On 23 February, Li Xian formally retook the throne, and the next day, under heavy guard, Wu was moved to the subsidiary palace, Shangyang Palace (上阳宫), while still honored with the title of Empress Regent Zetian Dasheng (则天大圣皇帝). On 3 March, the restoration of the Tang dynasty was celebrated, thus ending the Zhou.

Wu died on 16 December, and, pursuant to a final edict issued in her name, was no longer called empress regnant, but instead "Empress Consort Zetian Dasheng" (则天大圣皇后). In 706, Wu's son Emperor Zhongzong had his father, Emperor Gaozong and Wu interred in a joint burial at the Qianling Mausoleum, near the capital Chang'an on Mount Liang. Zhongzong also buried at Qianling his brother Li Xián, son Li Chongrun, and daughter Li Xianhui (李仙蕙) the Lady Yongtai (posthumously honored as the Princess Yongtai)—victims of Wu's wrath.

Wu Zhou dynasty

In 690, Wu Zetian founded the Wu Zhou dynasty, named after the historical Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). The traditional historical view is to discount the Wu Zhou dynasty: dynasties by definition involve the succession of rulers from one family, and the Wu Zhou dynasty was founded by Wu and ended within her lifetime, with her abdication in 705. The alternative is to view the Wu Zhou dynasty as the revival of the historical Zhou dynasty, which was ruled (at least nominally) by the Ji family, almost a thousand years before. Either way, the Wu Zhou dynasty was a brief interruption of the Li family's Tang dynasty, not a fully realized dynasty. But Wu's claim to found a new dynasty was little opposed at the time (690). The 15-year period that Wu designated as her "Zhou dynasty", considered in the context of nearly a half century of de facto and de jure rule (–705), reveals a remarkable and still debated period of history. In this context, designating a new dynasty with her as emperor can be seen as part of her power politics and as the culmination of her rule. Though Wu's Zhou dynasty had its own notable characteristics, they are difficult to separate from Wu's reign of power, which lasted for about half of a century.

Wu's consolidation of power in part relied on a system of spies. She used informants to choose people to eliminate, a process that peaked in 697 with the wholesale demotion, exile, or killing of various aristocratic families and scholars, furthermore prohibiting their sons from holding office.

Wu eliminated many of her real, potential, or perceived rivals to power by means of death (including execution, suicide by command, and more or less directly killing people), demotion, and exile. Mostly this was carried out by her secret police, led by people like Wao Ganjun and Lai Junchen, who were known to have written the Manual of Accusation, a document detailing steps for interrogation and obtaining confessions by torture. One of these methods, the "Dying Swine's Melancholy" (死猪愁), which merely indicated a level of pain inflicted by a torture device, seems to have been conflated in the years following Wu's death with the story of the "human swine" torture conducted by Empress Lü Zhi, in which her victim had her eyes gouged out, hands and feet chopped off, ears burnt, and was imprisoned in a latrine.

Wu targeted various people, including many in her own family. In reaction to an attempt to remove her from power, in 684, she massacred 12 entire collateral branches of the imperial family. Besides this, she also altered the ancient balance of power in China dating to the Qin dynasty. The old area of the Qin state was later called Guanzhong—literally, the area "within the fortified mountain passes". From this area of northwest China, the Ying family of Qin arose, unifying China into its first historical empire. During the Han dynasty, Sima Qian records in his Shiji that Guanzhong had three-tenths of China's population but six-tenths of its wealth. Additionally, at the beginning of Wu's ascendency, Guanzhong was still the stronghold of the most nationally powerful aristocratic families, even though economic development in other parts of China had improved the lot of families in other regions. The Guangzhong aristocracy was not willing to relinquish its hold on the reins of government, but some of the more newly wealthy families in other areas, such as the North China Plain or Hubei, were eager for a larger share of national power. Most of the opposition to Wu was from the Guangzhong families of northwest China. Accordingly, she repressed them, instead favoring less privileged families, thus raising to the ranks of power many talented but less aristocratic families, often recruited through the official examination system. Many of those so favored originated from the North China plain. Through a process of eliminating or diminishing the power of the established aristocracy, whom she perceived as disloyal to her, and establishing a reformed upper class in China loyal to her, Wu made major social changes that historians are still evaluating.

Many of Wu's measures were popular and helped her to gain support for her rule. Wu came to power during a time in China in which the people were fairly contented, the administration was run well, and the economy was characterized by rising living standards. For the most part, as far as the masses were concerned, Wu continued in this manner. She was determined that free, self-sufficient farmers continue to work their own land, so she periodically used the juntian, equal-field system, together with updated census figures to ensure fair land allocations, reallocating as necessary. Much of her success was due to her various edicts (including those known as her "Acts of Grace"), which helped satisfy the needs of the lower classes through various acts of relief, her widening recruitment to government service to include previously excluded gentry and commoners, and her generous promotions and pay raises for the lower ranks.

Wu used her military and diplomatic skills to enhance her position. The fubing system of self-supportive soldier-farmer colonies, which provided local militia and labor services for her government, allowed her to maintain her armed forces at reduced expense. She also pursued a policy of military action to expand the empire to its furthest extent ever up to that point in Central Asia. Expansion efforts against Tibet and to the northwest were less successful. Allying with the Korean kingdom of Silla against Goguryeo with the promise of ceding Goguryeo's territory to Silla, Chinese forces occupied Goguryeo after its defeat, and even began to occupy Silla territory. Silla resisted the imposition of Chinese rule, and by allying with Goguryeo and Baekche, was able to expel its former ally from the peninsula. Hong argues that Silla's success was in part due to a shift in Wu's focus to Tibet and inadequate support for the forces in the Korean peninsula. In 694, Wu's forces decisively defeated the Tibetan–Western Turk alliance and retook the Four Garrisons of Anxi.

In 651, shortly after the Muslim conquest of Persia, the first Arab ambassador arrived in China.

