Life before founding of Northern Wei

Birth and childhood

According to official accounts, Tuoba Gui was born in 371, after his father Tuoba Shi (拓拔寔), the son and heir apparent to Tuoba Shiyijian the Prince of Dai, died earlier in the year from an injury he suffered while protecting Tuoba Shiyijian from an assassination attempt by the general Baba Jin (拔拔斤). His mother was Tuoba Shi's wife Heiress Apparent Helan, the daughter of the powerful tribal chief and Dai vassal Helian Yegan (贺兰野干). Tuoba Shiyijian, while mourning his son's death, was very pleased by the grandson's birth, and he declared a general pardon in his state and named the child Tuoba Shegui. (Other than the reference to the naming at birth, however, the name "Shegui" was scantily mentioned in historical accounts of the rest of his life, and presumably was shortened to "Gui" for simplicity.)

Around New Years 377, Former Qin launched a major attack against Dai. Tuoba Shiyijian temporarily fled his capital Yunzhong (云中, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), but returned after Former Qin retreated. After his return, however, his nephew Tuoba Jin (拓拔斤) convinced his oldest surviving son Tuoba Shijun (拓拔寔君) that Tuoba Shiyijian was considering naming one of the sons of his wife Princess Murong (a Former Yan princess) as heir and killing him. In response, Tuoba Shijun ambushed his father and brothers and killed them. This led to a collapse of Dai forces, and Former Qin forces occupied Yunzhong without a fight.

In the disturbance, Tuoba Gui's mother Lady Helan initially fled to her brother Helan Na (贺兰讷), who had taken over as tribal chief after Helan Yegan's death. Later, the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān considered taking Tuoba Gui to the Former Qin capital Chang'an, but Tuoba Shiyijian's secretary Yan Feng (燕凤) convinced Fu Jiān to instead allow Tuoba Gui to remain in Dai lands to be groomed as the eventual Dai prince, arguing that this would be the best way to maintain the tribes' allegiance to Former Qin. Meanwhile, Fu Jiān divided the Dai tribes into two groups, commanded by the Xiongnu chiefs Liu Kuren and Liu Weichen. Tuoba Gui, along with his mother, went to live with Liu Kuren, who honored the child as a prince.

Adolescence

Little is known about Tuoba Gui's life until 385, by which time Former Qin, which had come close to uniting all of China, had fallen into great disturbance in light of rebellions throughout the empire. In 384, Liu Kuren had attempted to aid Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi, who was then under siege by Murong Chui, the founder of Later Yan, but was assassinated by Muyu Chang (慕舆常), the son of a Later Yan noble; he was succeeded by his brother Liu Toujuan. In 385, however, Liu Toujuan was assassinated by Liu Kuren's son Liu Xian, who took over as chief and viewed Tuoba Gui, now 14, as a threat. However, his subordinates Balie Liujuan (拔列六眷) and Qiumuling Chong (丘穆陵崇) found out, and at Balie's instruction Qiumuling escorted Tuoba Gui to his uncle Helan Na, who put Tuoba Gui under his protection. In 386, at the urging of previous Dai officials, Helan Na supported Tuoba Gui in reassuming the title of Prince of Dai.

Alternative version

However, an alternative version of Tuoba Gui's early life was presented in documents such as the Book of Jin and Book of Song—the official histories of the rival Jin Dynasty (266–420) and Liu Song Dynasty, which obviously had a motive to be biased, and yet presented interesting issues. Under this version, Tuoba Gui was not Tuoba Shiyijian's grandson, but his son—and was born significantly earlier than the official 371 date, of Tuoba Shiyijian's wife Princess Murong. When Former Qin attacked in 377, it was Tuoba Gui who restrained his father Tuoba Shiyijian and surrendered. Fu Jiān, offended at this act of betrayal, exiled Tuoba Gui. When Murong Chui, his uncle, declared Later Yan in 384, Tuoba Gui joined him, and was later put in charge of his father's tribes through a military campaign waged by Later Yan. Then, later, in order to avoid having the people know Tuoba Gui's status as a traitor to his father, the official version of his personal history was manufactured.

This version is not well attested but would solve a number of apparent contradictions in early Northern Wei history. These difficulties apparent in the official version include:

• How Tuoba Gui's father, Tuoba Shi, had a nearly identical name to the perpetrator of the patricide, Tuoba Shijun. If both names were manufactured by Tuoba Gui's later apologists, then the similarity in name could be explained as lack of creativity.

• How Tuoba Han (拓拔翰), mentioned as Tuoba Shi's younger brother, was also referred to in some official sources as Tuoba Gui's younger brother; as Tuoba Yi (拓拔仪), Tuoba Han's son, played an important role early in Northern Wei history as a key diplomat and general, he would be too old to be possibly Tuoba Gui's nephew if Tuoba Gui were born in 371. Obviously, if the official history, which stated that Tuoba Yi was Tuoba Gui's cousin, were correct, then there is no problem.

• How Tuoba Gui appeared too willing to turn against his maternal uncles the Helans early in his reign. If he was actually the son of Princess Murong, then he would not be related to the Helans, and his campaigns against them seemed less problematic. (Of course, it would then render it problematic how he eventually attacked and seized most of Later Yan's history, as the Later Yan emperor Murong Bao would be his cousin.)

