Appearance

According to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Güyük was of "medium stature, very prudent and extremely shrewd, and serious and sedate in his manners."

Early life

Güyük received military training and served as an officer under his grandfather Genghis Khan and later his father Ögedei Khan (after the death of Genghis in 1227). He married Oghul Qaimish of the Merkit clan. In 1233, Güyük, along with his maternal cousin Alchidai and the Mongol general Tangghud, conquered the short-lived Dongxia Kingdom of Puxian Wannu, who was a rebellious Jin official, in a few months. After the death of Güyük's uncle Tolui, Ögedei proposed that Sorghaghtani, the widow of Tolui, marry his son Güyük. Sorghaghtani declined, saying that her prime responsibility was to her own sons.

Güyük participated in the invasion of Eastern and Central Europe in 1236–1241 with other Mongol princes, including his cousin Batu and half-brother Kadan. He led his corps in the Siege of Ryazan and the lengthy siege of the Ossetian capital Maghas. During the course of the conquest, Güyük quarreled violently with Batu at the victory banquet and screamed at him, "Batu is just an old woman with a quiver". Güyük and Büri, a grandson of Chagatai, stormed out of the banquet and rode away swearing and cursing. When word reached the Great Khan, they were recalled for a time to Mongolia. Ögedei refused to see them and threatened to have his son Güyük executed. Ögedei calmed down and finally admitted Güyük into his ger. Ögedei criticized Güyük, "Do you think that the Russians surrendered because how mean you were to your own men. ...Because you captured one or two warriors, you think that you won the war. But you didn't capture even a single kid goat." Ögedei reprimanded his son harshly for fighting within the family and for mistreating his soldiers. Güyük was dispatched again to Europe.

In the meantime, Ögedei had died (in 1241), and his widow Töregene had taken over as regent, a position of great influence and authority that she used to advocate for her son Güyük. Batu withdrew from Europe so that he might have some influence over the succession, but despite his delaying tactics, Töregene succeeded in getting Güyük elected Khan in 1246. When Genghis Khan's youngest brother, Temüge, threatened the Great Khatun Toregene in an attempt to seize the throne, Güyük came to Mongolia from Emil to secure his position immediately.

Enthronement (1246)

Güyük's enthronement on 24 August 1246, near the Mongol capital at Karakorum, was attended by a large number of foreign ambassadors: the Franciscan friar and envoy of Pope Innocent IV, John of Plano Carpini and Benedict of Poland; Grand Duke Yaroslav II of Vladimir; the incumbents for the throne of Georgia; the brother of the king of Armenia and historian, Sempad the Constable; the future Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kilij Arslan IV; and ambassadors of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim and Ala ud din Masud of the Delhi Sultanate. According to John of Plano Carpini, Güyük's formal election in a great kurultai, or diet of the tribes, took place while his company was at a camp called Sira Orda, or "Yellow Pavilion," along with 3,000 to 4,000 visitors from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe, bearing homage, tribute, and presents. They afterwards witnessed the formal enthronement at another camp in the vicinity called the "Golden Ordu," after which they were presented to the emperor. Mosul submitted to him, sending envoys to that assembly.

When the papal envoy John of Plano Carpini protested Mongol attacks on the Catholic kingdoms of Europe, Güyük stated that these people had slain Mongol envoys in the time of Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan. He also claimed that "from the rising of the sun to its setting, all the lands have been made subject to the Great Khan", proclaiming an explicit ideology of world conquest. The Khagan wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV on the relations between the Church and the Mongols. "You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

By this time, the relationship between Güyük and Toregene had deteriorated significantly, despite Toregene's role in Güyük's accession. Against Toregene's wishes, Güyük had Toregene's favorite, Fatima, arrested, tortured and executed for bewitching his brother Koden (Khuden), and Abd-ur-Rahman was also beheaded for corruption. Of the provincial officials appointed under Toregene, only the Oirat official Arghun Aqa remained. Toregene herself died later, possibly at Güyük's orders. Güyük had Temüge's case investigated by Orda Khan and Möngke, and they had him executed. Güyük replaced the child khan Qara Hülëgü of the Chagatai Khanate with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke to secure his position. He also restored his father's officials, Mahmud Yalavach, Masud Beg and Chinqai to positions in the provinces.