Reform of the imperial examination system

One apparatus of government that fell into Wu's power was the imperial examination system, the basic theory and practice of which was to recruit into government service those men who were the best educated, most talented, and had the best potential to perform their duties, and to do so by testing a pool of candidates to determine this. This pool was male only, and the qualified pool of candidates and resulting placements into official positions was on a relatively small scale at the time Wu took control of government. The official tests examined things considered important for functionaries of the highly developed, bureaucratic government structure of the imperial government, such as level of literacy in terms of reading and writing and possession of the specific knowledge considered necessary and desirable for a governmental official, such as Confucian precepts on the nature of virtue and theory on the proper ordering of and relationships within society. Wu continued to use the imperial examination system to recruit civil servants, and introduced major changes to the system she inherited, including increasing the pool of candidates permitted to take the test by allowing commoners and gentry, previously disqualified by their background, to take it. In 693, she expanded the governmental examination system and greatly increased the importance of this method of recruiting government officials. Wu provided increased opportunity for the representation within government to people of the North China Plain versus people of the northwestern aristocratic families; and the successful candidates recruited through the examination system became an elite group within her government. The historical details of the consequences of Wu's promoting a new group of people from previously disenfranchised backgrounds into prominence as powerful governmental officials, and the examination system's role, remain debated by scholars of this subject.

Religion

The Great Cloud Sutra

Wu Zetian used her political powers to harness from Buddhist practices a strategy to build sovereignty and legitimacy to her throne while decisively establishing the Zhou dynasty in a society under Confucian and patriarchal ideals. One of the first steps she took to legitimize her ascension to the throne was to proclaim herself as the reincarnation of the Devi of Pure Radiance (Jingguang tiannü) through a series of prophecies. In 690, Wu sought out the support of the monk Xue Huaiyi, her reputed lover, and other nine orthodox Buddhist monks, to compose the apocryphal Commentary on the Meanings of the Prophecies About the Divine Sovereign in the Great Cloud Sutra (Dayunjing Shenhuang Shouji Yishu).

Translated from a late fourth-century version in Sanskrit to Chinese, the original Great Cloud Sutra (Dayunjing) accentuated in Wu's Commentary had fascicles describing a conversation between the Buddha and the Devi of Pure Radiance. In the sutra, the Buddha foretells to Jingguang that he would be a bodhisattva reincarnated in a woman's body in order to convert beings and rule over the territory of a country. Wu's Buddhist supporters meticulously propagated the Commentary "on the eve of her accession to the dragon throne" while seeking to justify the various events that led Wu to occupy the position of Huangdi as a female ruler and bodhisattva. Since gender in the Buddhist Devi worlds have no standard form, Wu later took a further step to transcend her gender limitations by identifying herself as the incarnation of two important male Buddhist divinities, Maitreya and Vairocana. Her narrative was intentionally crafted to persuade the Confucian establishment, circumvent the Five Impediments that restricted women from holding political and religious power, and gain public support.

Indian influences

According to William Dalrymple, Wu used Buddhist texts brought from Nalanda University by Xuanzang to legitimise her rule, and her reign resulted in a substantial importation of Indian ideas. Under her, Buddhism became a state religion, and slaughter of animals was strictly prohibited. Wu also implemented several Indian principles, such as those of the Ashokan edicts, into the governance of her empire, and had many Indians become part of the royal court, including faith healers and astrologers.

Sacrifice on Mount Tai

In relation to Daoism, there are records that point to Wu's participation in important religious rituals, such as the tou long on Mount Song, and feng and shan on Mount Tai. One of the most important rituals was performed in 666. When Emperor Gaozong offered sacrifices to the deities of heaven and earth, Wu, in an unprecedented action, offered sacrifices after him, with Princess Dowager Yan, mother of Gaozong's brother Li Zhen, Prince of Yue, offering sacrifices after her. Wu's procession of ladies up Mount Tai conspicuously linked Wu with the Chinese empire's most sacred traditional rites. Another important performance was made in 700, when Wu conducted the tou long Daoist expiatory rite. Her participation in the rituals had political as well as religious motives. Such ceremonies served to consolidate Wu's life in politics and show she possessed the Mandate of Heaven.

Literature

North Gate Scholars

Toward the end of Gaozong's life, Wu began engaging a number of mid-level officials who had literary talent, including Yuan Wanqing (元万顷), Liu Yizhi, Fan Lübing, Miao Chuke (苗楚客), Zhou Simao (周思茂), and Han Chubin (韩楚宾), to write a number of works on her behalf, including the Biographies of Notable Women (列女传), Guidelines for Imperial Subjects (臣轨), and New Teachings for Official Staff Members (百僚新诫). Collectively, they became known as the "North Gate Scholars" (北门学士), because they served inside the palace, which was north of the imperial government buildings, and Wu sought advice from them to divert the powers of the chancellors.

The "Twelve Suggestions"

On 28 January 675, Wu submitted 12 suggestions. The specific proposal has not survive in full, but at least 7 suggestions are known. One was that the work of Laozi (whose family name was Li and to whom the Tang imperial clan traced its ancestry), Tao Te Ching, should be added to imperial university students' required reading. Another was that a three-year mourning period should be observed for a mother's death in all cases, not just in cases when the father was no longer alive. Emperor Gaozong praised her suggestions and adopted them.