• How Tuoba Gui could have a younger brother—as given and undisputed in official history—Tuoba Gu (拓拔觚) -- described as also being a son of his mother Lady Helan, if he himself were born after Tuoba Shi's death. (Two alternative explanations exist, however—it could be that Tuoba Gu was actually born of a concubine of Tuoba Shi but raised by Lady Helan, or it could be that Lady Helan remarried after Tuoba Shi's death, to another member of the Tuoba clan—possibly Tuoba Yi's father Tuoba Han—and therefore her younger son Tuoba Gu would also carry the Tuoba name. The latter possibility is attested in that another semi-contradictory version of the official history stated that Tuoba Gu was Tuoba Yi's younger brother. Another possible explanation—that Tuoba Gu was a twin younger brother—appears unlikely, as the official accounts of Tuoba Gui's birth did not suggest the possibility of twin birth.)

• How Tuoba Gui's oldest son Tuoba Si, born in 392, was said to be a late-arriving son. According to the official chronology, Tuoba Gui would only be 21 at this point, and it might be difficult to comprehend his being characterized as having had a late fatherhood. On the other hand, during his lifetime, particularly among non-Han peoples, marriage and childbirth often happened during adolescence.

• How Tuoba Gui appeared to begin to show signs of mental deterioration when he was still just in his late 30s, with signs of paranoia that appeared to be more characteristic of men of much older age. The official version attribute this to poisoning from powders given him by alchemists, which is not an unreasonable explanation, however, or it also could have been that the paranoia had nothing to do with mental deterioration.

Whether Cui Hao, the prime minister of Tuoba Gui's grandson Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, propagated this version, and whether that contributed to Emperor Taiwu's execution of not only himself but his entire clan, is not completely clear, but appeared likely.

As Prince of Wei

Establishment of rule

For the first several years of his reign, Tuoba Gui had to endure constant gravitating of positions by tribal chiefs, and his position was not secure. As he gradually asserted his leadership, however, the tribal chiefs began to coalesce around him.

In spring 386, Tuoba Gui set his capital at Shengle (盛乐, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), and was said to encourage agriculture to try to rest his people. In summer 386, he changed his title to Prince of Wei (and thus the state became known in history as Northern Wei).

In fall 386, with support of Western Yan and Liu Xian, Tuoba Gui's youngest uncle Tuoba Kuduo (拓拔窟咄) made a claim to the throne, and there were many chiefs under Tuoba Gui who secretly conspired with Tuoba Kuduo, causing Tuoba Gui to panic to flee to his maternal uncles' Helan tribe, while seeking assistance from Later Yan. Later Yan's emperor Murong Chui sent his son Murong Lin to assist, and together they defeated Tuoba Kuduo, who fled to and was executed by Liu Weichen.

Around the new year 387, Murong Chui offered the titles of Western Chanyu and Prince of Shanggu to Tuoba Gui, but as the title of Prince of Shanggu was not as honored of one as Prince of Wei, Tuoba Gui refused them.

Despite Later Yan's assistance of him and his status as a Later Yan vassal, Tuoba Gui began to secretly consider whether he could eventually conquer Later Yan. In 388, he sent his cousin Tuoba Yi the Duke of Jiuyuan to offer tributes to Murong Chui but also to observe the Later Yan court, to consider whether he would have eventual chance of attacking it. Murong Yi concluded that Murong Chui was growing old, and that his crown prince Murong Bao was incompetent—and that there were many potential claimants who would weaken Later Yan. This encouraged Tuoba Gui greatly in his eventual planning.

In 391, Helan Na's brother Helan Rangan (贺兰染干) plotted to kill Helan Na, and the brothers engaged in wars against each other. Tuoba Gui took this opportunity to request Later Yan to jointly attacked the Helan tribe—notwithstanding Helan Na and Helan Rangan's status as his uncles. In summer 391, Murong Lin captured Helan Na and Helan Rangan, but allowed Helan Na to remain free and be in command of his tribe, while taking Helan Rangan as a prisoner. It was after this campaign that Murong Lin, seeing Tuoba Gui's abilities, suggested to Murong Chui that Tuoba Gui be detained. Murong Chui refused.

In fall 391, an incident occurred that would lead to the break of relations between Later Yan and Northern Wei. That year, Tuoba Gui sent his brother Tuoba Gu to Later Yan to offer tribute, and Murong Chui's sons detained Tuoba Gu and ordered Tuoba Gui to offer horses to trade for Tuoba Gu's freedom. Tuoba Gui refused and broke off relations with Later Yan, instead entering into an alliance with Western Yan.

Following hostility with Later Yan

In 391, Tuoba Gui attacked Rouran—which had been a Dai vassal but had never submitted to him—inflicting major damage on Rouran, but was unable to destroy it. Rouran would remain an annoyance, and often a menace, for the rest of Northern Wei's history.

In winter 391, Liu Wenchen sent his son Liu Zhilidi to attack Northern Wei, and Tuoba Gui, despite having a much smaller army than Liu Zhilidi, defeated him, and further crossed the Yellow River to attack Liu Wenchen's capital Yueba (悦拔, in modern Ordos, Inner Mongolia), capturing it, forcing Liu Wenchen and Liu Zhilidi to flee. The next day, Liu Wenchen was killed by his subordinates, and Liu Zhilidi was captured. Tuoba Gui annexed Liu Wenchen's territory and people into his own, and slaughtered Liu Wenchen's clan and associates—more than 5,000 people. Liu Wenchen's youngest son Liu Bobo, however, fled to the Xuegan (薛干) tribe, whose chief Tai Xifu (太悉伏) refused to turn him over despite Northern Wei demands, and Liu Bobo would eventually marry the daughter of Later Qin's vassal Mo Yigan (没奕干) and became dependent on him. To punish Tai Xifu, Tuoba Gui attacked him in 393 and slaughtered much of his tribe, although Tai Xifu himself fled.

