Marriage proposal

In 634, King Songtsen Gampo sent an envoy to Luoyang, the Tang capital. When Songtsen heard that both the Turks and Tuyuhun had marriage alliances with the Tang, he sent an envoy to the Tang capital to make a marriage proposal. The Tang turned it down and the Tibetan envoy told Songtsen that initially the Tang had accepted but the Tuyuhun were responsible for changing their decision. Songtsen attacked the Tuyuhun and the Dangxiang. Following his attack on the Tuyuhun, Songtsen stationed large numbers of troops on the western border of Songzhou in modern Sichuan and demanded a princess in marriage or else he would lead 50,000 troops to attack. In 638, the Tibetans attacked Songzhou and conquered two prefectures but withdrew after Tang counterattacks. Tibetan sources state that they were victorious while Chinese sources say they were victorious. In 640, Songtsen made a marriage proposal to which the Tang accepted in order to prevent further attacks.

In 638, Tang and Tuyuhun envoys arrived in Tibet. Tibetan sources say they came to pay tribute while Chinese sources say Tibet did not object to being a vassal within their tributary system. Thirteen Tibetan missions arrived at the Tang court during this time which were described as tribute missions.

In 641, Princess Wencheng left for Tibet with Gar Tongtsen Yulsung. Both Chinese and Tibetan sources agree that Wencheng was not a daughter of the Chinese emperor.

Life in Tibet

According to the Old Book of Tang, Princess Wencheng was married to Songtsen Gampo. Songtsen received the princess at Bohai Lake. A palace was built for the princess to live in. The princess did not like the Tibetans painting their face red so Songtsen banned this custom. In the Biography of Senior Monks Who Went to Western Regions for Scriptures, written by Jing Yi, a Tang monk, Dharma Master Xuanzhao met the princess while passing through Tibet. She gave him a warm reception.

Tibetan sources describe Princess Wencheng as 「Rgya-Mo-Bzav」, literally meaning 「the goddess from the Central Empire」.

According to Tibetan history, before entering Tibet, she did a geographical observation and found that Tibet's territory was shaped like Brag-srin-mo (an indigenous demoness) lying on her back. Temples were built to suppress the demoness. Princess Wencheng oversaw the construction of the Ramoche Temple. Together with Songtsen's wife from Nepal, Princess Wencheng assisted Songtsen with national affairs and contributed to the development of Buddhism in Tibet.

Legacy

According to the Tibetan history, the Songtsen Gampo's and Princess Wencheng's union brought hopes of promoting a harmonious, matrimonial relationship between the peoples of Tibet and China.

Princess Wencheng's life is depicted in texts such as the Maṇi bka' 'bum and the famed historiographies of Rgyal rabs Gsal ba'i Me long.

Tradruk Temple in Nêdong commemorates Princess Wencheng: a thangka embroidered by the Princess is kept in one of its chapels.

In literature

In the first narrative, which is from Chinese classical literature, Princess Wencheng was treated as an insignificant figure and the text paid much more attention to the ceremony of the 「peace-making marriage」 than to the princess's individual traits.

In the second narrative, which is from ancient Tibetan literature, the princess was portrayed as the incarnation of 「White Tara」, a female deity in Tibetan Buddhism, and supposedly possessed goddess qualities.

The third narrative, which was shaped by the Republic of China nationalist discourse beginning c.1928 depicted a "re-imagined" history and image of Princess Wencheng. The re-imagined image gradually transformed her into a 「transmitter of technology.」

In legends

The seated statue of Sakyamuni brought by Princess Wencheng is enshrined in the Jokhang.

According to legend, Rishan and Yueshan (Riyue Mountain) were transformed by the precious mirror of Princess Wencheng. Princess Wencheng walked to the dividing line between Tang and Tubo, and threw the Sun and Moon Mirror given by her parents behind her to cut off the endless thoughts of her relatives.

Legend has it that when Princess Wencheng and her party went to Lhasa by way of Chaya, they made a short stop in the beautiful Renda. In order to commemorate this place that made the princess feel relaxed and happy, the princess showed 9 Buddha statues including the Great Sun Tathagata on the Danma Cliff with her extraordinary good fortune and merit. The princess also plans to build a temple here. However, although there are towering mountains in this area, there is not a single tree. The princess used her magic power, just like Sun Wukong, the great sage of the sky, pulling out a few hairs from her head and blowing it on the mountain. On the cliff rock, a large forest miraculously grows. So the local people cut down the trees and built the Renda Hall. At the same time, the princess also taught the locals to open up wasteland and farm fields, divert water for irrigation, and use water mills. Later, the local people regarded the statue of Renda as a magical creation of Princess Wencheng, and regarded it as a sacred place. Good men and women from far and near came to the Renda Hall to worship the Buddha, burn incense and kowtow, to pray for peace in the world, good weather and happiness for the people.

Modern culture

Since the 2000s, the Chinese state has been presenting a propaganda spectacle in Lhasa which features Princess Wencheng. The spectacle is presented 180 times a year, both in a theatre or outside on a plaza. According to many observers, the propaganda spectacle misrepresents Tibetan Buddhism, the Tibetan Empire era, and Tibet's historically independent relationship with China.

The work "Princess Wencheng" was written by Zhang Minghe, a famous Chinese lyricist. From when Princess Wencheng first entered Tibet to the life of the Tibetan people, to her being praised and sung by the Tibetan people.