Modified Chinese characters

In 690, Wu's cousin's son Zong Qinke submitted a number of modified Chinese characters intended to showcase Wu's greatness. She adopted them, and took one of the modified characters, Zhao (曌), to be her formal name (i.e., the name by which the people would exercise naming taboo on). 曌 was made from two other characters: Ming (明) on top, meaning "light" or "clarity", and Kong (空) on the bottom, meaning "sky". The implication appeared to be that she would be like the light shining from the sky. (Zhao (照), meaning "shine", from which 曌 was derived, might have been her original name, but evidence of that is inconclusive.) Later that year, after successive petition drives started by the low-level official Fu Youyi began to occur in waves, asking her to take the throne, Emperor Ruizong offered to take the name of Wu as well. On 14 October 690, she approved the requests. She changed the state's name to Zhou on 16 October, claiming ancestry from the Zhou dynasty, and took the throne as Empress Regnant (with the title Empress Regnant Shengshen (圣神皇帝), literally "Divine and Sacred Emperor or Empress Regnant") on 19 October. Ruizong was deposed and made crown prince with the atypical title Huangsi (皇嗣). This thus interrupted the Tang dynasty, and Wu became the first (and only) woman to reign over China as empress regnant.

Poetry

Wu's court was a focus of literary creativity. Forty-six of Wu's poems are collected in the Complete Tang Poems and 61 essays under her name are recorded in the Quan Tangwen (Collected Tang Essays). Many of those writings serve political ends, but there is one poem in which she laments her mother after she died and expresses her despair at not being able to see her again.

During Wu's reign, the imperial court produced various works of which she was a sponsor, such as the anthology of her court's poetry known as the Zhuying ji (Collection of Precious Glories), which contained poems by Cui Rong, Li Jiao, Zhang Yue, and others, arranged according to the poets' rank at court. Among the literary developments that took place during Wu's time (and partly at her court) was the final stylistic development of the "new style" poetry of the regulated verse (jintishi), by the poetic pair Song Zhiwen and Shen Quanqi.

Wu also patronized scholars by founding an institute to produce the Collection of Biographies of Famous Women. The development of what is considered characteristic Tang poetry is traditionally ascribed to Chen Zi'ang, one of Wu's ministers.

Literary allusions

Literary allusions to Wu may carry several connotations: a woman who has inappropriately overstepped her bounds, the hypocrisy of preaching compassion while simultaneously engaging in a pattern of political corruption and vicious behavior. For many centuries, the establishment used Wu as an example of what can go wrong when a woman is in charge.

Mao Zedong's wife Jiang Qing rehabilitated Wu as part of a propaganda campaign to suggest she be considered as a successor to her ailing husband. Frank Dikotter asserted that Jiang Qing "had started to compare herself to the only empress ever to have ruled in Chinese history, namely Wu Zetian. Articles praising the sixth-century empress as a great unifier of the nation appeared in the press, even though she was popularly reviled as a ruthless, wicked ruler who had mercilessly crushed her opponents." However, Dikotter did not cite sources for his claim.

In his biography Wu, Jonathan Clements writes that these wildly differing uses of a historical figure often led to contradictory and even hysterical characterizations. Many alleged poisonings and other incidents, such as her daughter's premature death, may have rational explanations that have been twisted by later opponents.

Evaluation

Quotes

The traditional Chinese historical view of Wu Zetian generally was mixed—admiring her for her abilities in governing the state, but vilifying her for her actions in seizing imperial power. Luo Binwang even wrote along these lines in a declaration during her lifetime, in support of Li Jingye's rebellion. Typical was a commentary by the Later Jin dynasty historian Liu Xu, the lead editor of the Old Book of Tang:

Some of the diversity in terms of points of agreement and even outright divergences in modern evaluations of Wu can be seen in the following quotes by modern non-Chinese authors:

Confucian viewpoints

Wu Zetian's rise and reign was criticized harshly by Confucian historians like Liu Xu and Yuan Shu, But, some of those had praises for Wu Zetian like Liu Xu (in Quotes section), Sima Guang

In the early period of the Tang dynasty, because all the emperors were her direct descendants, Wu was evaluated favorably. But commentary in subsequent periods, especially the book Zizhi Tongjian compiled by Sima Guang, harshly criticized her. By the period of Southern Song dynasty, when Neo-Confucianism was firmly established as China's mainstream political ideology, it determined the evaluation of Wu.

Era names

Chancellors during reign

Wu Zetian had many chancellors during her reign as monarch of her self-proclaimed Zhou dynasty, many of them notable in their own right. (For full list see List of chancellors of Wu Zetian).

Family

生平

唐太宗时期

首次入宫

武氏本名无记载，为唐开国勋旧武士获次女，母亲杨氏是武士获继室，根据李峤《攀龙台碑》所载，为隋朝宗室杨达之女，不见礼于正室诸子。祖籍并州文水县（今山西省文水县），637年十四岁时（贞观十一年十一月）因貌美而入后宫封为五品才人，唐太宗赐号武媚，后世讹称武媚娘。武氏入宫之前向寡居的母亲杨氏告别时说：「侍奉圣明天子，岂知非福？为何还要哭哭啼啼、作儿女之态呢？」

据杨氏为杨达之女的说法，武才人与太宗的三位妃嫔燕德妃、杨婕妤、巢王妃杨氏俱为表亲。而对于太宗时期武氏在宫中的生活细节，史书并没有详细的描述。仅见武氏在晚年时回忆自己为太宗驯马一事。当时，太宗有名马狮子骢，又肥又暴躁没有能调教它的人。武氏在太宗身边侍候，对太宗说：「我能制服它，但是须要三件东西：一是铁鞭，二是铁楇，三是匕首。用铁鞭打它不服，就用楇打它的头；再不服，就用匕首割断它的喉咙。」武氏称太宗壮其之志。然而太宗也因武氏这位看似娇弱的妃子竟如此粗野而感到震惊，从此武氏便极少得太宗宠幸。复自称尝侍太宗，得其书法之妙。