In 394, Western Yan's emperor Murong Yong, under heavy attack by Murong Chui, sought aid from Tuoba Gui, but Tuoba Gui, while sending an army by his cousin Tuoba Qian (拓拔虔) the Duke of Chenliu and the general Yu Yue (庾岳) to distantly try to distract Later Yan, Northern Wei forces never actually engaged Later Yan, and Murong Yong was captured and killed later that year when his capital Zhangzi (长子, in modern Changzhi, Shanxi) fell, and Western Yan was annexed into Later Yan.

In 395, Tuoba Gui led raids against Later Yan's border regions. Later that year, Murong Chui commissioned an 80,000-men army led by Murong Bao, assisted by his brothers Murong Nong and Murong Lin, to try punish Northern Wei. Tuoba Gui, hearing about Murong Bao's army, abandoned Shengle and retreated west across the Yellow River. Murong Bao's army quickly reached the river in fall 395 and prepared to cross the river. However, by this point, Northern Wei scouts had cut off the line of communication between Murong Bao's army and the Later Yan capital Zhongshan (中山, in modern Baoding, Hebei), and Northern Wei had the captured Later Yan messengers declare that Murong Chui had already died, causing great disturbance in the Later Yan army. The Later Yan and Northern Wei forces stalemated across the Yellow River for 20 odd days, when Murong Lin's followers tried to start a coup and support Murong Lin as new leader, and while the coup failed, uncertainty fell on Later Yan forces. As winter came, Later Yan forces retreated and, not realizing that the Yellow River would freeze to allow Northern Wei forces to cross easily, Murong Bao left no rearguard as he retreated. Tuoba Gui personally gave chase, catching Later Yan forces unprepared at the Battle of Canhe Slope, killing or capturing nearly the entire Later Yan army, and only Murong Bao and a number of officers escaped. Tuoba Gui, fearful of the Later Yan captives, slaughtered them at the suggestion of his brother-in-law Kepin Jian (可频建).

In 396, concerned that Northern Wei would then view Murong Bao lightly, Murong Chui personally led another expedition against Northern Wei, initially successful and killing Tuoba Qian. Tuoba Gui became concerned and considered abandoning Shengle again. However, as the army reached Canhe Slope, the soldiers cried out loud for their fathers and brothers, and Murong Chui became angry and ill, forcing the Later Yan forces to retreat to Zhongshan. He soon died, and Murong Bao succeeded him as emperor.

In fall 396, Tuoba Gui led his Northern Wei troops and made a surprise attack on Bing Province (并州, modern central and northern Shanxi), defeating Murong Nong and forcing him to flee back to Zhongshan. Tuoba Gui then advanced east, ready to attack Zhongshan. Accepting Murong Lin's suggestion, Murong Bao prepared to defend Zhongshan, leaving the Northern Wei forces free to roam over his territory, believing that Northern Wei would retreat once its forces are worn out. However, this had the effect that all of the cities' garrisons in modern Hebei abandoned them, except for Zhongshan and two other important cities—Yecheng (in modern Handan, Hebei) and Xindu (信都, in modern Hengshui, Hebei). After making an initial attack against Zhongshan and failing, Tuoba Gui changed his tactic to establishing his rule over the other cities while leaving Zhongshan alone. In spring 397, Xindu fell. Meanwhile, however, Tuoba Gui had received news of a rebellion near his capital Shengle and offered peace—which Murong Bao rejected, and Murong Bao attacked Northern Wei forces as Tuoba Gui prepared to retreat, but instead was defeated by Tuoba Gui at great loss. At this time, concerned about a coup attempt by Murong Lin, Murong Bao abandoned Zhongshan and fled to the old Former Yan capital Longcheng (龙城, in modern Jinzhou, Hebei). However, the remaining garrison at Zhongshan supported Murong Bao's nephew Murong Xiang (慕容详) the Duke of Kaifeng as their leader, and Tuoba Gui was unable to take Zhongshan immediately. Realizing that he had alienated the Later Yan people by having slaughtered the captives at Canhe Slope, Tuoba Gui changed his policy and tried to be gentle with the conquered Later Yan territory, and while time would be required, the territories began to abide by his rule.

Murong Xiang, meanwhile, declared himself emperor, and put Tuoba Gu to death to try to show his resolve. In the fall, however, Murong Lin made a surprise attack on him, killing him and taking over Zhongshan. Murong Lin also claimed imperial title, but was unable to stand Northern Wei military pressure, and Zhongshan fell to Tuoba Gui, who was largely gentle to Zhongshan's population despite their resistance—although he slaughtered the clans of those who advocated Tuoba Gu's death. It was around this time, however, that his army suffered a serious plague that might have killed as much as half of the army and livestock. When his generals tried to persuade him to suspend the campaign, Tuoba Gui gave a response that might be quite demonstrative of his personality:

:This is the will of Heaven, and I can do nothing about it. A state can be established anywhere on earth where there are people. It only depends on how I govern it, and I am not fearful that the people would die.

Around the new year 398, with Tuoba Gui ready to attack Yecheng, Yecheng's defender Murong De abandoned it and fled south of the Yellow River, to Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan), where he declared an independent Southern Yan state. With resistance north of the Yellow River largely gone, Tuoba Gui left Tuoba Yi and Suhe Ba (素和跋) as viceroys over the former Later Yan territory, and returned to Shengle. In order to enhance communications and control, Tuoba Gui constructed a highway between Wangdu (望都, in modern Baoding, Hebei) and Dai (代, in modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei), over the Taihang Mountains. He soon, however, recalled Tuoba Yi to be his prime minister and replaced him with his cousin Tuoba Zun (拓拔遵) the Duke of Lueyang.