Reign (1246–1248)

Güyük reversed several unpopular edicts of his mother the regent and made a surprisingly capable khan, appointing Eljigidei in Persia in preparation for an attack on Baghdad and the Ismailis and pursuing the war against the Song Dynasty. He was, nevertheless, insecure and won the disapproval of his subjects by executing several high-ranking officials of the previous regime for treason. The Seljuk princes struggled incessantly for the throne of the Sultanate of Rum. Despised by Izz-ad-Din, Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan IV came to Mongolia. Güyük ordered Rukn ad-Din enthroned in Iz-ad-Din Kaykaus II's place. A darughachi with 2,000 Mongol troops was sent to enforce this decision. When both David Narin and David Ulu summoned before Güyük in Karakorum, he made David Ulu the senior king and divided the Kingdom of Georgia between them. After the treaty signed by the Mongols and the Cilician Armenia in 1243, the king Hetoum I sent his brother Sempad to the Mongol court in Karakorum and made a formal agreement in 1247 in which Cilician Armenia would be considered a vassal state of the Mongol Empire. Due to Armenia's voluntary surrender, Sempad received a Mongol wife, and his kingdom was spared Mongol overseers and tax. Güyük demanded full-submission of the Abbasids and the Ismailis. Güyük Khan blamed Baiju for the irritated resistance of the Abbasid Caliphate.

Güyük ordered an empire-wide census. In 1246, by the decree of Güyük, taxes amounting between to of value were imposed on everything and a heavy head tax of 60 silver drams was collected from males in Georgia and Armenia. The Great Khan separated the position of the great darughachi from that of chief scribe. Güyük took half of his father's kheshig for himself. Under his rule, the Uyghur officials increased their dominance, sidelining the North Chinese and the Muslims. Güyük was a strict and intelligent person, though rather morose and sickly, and his bad drinking habit worsened his health.

Güyük sent Amuqan to Korea and the Mongols camped near Yiom-ju in July 1247. After the king Gojong of Goryeo refused to move his capital from Ganghwa Island to Songdo, Amuqan's force pillaged the Korean Peninsula until 1250.

Although Batu did not support Güyük's election, he respected the Great Khan as a traditionalist and sent Andrey and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247 after their father's death. Güyük appointed Andrey Grand prince of Vladimir-Suzdal and Alexander prince of Kiev. In 1248, he demanded Batu come towards Mongolia to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target.

The showdown never happened – Güyük died en route, in modern-day Qinghe County, Xinjiang, China. Güyük might have been poisoned, but some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because his health deteriorated. According to William of Rubruck he was killed in a violent brawl with Shiban. His widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she would be unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. Möngke succeeded as Khan in 1251.

Wives, concubines, and children

It was common for powerful Mongol men to have many wives and concubines, but it is unknown how many wives or concubines Güyük had.

With Oghul Qaimish (principal wife):

• Khoja

• Naqu

Unknown wife or concubine:

• Khokhoo

Legacy

Genghis Khan's sons and grandsons were haunted by alcoholism, a vice that Genghis himself had detested. Despite this, Genghis himself once remarked that it was not realistic to expect a man not to get drunk on occasion.

The death of Güyük had a profound effect on world history. Güyük wanted to turn the Mongol power against Europe, but Güyük's premature death prevented Mongol forces from moving further into Western Europe. Subsequent to Güyük's death, Mongol family politics caused the Mongol efforts to be instead directed against southern China, which was eventually conquered during the rule of Kublai Khan.

Güyük's reign showed that the split between Batu's line, the descendants of Jöchi, and the rest of the family was the fatal flaw in the unity of all the Mongol Empire. Oghul Qaimish, whom Möngke had called "more contemptible than a bitch" to a European visitor, was executed after Batu and Möngke effected the family coup.

When Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, he had Güyük Khan placed on the official record as Dingzong.

生平

早年参加征伐金朝，俘虏了其亲王；又曾经参与西征欧洲。蒙古帝国第三任大汗贵由、第四任大汗蒙哥，以及后来的元朝开国皇帝忽必烈，堂兄弟三人都是蒙古第二次西征时拔都的部下。

1241年12月11日，窝阔台去世，汗位虚悬，贵由的母亲乃马真脱列哥那称制，法纪混乱，很多宗王贵族滥发牌符征敛财物，唯有拖雷家族没有这样做，赢得了声誉。乃马真后欲立长子贵由为大汗，拔都与贵由不和，一直不肯参加选汗大会，后来，成吉思汗幼弟铁木哥斡赤斤也领兵来争位，帝国面临汗位争夺战和混乱的危险。拖雷的遗孀唆鲁禾帖尼决定率诸子参加忽里勒台大会，1246年8月24日，宗王大臣们拥立贵由登基，贵由成为大蒙古国大汗，「全体宗王们脱帽，解开宽腰带，把贵由扶上金王位，以汗号称呼他，到会者对新君九拜表示归顺，在帐外的藩王及外国使臣等也同时跪拜称贺。」