贞观十七年（643年），太子李承乾被废，晋王李治被立为太子。此后，在太子侍奉太宗汤药之际，李治见到武才人并悦之。

唐高宗时期

再次入宫

贞观二十三年（649年），唐太宗驾崩。武才人依唐后宫之例，入感业寺剃发出家。永徽元年（650年）五月，唐高宗在太宗周年忌日入感业寺进香之时，与身为比丘尼的武氏相遇。武氏落泪，高宗动容，亦随之流泪。当时与萧淑妃争宠的王皇后知悉后，便主动向高宗请求将武氏纳入宫中，企图以此打击萧淑妃。高宗早有此意，当即应允。永徽二年（651年）五月，唐高宗的孝服已满，二十七岁的武氏还俗，再度入宫。入宫前武氏已经怀孕，入宫后生下儿子李弘。次年五月，被拜为二品昭仪。

永徽六年（655年）六月，后宫中有人放出不利王皇后之谣言，流传王皇后与其母柳氏（宰相柳奭之姊，柳宗元同族）请来巫师，企图用魇镇之术将武昭仪诅咒而死亡。这谣言在无证据下传到高宗之耳，高宗大怒，并将其母柳氏赶出皇宫，而且欲将武昭仪升为一品宸妃（唐朝后宫四夫人中本来并无宸妃此封号，而原本的四夫人名额已满，唐高宗为了武氏，才创宸妃封号），高宗将武氏晋为宸妃，为武宸妃（《新唐书》一说，指受到宰相韩瑗和来济的反对，进号宸妃最终不能成事）。

不久，中书舍人李义府等人勾结武氏，得知高宗欲行废皇后而立武宸妃消息，联络本已贬官不得再进的许敬宗、崔义玄、袁公瑜等人向唐高宗不断请求立武氏为R|后，造成群臣支持的表象，废立之意遂再次萌生。

武氏封后

永徽六年（655年）十月十三日，唐高宗又在李世绩等朝廷武勋的模棱两可下，终于颁下诏书：以「阴谋下毒」的罪名，将王皇后和萧淑妃废为庶人，并加囚禁；她们的父母、兄弟等也被削爵免官，流放岭南。七天以后，唐高宗再次下诏，将武昭仪立为皇后；与此同时，又将反对最大的宰相褚遂良贬为外州都督。因为忌讳武氏曾为父亲太宗才人的事实，唐高宗在立后诏书中，称武氏为父亲所赐，「事同政君」。

显庆四年（659年）四月，武后与唐高宗达成共识：将长孙无忌、于志宁、韩瑗、来济等人削职免官，贬出京师。

并称「二圣」

垂帘听政

显庆五年（660年），唐高宗患上风疾之症，头晕目眩，不能处理国家大事，遂命皇后武氏代理朝政，但也因此忌惮武氏。在麟德元年（664年），高宗与宰相上官仪商议，打算废掉武氏皇后之位。但上官仪的废后诏书还未草拟好，高宗来不及下旨，宫女、太监已奔走相告，将消息传递到武后的耳中。她直接跑到高宗面前追问此事。高宗感到羞愧，又不想武氏怨怒，便把责任推到上官仪身上。十二月，上官仪被逮捕入狱，不久，即被灭族。自是上每视事，则后垂帘于后，政无大小皆与闻之。天下大权，悉归中宫，黜陟、生杀，决于其口，天子拱手而已，中外谓之「二圣」。

乾封二年（667年）高宗因久疾，命太子李弘监国。上元元年（674年）秋八月，武后和高宗并称天皇天后，名为避先帝、先后之称，实欲自尊。十二月，武后上表建议十二事：「一、劝农桑，薄赋徭。二、给复三辅地（免除长安及其附近地区之徭役）。三、息兵，以道德化天下。四、南、北中尚（政府手工工场）禁浮巧。五、省功费力役。六、广言路。七、杜谗口。八、王公以降皆习《老子》。九、父在为母服齐衰（丧服）三年（过去是一年）。十、上元前勋官已给告身（委任状）者，无追核。十一、京官八品以上，益禀入（增加薪水）。十二、百官任事久，材高位下者，得进阶（提级）申滞。」高宗诏皆施行之。武则天能够重视农业生产，规定各州县境内，「田畴垦辟，家有馀粮」者予以升奖；「为政苛滥，户口流移」者必加惩罚。所编《兆人本业》农书，颁行天下，影响很大。而武则天执政期间，其宗教政策乃以佛教在道教之上。

上元二年（675年）三月，武后召集大批文人学士，大量修书，先后撰成《玄览》、《古今内范》、《青宫纪要》、《少阳正范》、《维城典训》、《紫枢要录》、《凤楼新诫》、《孝子传》、《列女传》、《内范要略》、《乐书要录》、《百僚新诫》、《兆人本业》、《臣轨》等书。且密令这批学者参决朝廷奏议，以分宰相之权，时人谓之「北门学士」。时高宗风眩更甚，拟使武后摄政，宰相郝处俊说：「陛下奈何以高祖、太宗之天下，不传之子孙而委之天后乎！」高宗才罢摄政之意。太子李弘深为高宗锺爱，高宗欲禅位于太子，武后不满；刚好太子因为萧淑妃之女义阳、宣城二公主因母得罪武后而被幽禁掖庭宫中、年逾21而未嫁，奏请出阁，高宗许之，武后甚怒。不久太子死于合璧宫，时人以为武后所毒杀，但亦有说法称李弘本来病弱而早夭。

废立与称制

弘道元年（683年）十二月，唐高宗病逝，临终遗诏：太子李显于柩前即位，军国大事有不能裁决者，由武氏决定。四天以后，李显即位，是为唐中宗。武后被尊为皇太后。

光宅元年（684年）二月，中宗欲以韦后父韦玄贞为侍中（宰相），裴炎力谏不听，武后遂废唐中宗为庐陵王，并迁于房州。立第四子豫王李旦为帝，是为唐睿宗，武后临朝称制，自专朝政。同年九月，徐敬业、徐敬猷兄弟联合唐之奇、杜求仁等以扶支持庐陵王为号召，在扬州举兵反武，十多天内就聚合了十万部众。武后当即以左玉钤大将军李孝逸为扬州道大总管，率兵三十万，前往征讨。十一月，徐敬业兵败自杀。