In summer 398, Tuoba Gui considered restoring the old name of the state, Dai, but at the suggestion of Cui Hong (崔宏), he kept the name Wei. He moved the capital from Shengle south to Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi), to be in greater proximity with the conquered territories. He also issued edicts to standardize weights and measures throughout the state, and to establish standard ceremonies based on Chinese and Xianbei traditions.

Around the new year 399, Tuoba Gui declared himself emperor. He also claimed descent from the mystical Yellow Emperor, to legitimize his reign over the Han.

Early reign as emperor

In 399, Emperor Daowu made a major attack on the Gaoche tribes near and in the Gobi Desert, inflicting great casualties and capturing many Gaoche tribesmen. In a display of cruelty and power, he ordered the captured Gaoche men to use their bodies as a wall on a hunt he carried out months later, to stop animals from escape. He also had the Gaoche slaves build a deer farm for him.

Later that year, he reorganized his government, expanding from 36 bureaus to 360 bureaus, and he also established a university at Pingcheng and ordered that books be collected throughout the empire and be delivered to Pingcheng.

In summer 399, the Southern Yan general Li Bian (李辩) surrendered the Southern Yan capital Huatai to Northern Wei, forcing the Southern Yan emperor Murong De to instead attack Jin and take over its Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) as his territory.

Later in 399, because Emperor Daowu was angry that, on a letter to Jin's general Chi Hui (郗恢), the official Cui Cheng (崔逞) insufficiently deprecated the status of Emperor An of Jin (and also because he had been offended by a previous remark made by Cui in which he thought Cui compared him to an owl), he ordered Cui to commit suicide. This incident caused Emperor Daowu's reputation among the states to suffer, as for the next few years, some important Jin officials who lost out in Jin civil wars declined to flee to him for refuge because of the incident.

In 400, Emperor Daowu considered creating an empress. Of his consorts, he most favored Consort Liu, the daughter of Liu Toujuan, who bore his oldest son Tuoba Si. However, according to Tuoba tribe customs, he was required to make the potential candidates try to forge golden statues, to try to discern divine favor. Consort Liu was unable to complete her statue, while Consort Murong, the youngest daughter of Murong Bao, whom he captured when he took Zhongshan in 397, was able to complete her statue, and so Emperor Daowu created her empress.

Around this time, Emperor Daowu became increasingly superstitious and became trusting of astrologers and alchemists, seeking immortality. He also began to use strict laws against his subordinates, punishing them harshly if they carried out what he perceived to be disrespectful actions.

In 401-402, Emperor Daowu made an attempt to attack Later Yan, by now limited to modern Liaoning, but was unable to make gains against Later Yan's emperor Murong Sheng.

Around this time, Emperor Daowu also sought marriage and peace with Later Qin. However, Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing, hearing that he already had Empress Murong, refused, and because around this time Emperor Daowu constantly attacked several Later Qin vassals, the states' relations broke down. Emperor Daowu therefore began to prepare for a confrontation with Later Qin. Later in the year, Yao Xing did make a major attack against Northern Wei. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping (姚平) the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi (柴壁, in modern Linfen, Shanxi), and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.

Late reign

In the last few years of Emperor Daowu's reign, he became increasingly harsher in his treatment of his officials. For example, in 406, as he planned the expansion of Pingcheng with intent to make it into an impressive capital, he initially had his official Mo Ti (莫题), an accomplished civil engineer, plan the city's layout, but over a relatively minor issue where Mo was not very careful, ordered Mo to commit suicide—and then used Mo's layout anyway. He also made increasing visits to Chaishan Palace (豺山宫, in modern Shuozhou, Shanxi), often spending months there at a stretch. Other key officials that he killed during this period included his cousin Tuoba Zun the Prince of Changshan, Yu Yue, Monalou Ti (莫那娄题), and Tuoba Yi the Prince of Wei.

In 407, Northern Wei and Later Qin entered into a peace treaty, returning previously captured generals to each other. This would have a disastrous consequence on Later Qin, however, as Liu Bobo, then a Later Qin general, became angry because his father Liu Weichen had been killed by Northern Wei, and therefore rebelled, establishing his own state Xia. However, he spent much more of his energy conducting guerilla warfare against Later Qin, gradually sapping Later Qin's strength, and did not actually conduct warfare against Northern Wei.

By 409, Emperor Daowu, who was said to be under the effect of poisonous substances given him by alchemists, was described to be so harsh and paranoid in his personality that he constantly feared rebellion, particularly because fortunetellers had been telling him that a rebellion would happen near him. He occasionally would not eat for days, or would not sleep overnight. He often mumbled about his past accomplishments or defeats, and he suspected all of his officials. Sometimes when officials made reports to him, he would suddenly think of their past faults and punish or even kill them. Occasionally, when others would behave even slightly inappropriately, he would be so angry that he would kill them personally and display their bodies outside the palace. The entire government came under a spell of terror. The only persons immune from this treatment were said to be the minister Cui Hong and his son Cui Hao, who were said to avoid the disaster by never offending or flattering the emperor—both of which could have brought disaster.

In fall 409, Emperor Daowu resolved to create Tuoba Si crown prince. Because of the Tuoba traditional custom of executing the designated heir's mother, he ordered Tuoba Si's mother Consort Liu to commit suicide. He explained his reasons to Crown Prince Si, who, however, could not stop mourning for his mother, and Emperor Daowu became very angry, and he summoned the crown prince. Crown Prince Si, in fear, fled out of Pingcheng.