贵由登基后，虽然本人很有权威，但是因沉湎酒色、手足痉挛，并没有什么作为，且不理政事，多委于下臣。

1248年春，贵由亲率大军西征拔都，至横相乙儿（今新疆青河县东南）病死。一说被拔都系势力毒杀。

1246年8月24日至1248年4月20日在位，在位仅一年零八个月。

和罗马教宗的交往

贵由在位期间和罗马教宗有交往。欧洲诸国传言蒙古大汗信仰基督教，因此教宗诺森四世派遣若望·柏郎嘉宾出使，希望劝说蒙古大汗不要伤害基督徒，同时要他深入了解蒙古人的风土民情、作战方式等。1245年4月16日从法国里昂出发，途经神圣罗马帝国、波兰王国和基辅罗斯等国（他于1246年2月3日离开基辅）。1246年4月4日，他在伏尔加河下游的萨莱（今伏尔加河下游阿斯特拉罕附近）受到钦察汗拔都的接见。拔都派他去蒙古草原见大汗，他经过讹答剌、伊犁河下游、叶密立河—翻越阿尔泰山，向东抵达蒙古草原。

1246年7月22日，他抵达距离哈拉和林只有半天路程的地方，选举大汗的忽里勒台大会正在此召开。他目睹了1246年8月24日贵由的当选，并留下了对贵由的生动描述：「在他当选时，约有四十，最多四十五岁。他是中等身材，非常聪明．极为精明，举止极为严肃庄重。从来没有看见他放声大笑，或者是寻欢作乐。」 最后他未能说服贵由皈依天主教，得到贵由的回信后，于1246年11月13日离开蒙古草原，向西踏上归途，经伏尔加河下游的拔都驻地返回西方，1247年9月5日他到达拔都驻地，又经基辅返回西方。

凉州会盟与吐蕃归附

1247年，吐蕃诸部宗教界领袖萨迦班智达·贡嘎坚赞（简称萨班）同大蒙古国皇子西凉王阔端（贵由之弟，窝阔台之子，成吉思汗之孙）在凉州(今中国甘肃武威市)议定了吐蕃归附的条件，其中包括呈献图册，交纳贡物，接受派官设治，吐蕃地区纳入大蒙古国(蒙古帝国)治下，史称「凉州会盟」。

窝阔台家族的衰落

1246年 贵由致英诺森四世的信件

根据《新元史》记载，1248年农历三月（1248年4月），贵由以养病为名带兵西巡，途中病逝于横相乙儿（今新疆青河东南），距离别失八里一天路程。

贵由死后，其遗孀斡兀立海迷失临朝称制，由于贵由与拔都早年不和，拔都拒绝奔丧。为了对抗窝阔台家族，拔都以长支宗王的身份遣使邀请宗王、大臣到他在中亚草原的驻地召开忽里台，商议推举新大汗。窝阔台系和察合台系的宗王们多数拒绝前往，海迷失后只派大臣八剌为代表到会。唆鲁禾帖尼则命长子蒙哥率诸弟及家臣应召前往。

1250年，库力台大会在中亚地区拔都的驻地召开，拔都在会上极力称赞蒙哥能力出众，又有西征大功，应当即位，并指出贵由之立违背了窝阔台遗命（窝阔台遗命失烈门即位），窝阔台后人无继承汗位的资格。大会通过了拔都的提议，推举蒙哥为大汗。窝阔台、察合台两家拒不承认，唆鲁禾帖尼和蒙哥又遣使邀集各支宗王到斡难河畔召开忽里台，拔都派其弟别儿哥率大军随同蒙哥前往斡难河畔，但窝阔台、察合台两家很多宗王仍不肯应召，大会拖延了很长时间。

由于蒙哥的母亲唆鲁禾帖尼的威望甚高，并且善于笼络宗王贵族，多数宗王大臣最终应召前来，1251年农历六月在蒙古草原斡难河畔举行库力台大会，元宪宗元年农历六月十一日（1251年7月1日），宗王大臣们共同拥戴蒙哥即大汗位。此后，为了巩固汗位，唆鲁禾帖尼在镇压反对者时毫不留情，并亲自下令处死贵由的皇后斡兀立海迷失。