垂拱二年（686年）三月，武后下令制造铜匦（铜制的小箱子），置于洛阳宫城之前，随时接纳臣下表疏。同时，又大开告密之门，规定任何人均可告密。凡属告密之人，国家都要供给驿站车马和饮食。即使是农夫樵人，武后都亲自接见。所告之事，如果符合旨意，就可破格升官。如所告并非事实，亦不会问罪。同时，武后又先后任用索元礼、周兴、来俊臣、侯思止等一大批酷吏，掌管制狱，如果被告者一旦被投入此狱，酷吏们则使用各种酷刑审讯，能活著出狱的百无一二。这样，随著告密之风的日益兴起，被酷吏刑讯拷打致死的人日渐增多。为奖励告密，若有属实，武后对告密者破例授官，以卖饼为生的侯思止，因举发舒王李元名与恒州刺史裴贞谋反，被任命为游击将军、侍御史。王弘义，以无德行见称，告乡里谋反，擢授游击将军、殿中侍御史。

武后掌管李唐的社稷，翦除唐宗室，诸王不自安，欲起兵对抗。还未有共识的时候，博州刺史琅邪王李冲，垂拱四年（688年）八月于博州（今山东聊城东北）举兵。豫州刺史越王李贞起兵豫州（今河南汝南）呼应。武后分遣丘神绩、魏崇裕击之。琅邪王李冲起兵七日败死；九月，越王李贞兵败自杀。武后想尽除李氏诸王，使周兴等审讯之，迫韩王李元嘉、鲁王李灵夔、黄国公李撰、东莞郡公李茂融、常乐公主等自杀，亲信等均被诛。

这年命令僧薛怀义率令万多人，毁乾元殿，建明堂，花了近一年落成，高二百九十四尺，阔三百尺。共三层，上为圆盖，有条九龙作捧著的姿态。上有铁凤，高一丈。饰以黄金，称为「万象神宫」。明堂既成，又命僧薛怀义铸大像，大像的小指也可以容纳数十人，于明堂北起五层高的天堂来收纳这个大像。所花费用以万亿计，政府财政为之枯竭。是年武承嗣命人凿白石为文曰：「圣母临人，永昌帝业。」号称在洛水中发现，献给武后，武后大喜，命其石曰「宝图」。之后武后加尊号为「圣母神皇」。

武后当政期间为了打击门阀豪族对官位的垄断，进一步发展收拢民心的科举制度。唐太宗共录取进士205人，高宗和武后统治期间共录取一千馀人。平均每年录取人数比贞观时增加一倍以上。武后载初元年（690年）武后在洛城对贡士亲发策问，是「殿试」之始。是年遣「存抚使」十人巡抚诸道，推举有才之人，一年后共举荐一百馀人，武后不问出身，全部加以接见，自称量才任用，或为试凤阁（中书省）舍人、给事中，或为试员外郎、侍御史、补阙、拾遗、校书郎，试官制度自此始，时人有「补阙连车载，拾遗平斗量，把推侍御史，腕脱校书郎。」之语。武后虽以官位收买人心，但对不称己意的人亦会加以罢黜；号称明察善断，故当时一部份士大夫亦乐于为武后效力。

建号称帝

次年（690年）七月，僧法明等撰《大云经》四卷，说武后是弥勒菩萨化身下凡，应作为天下主人，武后下令颁行天下。命两京诸州各置大云寺一所，藏《大云经》，命僧人讲解，并提升佛教的地位在道教之上。是年九月侍御史傅游艺率关中百姓九百人上表，请改国号为周，赐皇帝姓武。于是百官及帝室宗戚、百姓、四夷酋长、沙门、道士共六万馀人，亦上表请改国号。武后准所请，改大唐为大周。在神都洛阳则天门登基即位，改元天授，加尊号圣神皇帝，以睿宗为皇嗣，赐姓武氏，立皇太子为皇太孙。立武氏祖宗七庙于神都洛阳，追尊周文王庙号曰始祖，諡号文皇帝。立武承嗣为魏王，武三思为梁王，其馀武氏多人为王及长公主。

同年九月，武则天派右鹰扬卫将军王孝杰为武威军总管，与武卫大将军阿史那忠节率兵赴西域征讨吐蕃。十月，唐军大胜，连克于阗、疏勒、龟兹、碎叶等安西四镇，仍置安西都护府于龟兹，发兵戍守。

长寿三年（694年）武三思率四夷首领请以铜铁铸天枢，立于端门外，以歌颂武则天的功德。武则天亲题曰：「大周万国颂德天枢」。天枢铸造历时八月而成，其形制若柱，高一百零五尺，直径十二尺，八面，每面各五尺，下为铁山，周一百七十尺，以铜为蟠龙、麒麟环绕之；上为腾云承露盘直径三丈，盘上四龙直立捧火珠，高一丈。工人毛婆罗造模，武三思为文，刻百官及四夷首领之名于其上。用铜铁二百万斤，「请胡聚钱百万亿，买铜铁不能足，赋民间农器以足之。」

万岁通天元年（696年）五月，契丹首领李尽忠和孙万荣率兵起义，攻陷营州，杀都督赵文翽。武则天派将军曹仁、张玄遇、李多祚等率兵征讨。由于伏兵，全军覆没。接著，武则天再派武攸宜、王孝杰等率兵讨伐，均大败而归。神功元年（697年）四月，武则天又派武懿宗、娄师德、沙吒忠义率兵二十万，讨伐契丹。六月，孙万荣兵败被杀，契丹馀众归降于突厥。

神功元年（697年）武则天使武懿宗审讯刘思礼谋反事，武懿宗说只要刘思礼指出哪些朝士有分谋反，就免其死罪，于是刘思礼诬告宰相李元素、孙元亨等三十六家「海内名士」，皆遭灭族，亲旧连坐流窜者千馀人。时人以为武懿宗之残暴仅次于周兴、来俊臣。