At this time, however, Emperor Daowu would suffer death at another son's hand. When he was young, when he had visited Helan tribe, he saw his maternal aunt (Princess Dowager Helan's sister), who was very beautiful, and he asked to have her as a concubine. Princess Dowager Helan refused—but not under the rationale that it would be incest, but rather that the younger Lady Helan had already had a husband and was too beautiful—citing a saying that beautiful things were often poisonous. Without Princess Dowager Helan's knowledge, he assassinated the younger Lady Helan's husband and took her as a concubine, and in 394 she bore him a son, Tuoba Shao (拓拔绍), whom he later created the Prince of Qinghe. Tuoba Shao was said to be a reckless teenager, who often visited the streets in commoner disguises, and often robbed travelers and strip them naked for fun. When Emperor Daowu heard this, he punished Tuoba Shao by hanging him upside down in a well, only pulling him out as he neared death. In fall 409, Emperor Daowu had an argument with Consort Helan, and he imprisoned her and planned to execute her, but it was dusk at the time, and he hesitated. Consort Helan secretly sent a messenger to Tuoba Shao, asking him to save her. At night, Tuoba Shao, then 15, entered the palace and killed Emperor Daowu. The next day, however, the imperial guards arrested and killed Tuoba Shao and Consort Helan, and Tuoba Si took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan.

Era names

• Dengguo (登国 dēng guó) 386–396

• Huangshi (皇始 huáng shǐ) 396–398

• Tianxing (天兴 tiān xīng) 398–404

• Tianci (天赐 tiān cì) 404–409

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Daowu, of the Murong clan (道武皇后 慕容氏), second cousin

• Empress Xuanmu, of the Liu clan (宣穆皇后 刘氏; d. 409)

　• Princess Huayin (华阴公主)

　　• Married Ji Ba, Prince Changle (嵇拔), and had issue (one son)

　• Tuoba Si, Emperor Mingyuan (明元皇帝 拓跋嗣; 392–423), first son

• Furen, of the He clan (夫人 贺氏; d. 409), aunt

　• Tuoba Shao, Prince Qinghe (清河王 拓跋绍; 394–409), second son

• Furen, of the Wang clan (夫人 王氏)

　• Tuoba Xi, Prince Yangping (阳平王 拓跋熙; 399–421)

• Furen, of the Wang clan (夫人 王氏)

　• Tuoba Yao, Prince Henan (河南王 拓跋曜; 401–422)

• Furen, of the Duan clan (夫人 段氏)

　• Tuoba Lian, Prince Guangping (广平王 拓跋连; d. 426), seventh son

　• Tuoba Li, Prince Jingzhao (京兆王 拓跋黎; d. 428), eighth son

• Unknown

　• Tuoba Xiu, Prince Hejian (河间王 拓跋修; d. 416), fifth son

　• Tuoba Chuwen, Prince Changle (长乐王 拓跋处文; 403–416), sixth son

　• Tuoba Cong (拓跋聪)

　• Princess Huoze (濩泽公主)

　　• Married Lü Dafei, Prince Zhongshan (闾大肥), a son of Yujiulü Datan, and had issue (one son)

Ancestry

生平

早年生活

拓跋圭在代王拓跋什翼犍建国三十四年七月七日（东晋太和六年，371年8月4日）在参合陂北出生。建国三十九年（376年），前秦灭代国，拓跋圭将要被强迁至秦都长安，但代王左长史燕凤以拓跋圭年幼，力劝前秦天王苻坚让拓跋圭留在部中，称待拓跋圭长大后为首领，会念及苻坚施恩给代国。苻坚同意，拓跋圭得以留下。其时，代国旧部由刘库仁及刘衞辰分掌，拓跋圭母贺氏带拓跋圭、拓跋仪及拓跋觚从贺兰部迁至独孤部，与南部大人长孙嵩等人同属刘库仁统领。刘库仁本亦为南部大人，拓跋圭等人到后仍尽忠侍奉他们，并没有因代国灭亡、自己改受前秦官位而变节，又招抚接纳离散的部人，甚有恩信。

383年，苻坚于淝水之战中战败，其后国中大乱，刘库仁助秦军对抗后燕，但于次年遭慕舆文夜袭杀害，其弟刘头眷代领其众。385年，刘库仁之子刘显杀头眷自立，又想要杀拓跋圭。刘显弟刘亢埿的妻子是拓跋圭的姑姑，并将刘显的意图告诉贺氏。刘显谋主梁六眷是拓跋什翼犍的甥子，也派部人穆崇、奚牧将此事密报拓跋圭。贺氏于是约刘显饮酒，将其灌醉，让拓跋圭与旧臣长孙犍、元他等人乘夜逃至贺兰部。不久，刘显部中内乱，贺氏得以到贺兰部与拓跋圭等会合。但其时贺氏弟贺染干忌惮拓跋圭得人心，曾试图杀害他，但都因尉古真告密及贺氏出面而失败。而拓跋圭的堂叔曾祖拓跋纥罗及拓跋建就劝贺兰部首领贺讷推拓跋圭为主。

登国元年正月六日（386年2月20日），拓跋圭得到以贺兰部为首的诸部支持在牛川大会诸部，召开部落大会，即位为代王，年号登国。拓跋圭任用贤能，励精图治，重兴代国。即位不久，便移都代国原都盛乐，并推动农业，让人民休养生息。同年四月，改称魏王，称国号为魏，史称北魏。