自此汗位继承，便由窝阔台家族转移到了拖雷家族，皇族内部的分裂，为后来大蒙古国的彻底分裂，埋下伏笔。

家庭

妻妾

• 元妃乌兀儿黑迷失，姓蔑儿乞氏，贵由称帝前的元妃，卒年不详

• 三皇后海迷失，1266年元世祖忽必烈上谥号钦淑皇后

• 乃蛮真皇后（窝阔台六皇后朵列格捏之妹）

儿子

• 长子 忽察太子，子完者也不干

• 次子 脑忽太子，无子

• 三子 禾忽大王，子秃鲁，1272年元世祖封为南平王，赐龟纽银印

女儿

• 赵国公主 叶里迷失，下嫁君不花

• 公主 巴巴哈尔，下嫁火赤哈尔的斤

相关史料

• 《史集》，蒙古帝国伊儿汗国史学家拉施特撰写。

• 《世界征服者史》，蒙古帝国伊儿汗国史学家志费尼撰写。

• 《元史·定宗本纪》 ，明朝官修正史

• 《新元史·定宗本纪》 ，民国官修正史

• 《续资治通鉴》，清朝史学家毕沅撰写。

• 《元史类编》，清朝史学家邵远平撰写。

• 《元史新编》，清朝史学家魏源撰写。

• 《元书》，清朝史学家曾廉撰写。

• 《蒙兀儿史记》，清末民初史学家屠寄撰写。

评价

• 明朝官修正史《元史》宋濂等的评价是：「三年戊申春三月，帝崩于横相乙儿之地。……是岁大旱，河水尽涸，野草自焚，牛马十死八九，人不聊生。诸王及各部又遣使于燕京迤南诸郡，徵求货财、弓矢、鞍辔之物，或于西域回鹘索取珠玑，或于海东楼取鹰鹘，馹骑络绎，昼夜不绝，民力益困。然自壬寅以来，法度不一，内外离心，而太宗之政衰矣。」

• 清朝史学家毕沅《续资治通鉴》的评价是：「自太宗皇后称制以来，法度不一，内外离心。至是国内大旱，河内尽涸，野草自焚，牛马死者十八九，人不聊生。诸王及各部，又遣使于诸郡徵求货财，或于西蕃、回鹘索取珠玑，或于东海搜取鹰、鹘、驿骑络绎，昼夜不绝，民力益困。皇后立库春子实勒们听政，诸王大臣多不服。」

• 清朝史学家魏源《元史新编》的评价是：「连岁大旱，河水尽涸，野草自焚，牛马十死八九，人不聊生。诸王及各部又遣使于燕京迤南诸郡，徵求货财，或于西域、回鹘索取珠玑，或于海东搜取鹰鹘，驿骑不绝，内外离心，故无可纪。然自太祖崩后，拖雷监国者一年，太宗崩后，六皇后称制者四年，定宗之后，皇后临朝者又几四年，前后凡九载无君而国不乱，卒能创业垂统，上竝汉、唐者，则皆宗王宿将维持拱卫，根干蟠据之力。」

• 清朝史学家曾廉《元书》的评价是：「论曰：定宗之世，事多缺漏，而前史曰：『 帝崩之岁大旱，河水尽涸，野草自焚，牛马十死八九，人不聊生。诸王及各部又遣使于燕京迤南诸部，徵求货财、弓矢、鞍辔，或于西域回鹘索取珠玑，海东索取鹰鹘，驿骑络绎，昼夜不绝，民力益困。然自壬寅以来，法度不一，内外离心，而太宗之政衰矣。』其言壬寅，盖以昭慈皇后称制时言之也。夫定宗即位时，年四十矣，而不能辑诸王侯大将，纪解威亵，此太宗之不谋付以匕图者乎？然在于汉亦孝惠之亚也。惟无良臣为之辅弼，而宗藩党羽遂成，以夺皇阼。炎异之丛，兴其足信耶？而失烈门则太宗遗诏所立也。前史复曰：定宗崩后，三岁无君。蒙哥之党之不欲以为君，非蒙古之无君也。窜之北陲，并逐太宗皇后而弑定宗皇后，可不谓之逆哉！自是而太宗子孙亦不欲以蒙哥兄弟为君，逮于海都，而中原震矣。」

• 中华民国史学家屠寄《蒙兀儿史记》的评价是：「汗严重有威，临御未久，不及设施，惟乃蛮真可敦称制时，威福下移，汗既亲政，纲纪粗立，君权复尊，自幼多疾，成吉思汗尝命亦鲁王之祖忽鲁扎克为之主膳。中年性好酒色，手足有拘挛之病，在位之日，常以疾不视事，事多决于大臣镇海、合答二人云。」

• 中华民国官修正史《新元史》柯劭忞的评价是：「史臣曰：定宗诛奥部拉合蛮，用镇海、耶律铸，赏罚之明，非太宗所及。又乃马真皇后之弊政，皆为帝所铲革。旧史不详考其事，谓前人之业自帝而衰，诬莫其矣。」

纪年

根据《元史·定宗本纪》整理。

影视作品

• 2005年中国电影《月圆凉州》