是年，来俊臣欲罗告武氏诸王及太平公主（中宗之妹，武则天唯一长大成人的亲生女儿），又欲诬皇嗣李旦及庐陵王李显与南北衙共同谋反，拟一网打尽。武氏诸王与太平公主都十分害怕，共同揭发其罪行，下狱处以极刑。仇家争食其肉，不一会就食尽。来俊臣凶狡贪暴网罗无辜，织成反状，杀人不可胜计。「赃贿如山，冤魂塞路」，武则天亦知天下愤怨，下令数他的罪状，并没收其家财。

圣历元年（698年）武承嗣、武三思谋求当太子，几次使人对武则天说：「自古天子未有以异姓为嗣者。」武则天犹豫未决，狄仁杰对武后说：「姑侄之与母子，哪个比较亲近？（武承嗣、武三思皆武后之侄，中宗、睿宗则武后之子）陛下立子，则千秋万岁后，祭祖于太庙；立侄则未闻侄为天子祭姑于太庙者」。又劝武则天召还庐陵王（中宗）。武后由是无立武承嗣、武三思之意。乃召庐陵王还东都，皇嗣（睿宗）请逊位于庐陵王，武后立庐陵王为皇太子，命为元帅，狄仁杰为副元帅率兵击突厥。武则天信重狄仁杰，常谓之「国老」而不呼其名。狄仁杰好诤谏，武则天每屈意从之。狄仁杰死后，武则天泣曰：「朝堂空矣！」常叹：「天夺吾国老何太早邪！」

武则天晚年张易之、张昌宗兄弟迅速崛起，成为武则天的新宠，张易之、张昌宗兄弟年少美姿容，入侍武则天。二人常傅朱粉、穿著华丽的衣服。武承嗣、武三思等都争著追捧他们，甚至为他们执鞭牵马。

中宗长子邵王李重润（中宗第二次为太子时封为邵王）与其妹永泰郡主及郡主婿武延基窃议张易之兄弟「何得任意入宫」，易之投诉于武则天，武则天敕李重润、永泰郡主、武延基皆赐死。

神龙政变

神龙元年（705年）正月，武则天病笃，卧床不起，只有张易之、张昌宗兄弟侍侧。宰相张柬之、崔玄暐与大臣敬晖、桓彦范、袁恕己等，交结禁军统领李多祚，佯称张易之、张昌宗兄弟谋反，于是发动兵变，率禁军五百馀人，冲入宫中，杀死二张兄弟，随即包围武则天寝宫，要求武则天退位，史称「神龙政变」。

武则天此时已是81岁高龄，她年老体衰，无力平乱，只能禅让帝位予儿子李显，是为唐中宗，武周王朝灭亡，大唐王朝复兴，迁居上阳宫，为太上皇。中宗上尊号为「则天大圣皇帝」。

神龙元年十一月二十六日（705年12月16日），武曌崩逝于洛阳上阳宫仙居殿内，享寿八十一岁。武则天临终前下遗诏去帝号，称「则天大圣皇后」。神龙二年（706年）五月，武则天与唐高宗李治合葬于唐乾陵，留无字碑。

评价

盖棺无字碑

历代对武则天有各种不同的评价。唐代前期对武则天的评价相对比较宽容，但唐国史对后宫嫔妃与诸王公主的凄惨予以无情揭露。随著时间的推移，特别是司马光所主编之《资治通鉴》，对武氏进行严正批判。到了南宋期间，程朱理学在中国思想上占据了主导地位，舆论决定了对武则天的长久评价。譬如明末清初的时候，著名的思想家王夫之，就曾评价武则天「鬼神之所不容，臣民之所共怨」。惟不可否认的是，武后重视延揽，首创钳制文网式的考试，而且知人善任，能重用狄仁杰、张柬之、桓彦范、敬晖、姚崇等中兴名臣。名臣李绛当时也指出，开元期间著名的贤臣皆由武则天提拔。而在后来平定玄宗时期安史之乱的大功臣郭子仪就是通过武则天首创的武举被提拔的。宋代胡致堂对于武则天列出了许多违反儒家道德标准的「罪状」如「以才人蛊惑嗣帝」等，不过也不情愿地，充满遗憾地说道：「使其生为男子而临天下，其雄才大略殆与孝武等矣」，认为武则天若是男性的话她的雄才大略不亚于汉武帝。著名的宰相陆贽在给唐德宗的论文中，就曾写道「法太宗天后英迈之风以拔擢」，将武则天与唐太宗并列，鼓励德宗效仿他们。晚唐官员皮日休曾写道「天后革大命，垂二十年，天下晏如，不让贞观之世，是遵何道哉」， 怀念武则天时期的安宁日子。国家在武则天主政期间，文化承贞观之模、百姓尚称富庶。故享「贞观遗风」， 武周之治之誉，亦及于其孙唐玄宗（其母死于武后手）的开元盛世。L·S·斯塔夫里阿诺斯认为武则天是「中国历史上最能干，最开明的统治者之一「。

武则天的形象源于历史，唐宋时的正史对武则天的家世出身、宫廷生活及掌权执政等状况都有详细的记载。从总体上看，武则天的形象可以分为四个发展阶段。唐五代是发轫期，显示出「本色化」的特点；宋元是沿承期，武则天被「异族化」；明代是转折期，武则天被「艳情化」；清代为繁荣期，出现了两种截然相反的倾向，一种是被「妖魔化」，另一种则是被「理想化」。这与当时的时代特点紧密相关。

对历史发展的贡献

武则天对历史发展做出的第一个贡献是，她打击了保守的门阀世族。武则天被立为皇后以后，把反对她做皇后的长孙无忌、褚遂良等人一个一个的都赶出了朝廷，贬逐到边远地区。这对于武则天来说，是杀鸡儆猴，但这些关陇集团和他们的依附者，在当时已经成为一种既得利益的保守力量。把他们赶出政治舞台标志著关陇集团从北周以来长达一个多世纪统治的终结，也为社会进步和经济发展创造了一个良好的条件。