北魏建立时四周有强敌环伺，北有贺兰部、南有独孤部、东有库莫奚部、西边在河套一带有匈奴铁弗部、阴山以北为柔然部和高车部、太行山以东为慕容垂建立的后燕及以西的慕容永统治的西燕。因为叔父拓跋窟咄为了争位与刘显勾结，企图取拓跋圭而代之形成内部不稳，于桓等人意图杀害拓跋圭以响应窟咄，莫题等人亦与窟咄通讯。拓跋圭杀死于桓等五人，赦免莫题等七姓，但都因恐惧内乱而往依贺兰部，借阴山作屏障防守，又派人向后燕求援。

同年十一月，拓跋窟咄逼近，部众惶恐不安。慕容垂之子慕容麟带领的后燕援军此时仍未到，于是先让北魏使者安同先回去，让魏人知燕军已在附近，稳定人心。拓跋圭于是领兵会合后燕援军，在高柳大败拓跋窟咄。窟咄带领残兵败将西逃，依附铁弗部，被铁弗部首领刘衞辰杀死，拓跋圭接收其部众。十二月，后燕任命拓跋圭为西单于，封上谷王，但拓跋圭不受。

次年，拓跋圭与后燕联手击败刘显，逼刘显出奔西燕。六月，拓跋圭又于弱落水大败库莫奚部；七月再击败来攻的库莫奚。登国四年（388年），拓跋圭大破高车诸部。登国五年（389年），拓跋圭又西征高车袁纥部，并在鹿浑海大败对方，俘获人口及牲畜共计二十多万。不久更联同慕容麟所率的后燕军进攻贺兰部、纥突隣部及纥奚部，后两者向北魏请降。七月，贺兰部遭铁弗部攻击，贺讷于是向北魏投降求援，拓跋圭于是领兵去救援，击退铁弗，并将贺讷等人迁至东界。

拓跋圭进击高车诸部，唯独柔然不肯降魏，遂于登国七年（391年）进攻柔然。柔然当时率众退避，拓跋圭追击，军粮用尽后以备乘战马作军粮，终在南牀山追及，并俘获其一半部众。接著拓跋圭继续派兵追击馀部，逼令首领縕纥提投降。同年，拓跋圭进攻铁弗，直攻代来城，擒获直力鞮，衞辰被部下杀害。拓跋圭更尽诛刘衞辰宗族共五千多人，将尸体丢在黄河中。此战后，黄河以南诸部都向北魏投降。北魏至此已击败大部份强邻，国力亦大增。

燕魏争霸

北魏与后燕皆是386年建立，后燕强而北魏弱，拓跋圭与后燕结好，而北魏开国之初的内乱，后燕亦曾出兵支援拓跋圭，每年两回亦派使者往来。登国六年（391年），贺兰部内乱，贺染干和贺讷互相攻击，拓跋圭亦自请为响导，请后燕出兵讨伐。但同年，后燕将来使拓跋觚扣留，以向北魏求名马。拓跋圭拒绝，拓跋觚亦一直遭扣留，此后两国关系恶化。北魏转而联结西燕对付后燕。但后燕帝慕容垂于登国九年（394年）六月出兵进攻西燕，围攻长子，西燕帝慕容永曾向北魏求援，拓跋圭遂派陈留公拓跋虔及庾岳救援西燕，可是援军尚未赶到，长子就失陷。慕容永及其公卿大将三十多人都被诛杀，西燕灭亡。华北一带就剩下北魏与后燕两国互相对峙。

登国十年（395年）北魏侵逼后燕附塞诸部，慕容垂就于同年五月派其太子慕容宝伐魏。拓跋圭知大军前来，率众到河西避战。燕军于七月到五原后收降魏别部三万多家人，又收穄田谷物及造船打算渡河进攻。拓跋圭亦进军河边，与燕军对峙。北魏一方面派许谦向后秦请求援兵，一面却派兵堵截燕军与后燕都城中山的道路，并抓住取道去前线的燕国使者。因著慕容垂在出兵时已经患病，而堵截道路令慕容宝久久都不知道国内消息，拓跋圭于是逼令抓到的使者向燕军谎称慕容垂的死讯，成功动摇燕军将士的军心。燕魏两军自九月起隔河对峙至十月，燕军终因内乱而被逼烧船撤退。其时黄河河水未结，魏军未能及时渡河追击。但次月大风令河面结冰后，拓跋圭即下令渡河并派二万多精骑追击燕军。魏军在参合陂打败燕军，俘获大量燕军将士及官员，拓跋圭除了选用有才的如贾闰、贾羿等人留下外，将其他官员都送回后燕，但同时将燕兵都坑杀。史称参合陂之战。

登国十一年（396年）三月，慕容垂率军再度伐魏，攻陷平城（今山西大同市），留守平城的拓跋虔战死，守城的三万馀家部落皆被俘。接著慕容垂更派慕容宝等进逼拓跋圭。拓跋圭此时十分惊惧，打算离开盛乐避兵，而诸部因骁勇善战的拓跋虔战死，亦有异心，令拓跋圭不知所措。可是慕容垂因见参合陂堆积如山的燕兵尸体而发病，被逼退兵，并病逝于上谷。同年七月，拓跋圭建天子旌旗，并改元皇始，并正式图取后燕所占的中原土地。

称霸华北

皇始元年（396年）八月，拓跋圭就大举伐燕，亲率四十多万大军南出马邑，越过句注南攻后燕并州，同时又命封真率偏师进攻后燕幽州。九月，魏军进至晋阳，守城的慕容农出战但大败，晋阳城守将此时叛燕逼使慕容农率众东走。长孙肥率众追击，在潞川追上，慕容农妻儿被掳，只能与三骑逃回中山。北魏遂夺取后燕并州 ( 今山西地区 )之地，并置官员治理当地。