Footnotes

References and further reading

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历史记载

背景

唐贞观八年（634年），松赞干布遣使出使唐朝，唐太宗遣行人冯德遐出使吐蕃。松赞干布得知突厥和吐谷浑都迎娶了唐朝公主为妃，便再次派人到唐朝，提出要娶一位唐朝公主。唐太宗认为吐蕃无足轻重，便拒绝了这一要求。由于当时吐谷浑王诺曷钵入唐朝见，吐蕃特使回来后便告诉松赞干布，声称吐谷浑王从中作梗，致使唐朝拒绝这个婚约。638年，松赞干布遂以此为藉口，出兵大破吐谷浑、党项、白兰羌，直逼唐朝的松州（今四川松潘），又派使者前往长安威胁唐太宗，声称若唐朝不答应和亲，吐蕃便要大举入侵唐朝。唐朝的松州都督韩威率军迎战，被吐蕃击败。阔州（位于今松潘县北黄胜关北）刺史丛卧施、诺州（位于松潘县北）刺史把利步利以阔、诺二州归附吐蕃，周围的羌族部落也纷纷倒戈投向吐蕃，并引诱吐蕃入侵唐朝，唐朝西部边境为之震动。吐蕃的强盛引起唐太宗的重视，唐太宗以吏部尚书侯君集为当弥道行军大总管，以右领军大将军执失思力为白兰道、左武卫将军牛进达为阔水道、左领军将军刘简为洮河道行军总管，率唐军出击。西藏方面的文献一致表示此战吐蕃获胜。如班钦·索南扎巴的《新红史》就强调唐太宗原本并不愿意嫁公主，是在武力威胁之下才同意和亲。唐朝方面记载牛进达率领唐军先锋部队，趁夜间不备，击败吐蕃军。吐蕃死伤千馀人，松赞干布率大军后撤以避其兵锋。吐蕃的数位大臣请求返回，松赞干布不听。八名大臣通过自杀的方式来劝谏，使得松赞干布最终决定撤军，并退出占领的吐谷浑、党项、白兰羌地区，此时侯君集率领的唐军主力尚未到达。唐朝的强盛令松赞干布大为震惊，松赞干布遣禄东赞前往长安，「献金五千两，自余宝玩数百事」以谢罪，并多次催促和亲。贞观年间，由于唐朝过于强大，吐蕃还完全不足与之抗衡。

和亲

传说布达拉宫是松赞干布为迎娶尺尊公主和文成公主所建。贞观十五年（641年），江夏郡王、礼部尚书李道宗护送文成公主入吐蕃，以释迦牟尼像、珍宝、经书、经典360卷等作为嫁妆。松赞干布从逻些（今西藏拉萨）赶到柏海（柏海在乌海西南，乌海在青海西南2000多里）迎接。唐封他为驸马都尉、西海郡王。此后，吐蕃与唐朝成为盟友，松赞干布曾遣贵族子弟赴长安学习诗书，后又出兵天竺救出唐使，不过这一盟友关系在松赞干布死后不久便宣告破裂。文成公主在拉萨城北建立小昭寺，以供奉其带至吐蕃的佛像。

根据敦煌出土文献《吐蕃大事记年》记载，文成公主与松赞干布结婚后不久，松赞干布便亲自征讨象雄，花费了三年时间将象雄兼并。文成公主和松赞干布仅生活了数年，两人之间并未生育子女，之后文成公主在吐蕃寡居了三十年。她得到了吐蕃人的尊重。永隆元年（680年），文成公主在逻些城病逝。根据《于阗教法史》683年，吐蕃进行公开祭祀并下葬，唐朝遣使臣赴吐蕃祭奠。

根据《旧唐书·吐蕃传》的说法，文成公主不喜欢吐蕃人「赭面」（以红颜料涂面），松赞干布下令废除这项习俗。但事实上这一习俗仍长期风行于吐蕃，青海都兰出土的吐蕃墓木板画上存在赭面的吐蕃人，便是此习俗仍旧存在的证明。后来赭面的习俗甚至传入唐朝，白居易有诗作「元和妆梳君记取，髻椎面赭非华风」说明吐蕃的赭面之风传入唐朝。

文成公主虽无子，但后世的吐蕃赞普在与唐朝来往时，仍攀亲自称公主的后代，对唐朝皇帝遂成「甥舅关系」。例如赤德祖赞致唐玄宗的国书就称：「外甥是先皇帝舅宿亲，又蒙降金城公主，遂和同为一家。天下百姓，普皆安乐。」

西藏镇魔图

根据藏传佛教文献的说法，文成公主精通占卜之术，认为吐蕃地形如罗刹女仰卧之形，有不少魔鬼、精灵和非人。为了压制魔鬼，松赞干布先后兴建了边压寺、再压寺、四压肢寺、九对治寺，以及昌珠寺等佛教寺院，以压制魔鬼。朗达玛灭佛期间，文成公主曾被反佛派的大相韦·甲多热污蔑为罗刹女。

传说

藏传佛教徒对松赞干布及其二妃十分尊崇。根据藏传佛教的传说，观世音菩萨体内射出四种光芒，松赞干布是其胸口光芒投胎于卓萨妥噶王妃（一译「赤萨兑嘎」）而应运出生的。此后，观世音菩萨左眼之光化身为泥婆罗的赤尊公主，右眼之光化身为唐朝的文成公主，口中之光芒化为法身要义六名。另一种说法是，观世音菩萨因为见到吐蕃人民的痛苦，流下两滴眼泪，成为度母，化身为两位公主，至吐蕃来解除人民的苦难：其中白度母变身为尺尊公主，而文成公主为绿度母的化身。藏传佛教文献多声称松赞干布迎娶二妃的目的是为了弘扬佛教。在举行坐床仪式的时候，被认定为祖古的转世灵童都要向如来佛祖、松赞干布、文成公主、莲花生大师、白朗木女神以及宗喀巴大师等藏传佛教重要人物的塑像进献哈达，以表示尊敬。

大昭寺原本供有文成公主与松赞干布、尼婆罗公主的泥胎塑像。文革中被毁，今日复元重修。

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