第二是促进了经济的发展。武则天在建言十二事中就建议「劝农桑，薄赋役」。在她掌权以后，又编撰了《兆人本业记》颁发到州县，作为州县官劝农的参考。她还注意地方吏治，加强对地主官吏的监察。对于土地兼并和逃亡的农民，也采取比较寛容的政策。因此，武则天统治时期，社会是相当安定的，农业、手工业和商业都有了长足的发展，户口也由唐高宗永徽三年（652年）的380万户增加到唐中宗神龙元年（705年）的615万户，平均每年增长0.721%。这在中古时代，是一个很高的增长率，也是反映武则天时期经济发展的客观数据。

第三个贡献是稳定了边疆形势。武则天当权后，边疆并不太平。西方突厥攻占了安西四镇，吐蕃也不断在青海一带对唐展开进攻。北边的突厥和东北的契丹一直打到河北中部。武则天一方面组织反攻，恢复了安西四镇，打退了突厥，契丹的进攻，同时在边地设立军镇，常驻军队，并把高宗末年在青海屯田的做法推广到现甘肃张掖和武威，内蒙五原及新疆木萨尔一带。对于在屯田工作上做出巨大贡献的娄师德，武则天特致书嘉勉。书中特定指出，由于屯田，使得北方镇兵的粮食「数年咸得支给」。

第四个贡献是推动了文化的发展。唐人沈既济在谈及科举制度时说到：「太后颇涉文史，好雕虫之艺。」「太后君临天下二十馀年，当时公卿百辟，无不以文章达，因循日久，浸已成风」。一是当时进士科和制科考试主要都是考策问，也就是申论。文章的好坏是录取的主要标准。二是武则天用人不看门第，不问是否为高级官吏的子孙，而是看有否政治才能。因此特别注意从科举出身者中选拔高级官吏。科举出身做到高级官吏的越来越多。这就大大刺激了仕人参加科举的积极性，更刺激了一般人读书学习的热情。这就是沈既济所说的「浸已成风」。开元、天宝年间「父教其子，兄教其弟」，「五尺童子耻不言文墨焉」的社会风气，就是从武则天时期开始的。正是文化的普及，推动了文化的全面发展。著名的诗人和文学家崔融、李乔都是这个时期涌现出来的。雕塑、绘画也达到了前所未有的水平。

个人缺失

另外武则天也有不少负面评价，岑仲勉说，「武后任事率性，好恶无定，终其临朝之日，计曾任宰相七十三人」。其主政初期，由于大兴告密之风，重用酷吏周兴、来俊臣等，加上后世史学家不齿于她违反传统的礼教，身为女子，竟然拥有不少男性嫔妃（称为「男宠」）。但赵翼为武则天的私生活辩护，说：「人主富有四海，妃嫔动千百，后既为女王，而所宠幸不过数人，固亦未足深怪，故后初不以为讳，而且不必讳也。」对于重用酷吏之说，也有学者表示，酷吏在武则天统治时期存在的时间是相对较短的。武则天之所以在改朝换代前后重用酷吏，完全是政治斗争的需要。酷吏也并不是在武则天统治时期才出现的，有学者指出在太宗贞观时期不乏酷吏暴虐的身影。在唐玄宗开元年间，有酷吏包括严安之，王钧，和因为凶狠无度所以被称为京师三豹的李全交，李嵩，王旭三人。

絮语

• 《旧唐书》：「治乱，时也，存亡，势也。使桀、纣在上，虽十尧不能治；使尧、舜在上，虽十桀不能乱；使懦夫女子乘时得势，亦足坐制群生之命，肆行不义之威。观夫武氏称制之年，英才接轸，靡不痛心于家索，扼腕于朝危，竟不能报先帝之恩，卫吾君之子。俄至无辜被陷，引颈就诛，天地为笼，去将安所？初虽牝鸡司晨，终能复子明辟，飞语辩元忠之罪，善言慰仁杰之心，尊时宪而抑幸臣，听忠言而诛酷吏。有旨哉，有旨哉！」赞曰：「龙漦易貌，丙殿昌储。胡为穹昊，生此夔魖？夺攘神器，秽亵皇居。穷妖白首，降鉴何如。」

• 《新唐书》：「昔者孔子作《春秋》而乱臣贼子惧，其于杀君篡国之主，皆不黜绝之，岂以其盗而有之者，莫大之罪也，不没其实，所以著其大恶而不隐欤？自司马迁、班固皆作《高后纪》，吕氏虽非篡汉，而盗执其国政，遂不敢没其实，岂其得圣人之意欤？抑亦偶合于《春秋》之法也。唐之旧史因之，列武后于本纪，盖其所从来远矣。夫吉凶之于人，犹影响也，而为善者得吉常多，其不幸而罹于凶者有矣；为恶者未始不及于凶，其幸而免者亦时有焉。而小人之虑，遂以为天道难知，为善未必福，而为恶未必祸也。武后之恶，不及于大戮，所谓幸免者也。至中宗韦氏，则祸不旋踵矣。然其亲遭母后之难，而躬自蹈之，所谓下愚之不移者欤！」

• 沈既济：「太后颇涉文史，好雕虫之艺。」「太后君临天下二十馀年，当时公卿百辟，无不以文章达，因循日久，浸已成风。」

• 陆继辂《崇百药斋文集》： 「以文学，书法，著述而论，才调之高，古今更罕有其匹」

• 崔融：「英才远略，鸿业大勋。雷霆其武，日月其文。洒以甘露，覆之庆云。制礼作乐，还淳返朴。宗礼明堂，崇儒太学。四海慕化，九夷禀朔。沈璧大河，泥金中岳。巍乎成功，翕然向风。」