随后，拓跋圭命于栗磾及公孙兰等暗中开通昔日韩信在井陉用过的路，并在同年十月，越过太行山率军取道该路进攻后燕京师中山城 ( 河北省定县 )。其时燕军决意婴城自守，打持久战，于是拓跋圭在攻下常山后，其东各郡县的官员不是弃城就是投降，北魏于是轻易地得到中原大部分郡县归附，仅馀中山城、邺城及信都城三城仍然拒守。拓跋圭于是兵分三路分攻三城：自攻中山，拓跋仪攻邺及王建、李栗攻信都。然而，拓跋圭在攻中山城时遭燕军力拒，于是暂时放弃中山城，改而南取其馀二城。

皇始二年（397年）正月，拓跋圭加入进攻信都城，终于逼得守将慕容凤弃城出走，但其时慕容德却成功离间进攻邺城的拓跋仪及贺赖卢，令他们退兵，并乘机从后追击，大破魏军。

上一年，为拓跋圭憎恶的魏将没根自疑而叛魏投燕，其侄儿丑提恐怕会被株连，于是决定自并州率部回北魏后方作乱。拓跋圭见内乱起，于是自后燕求和，但慕容宝却意图乘此机反击，拒绝之馀更派步兵十二万及骑兵三万七千出屯柏肆，在滹沱水以北阻击魏军。魏军在滹沱水南岸设营，燕军于是乘夜渡水进攻，以万馀兵突袭魏营，并乘风势放火。魏军此时大乱，拓跋圭慌忙起来弃营逃跑，仅而避过攻到其帐下的燕将乞特真。可是，燕军此时却无故自乱，互相攻击，拓跋圭在营外见到，就击鼓收拾馀众，集结好后进攻营内燕军，并乘势进攻营北作支援的慕容宝军，逼使慕容宝退回北岸。此战后，燕军士气大降，而魏军却已重整。拓跋圭乘慕容宝撤退的机会追击，屡败燕军。慕容宝恐惧下更抛下大军率二万骑兵速返中山；又怕被追上，命令士兵抛弃战衣及兵器轻装撤还。其时大量燕兵因大风雪而冻死，很多后燕朝臣及兵将都被俘或投降。

三月，慕容宝向拓跋圭求和，并说要送还拓跋觚，并割让常山以西土地。拓跋圭已答允，但慕容宝却反悔，拓跋圭于是进围中山。最终慕容宝等人弃中山城出走，拓跋圭原本打算在该晚入城，王建则以士兵会乘夜盗取城中财宝为由劝阻，拓跋圭于是等到日出才入城。可是慕容详却趁机自立为主，闭门拒守，拓跋圭试图强攻但攻了几日都不果，于是试图劝降，可是城中军民却表示担心会有昔日在参合陂被杀的燕降卒一样的下场，所以坚守到最后。拓跋圭想起当日劝他杀俘的正是王建，导致现在难取中山，于是向其吐口水。至五月，拓跋圭撤围，到河间补充军粮。在围攻中山的同时，拓跋圭派庾岳率兵讨平国内叛变的贺兰部、纥邻部及纥奚部，成功解决内乱。

九月，时据中山的慕容麟因饥荒而出据新市，拓跋圭于是主动进攻，并在次月于义台大破慕容麟。慕容麟出走后，拓跋圭入据中山。皇始三年（398年），邺城也因慕容德弃守而落入魏军手中，拓跋圭于邺置行台后回到中山，并打算回盛乐，于是修治由望都至代的直道，设中山行台以防变乱，又下令强迁新占之山东六州官民和外族人士到代郡充实人口。

皇始三年（398年）七月，拓跋圭迁都平城，营建宫殿、宗庙、社稷。同年十二月二日（399年1月24日），改年号天兴，即皇帝位。

天兴二年（399年）正月，拓跋圭即位后不久便北巡，并分三道进攻高车各部，至二月会师时大破高车三十馀部，另拓跋仪又以三万骑兵攻破高车残馀的七部，皆大有所获《魏书·太祖纪》：「庚午，车驾北巡，分命诸将大袭高车，大将军、常山王遵等三军从东道出长川，镇北将军高凉王乐真等七军从西道出牛川，车驾亲勒六军从中道自驳髯水西北。二月丁亥朔，诸军同会，破高车杂种三十馀部，获七万馀口，马三十馀万匹，牛羊百四十馀万。骠骑大将军、衞王仪督三万骑别从西北绝漠千馀里，破其遗迸七部，获二万馀口，马五万馀匹，牛羊二十馀万头，高车二十馀万乘，并服玩诸物。」。同年三月二十日，拓跋圭派遣建义将军庾真及越骑校尉奚斤进攻北方的库狄部及宥连部，将他们击败并逼令库狄部的沓亦干归附。庾真等军接著又击破侯莫陈部，俘获十多万头牲畜并一直追击到大峨谷《魏书·太祖纪》：「丙子，遣建义将军庾真、越骑校尉奚斤讨厍狄部帅叶亦干、宥连部帅窦羽泥于太浑川，破之，厍狄勤支子沓亦干率其部落内附。真等进破侯莫陈部，获马牛羊十馀万头，追殄遗迸，入大峨谷。」。

魏秦争战

拓跋圭曾派贺狄干向后秦献马一千匹并请结婚姻，不过其时拓跋圭已立慕容氏为皇后，故此后秦君主姚兴拒绝了婚姻要求并强留贺狄干，两国遂有嫌隙。天兴五年（402年）后秦高平公没弈干和属部黜弗及素古延分别遭北魏常山王拓跋遵及材官将军和突领兵进侵，其中拓跋遵军更曾追击至瓦亭，另魏平阳太守贰尘又进攻秦河东之地。这些行动威胁到秦都长安，关中各城白天都闭著城门，亦令得后秦准备进攻北魏。拓跋圭亦在该年举行阅兵，又命并州各郡送谷物到平阳郡的乾壁储存以防备秦军进攻。

天兴五年（402年）六月，后秦派军进攻北魏，攻陷了乾壁。拓跋圭则派毗陵王拓跋顺及豫州刺史长孙肥为前锋迎击，自率大军在后。八月，拓跋圭至永安（今山西霍县东北），秦将姚平派二百精骑视察魏军但尽数被擒，于是撤走，但在柴壁遭拓跋圭追上，于是据守柴壁。拓跋圭围困柴壁，而姚兴则率军来救援姚平，并要据天渡运粮给姚平。

拓跋圭接著增厚包围圈，防止姚平突围或姚兴强攻，另又听从安同所言，筑浮桥渡汾河，并在西岸筑围拒秦军，引秦军走汾东的蒙坑。姚兴到后果走蒙坑，遭拓跋圭击败。拓跋圭又派兵各据险要，阻止秦军接近柴壁。至十月，姚平粮尽突围但失败，于是率部投水自杀，拓跋圭更派擅长游泳的人下水打捞自杀者，又生擒狄伯支等四十多名后秦官员，二万多名士兵亦束手就擒。姚兴虽然能够与姚平遥相呼应，但无力救援，柴壁败后多次派人请和，但拓跋圭不准，反而要进攻蒲阪，只是当时姚绪坚守不战，且早于394年背魏再兴的柔然汗国要攻魏，逼使拓跋圭撤兵。

不得善终

拓跋圭晚年因服食寒食散，刚愎自用、猜忌多疑，更常因想起昔日一点不满就要诛杀大臣。大臣们大都惶恐度日，影响办事能力，以至偷窃等行为十分猖獗。

天赐四年（407年）至天赐六年（409年）间，拓跋圭先后诛杀了司空庾岳、北部大人贺狄干兄弟及高邑公莫题父子。往日曾与穆崇共谋刺杀拓跋圭的拓跋仪虽然因拓跋圭念其功勋而没被追究，但眼见拓跋圭杀害大臣，于是自疑逃亡，但还是被追兵抓住，并被赐死。

天赐六年冬十月戊辰（409年11月6日），次子拓跋绍母贺夫人有过失，拓跋圭幽禁她于宫中，准备处死。到黄昏时仍未决。贺氏秘密向拓跋绍求救。拓跋绍与宫中守兵及宦官串通，当晚带人翻墙入宫，刺杀拓跋圭。拓跋圭在拓跋绍来到时惊醒，试图找武器反击但不果，终为其所杀，享年三十九岁。

其子拓跋嗣登位后，于永兴二年（410年）諡拓跋圭为宣武皇帝，庙号烈祖，泰常五年（420年）才改諡为道武皇帝，太和十五年（491年）改庙号为太祖。

评价

• 北齐史官魏收于《魏书》的「史臣曰」评论说：「晋氏崩离，戎羯乘衅，僭伪纷纠，犲狼竞驰。太祖显晦安危之中，屈伸潜跃之际，驱率遗黎，奋其灵武，克剪方难，遂启中原，朝拱人神，显登皇极。虽冠履不暇，栖遑外土，而制作经谟，咸存长世。所谓大人利见，百姓与能，抑不世之神武也。而屯厄有期，祸生非虑，将人事不足，岂天实为之。呜呼！」

• 唐代某贵族「公子」与世族虞世南的对话：「公子曰：『魏之道武，始立大号，观其器用，足为一时之杰乎？』先生曰：『道武经略之志，将立霸阶，而才不逮也。末年沈痼，加以精虐，不能任下，祸及方悟，不亦晚乎！』；公子曰：『魏之太祖、太武，孰与为辈？』先生曰：『太祖、太武，俱有异人之姿，故能辟土擒敌，窥觎江外。然善战好杀，暴桀雄武，禀崆峒之气焉。至于安忍诛残，石季龙之俦也。』」

• 北宋司马光评论说：「后魏之先，世居朔野，有国久矣。道武帝乘燕氏之衰，悉举引弓之众，以冯陵中夏；马首所向，无不望风奔溃。南取并州，东举幽、冀；兵不留行，而数千里之地定矣！」

家庭

后妃

• 道武皇后，慕容氏，慕容宝幼女。

• 宣穆皇后，刘氏，刘头眷之女，天赐四年（409年）因子贵母死制度被赐死

• 贺夫人，献明皇后妹妹，天赐四年（409年），拓跋绍事败后，被杀

• 大王夫人

• 王夫人

• 段夫人

子女

• 魏明元帝拓跋嗣，生母宣穆皇后

• 拓跋绍，北魏徵南大将军、清河王，生母贺夫人

• 拓跋熙，北魏阳平王，生母大王夫人

• 拓跋曜，北魏河南王，生母王夫人

• 拓跋修，北魏河间王

• 拓跋处文，北魏长乐王

• 拓跋连，北魏广平王，生母段夫人

• 拓跋黎，北魏京兆王，生母段夫人

• 拓跋浑，早逝，无后

• 拓跋聪，早逝，无后

• 华阴公主，生母宣穆皇后，嫁闾大肥

影视文学形象

在黄易所著武侠小说《边荒传说》中，与男主角燕飞（拓跋汉）为总角之交，而燕飞之母为有拓拔飞燕之称的拓拔燕。

注释

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