• 鲁宗道：「唐之罪人也，几危社稷。」

• 洪迈《容斋随笔》：「汉之武帝、唐之武后，不可谓不明」。

• 司马光：「虽滥以禄位收天下人心， 然不称职责，寻亦黜之，或加刑诛，挟刑赏之柄以驾御天下，政由己出，明察善断，故当时英贤亦竞为之。」

• 赵翼：「女中英主。」「人主富有四海，妃嫔动千百，后既为女王，而所宠幸不过数人，固亦未足深怪，故后初不以为讳，而且不必讳也。」

• 翟蔼：「武氏以一妇人君临天下二十馀年，是不比于母后之称制者，而直自帝自王也，此其智有过人者。」

• 岑仲勉：「武后任事率性，好恶无定，终其临朝之日，计曾任宰相七十三人。」

• 郭沫若：「政启开元，治宏贞观；芳流剑阁，光被利州。」

• 宋庆龄：「武则天是封建时代杰出的女政治家。但就家庭角色而言，不难看出武则天也是个好妻子。」

• 毛泽东：「武则天确实是个治国之才，她既有容人之量，又有识人之智，还有用人之术。她提拔过不少人，也杀了不少人。刚刚提拔又杀了的也不少。」

• 翦伯赞：「武则天的打击门阀贵族和提拔普通地主做官的政策，是符合当时社会发展趋势的，因此她的作用是积极的……武则天在巩固封建国家的边疆方面，也做了不少工作。」

• 李贽：「试观近古之王，有知人如武氏者乎? 亦有专以爱养人才为心，安民为念如武氏者乎? 此因不能逃于万世之公鉴矣。夫所贵乎明王者，不过以知人为难，爱养人才为急耳……贤人君子，固武氏之所深心爱惜而敬礼者也。」

• 罗元贞：「武则天执政时期，是中国文化空前发展、空前隆盛的时期……武则天的一生，能文能武，为国为民，知人善任，领袖群才，治国有方，威信崇高。她非常聪明，经验丰富，知识超群。在政治、军事、制度、经济、文化等等方面，她都有作为一个英明的国家领袖人物的才能、见识、眼光、风度、处理问题的方法，并且起了积极的推动作用……女皇武则天，真不愧为封建时代杰出的政治家，中国历史上一位罕见的明主圣君。」

諡号

虽然唐室依照她的遗诏諡号，后来仍有数次修改：

• 殇帝唐隆元年（710年），改为天后。

• 睿宗景云元年（710年），加諡大圣天后。

• 延和元年（712年），改为天后圣帝，未几，改为圣后。

• 玄宗开元四年（716年），改为则天皇后。

• 天宝八载（749年），加諡则天顺圣皇后。

家庭

子

• 孝敬皇帝李弘（652年—675年）

• 章怀太子李贤（654年—684年）

• 唐中宗李显（旧名李哲）（656年11月26日—710年7月3日）

• 唐睿宗李旦（旧名李旭轮）（662年6月22日—716年7月13日）

女

• 安定公主

• 太平公主

• 千金公主：千金公主为唐高祖之女，于武则天大杀唐朝宗室时为求自保，自请降为武则天义女，武则天改封其为安定公主。

杂录

• 一次襁褓中男装打扮的武则天被相士袁天罡相面时，袁天罡说：「必若是女，实不可窥测，后当为天下之主矣！」

• 相传唐太宗在世时，曾请太史令李淳风算命，太史令占曰：「女主昌。」民间又流传《秘记》称：「唐三世之后，女主武王代有天下。」太宗听后恼怒，后在宴会上，时任左武卫将军的李君羡道出小名为「五娘子」，遭太宗忌惮，被下旨诛杀。后来，太宗再问李淳风传闻真假。李淳风回答，此人已在陛下宫中，不过三十年便能屠尽李唐宗室，其势而成，天命不可违抗。此人年老后可能会生出几分慈悲之心，但若强杀，上天可能派更凶暴之人前来，李唐子孙或会尽灭。因此，太宗打消了继续追查的念头。

• 相传在感业寺时期，李治有次前往祭拜，看到武氏后便魂不守舍。当时，与萧淑妃争宠的王皇后，便趁此纳武氏为自己派系，跟萧淑妃对抗，没想到两人皆亡于武氏之手。武自排除萧妃后竟始怕猫，怕猫被萧妃魂魄附身。

• 武则天称帝后有男宠。《旧唐书》记载的有张易之、张昌宗兄弟，冯小宝（薛怀义），以及御医沈南璆。

• 武则天为了夸饰武周革命，创造了则天文字。部分的则天文字还传到日本、韩国，甚至成为某些日本礼遇中国文化人的人名用字。

• 武则天著有《垂拱集》百卷，《金轮集》十卷，已散佚。今存诗四十六首，《全唐文》编其文为四卷。有《石榴裙》之思。

• 武则天称帝前掌握实权的6年，使用了3个年号，称帝的15年使用了16个年号，合19个年号，是中国皇帝中用年号最多和密度最高的皇帝。居于第二的是西晋皇帝晋惠帝司马衷，除了时间最长的元康年号（9年），9年间用了8个年号。

• 释谛闲说武则天为佛经「开经偈」的撰写者。（「无上甚深微妙法，百千万劫难遭遇，我今见闻得受持，愿解如来真实义。」）

• 熊猫外交的历史最早可以上溯至唐朝武则天时期。

相关作品与大众文化

影视作品

戏剧

游戏

• Fate/Grand Order

　• 配音：井泽诗织。作为4星Assassin出场。宝具是B级对人宝具「告密罗织经」。

• 王者荣耀

　• 配音：周帅

• 忘川风华录

• 决胜巅峰

漫画

• 魔女大战 32名异能魔女交战厮杀（河本焰、）中作为魔女登场

• 大理寺日志

注释

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