History

Founding

According to legends recounted in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, the ruling family of Chu descended from the Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui (吴回) was put in charge of fire by Emperor Ku and given the title Zhurong. Wuhui's son Luzhong (陆终) had six sons, all born by Caesarian section. The youngest, Jilian, adopted the ancestral surname Mi. 's descendant Yuxiong was the teacher of King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BCE). After the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty, King Cheng (r. 1042–1021 BCE) enfeoffed Yuxiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi with the fiefdom of Chu and the hereditary title of 子 (zǐ, "viscount"). Then the first capital of Chu was established at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan).

Western Zhou

In 977 BCE, during his campaign against Chu, King Zhao of Zhou's boat sank and he drowned in the Han River. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BCE but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler Xiong Tong became the ruler of Chu.

Spring and Autumn Period

Under the reign of King Zhuang, Chu reached the height of its power and its ruler was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BCE, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing other states in its original area (modern Hubei), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain. In the summer of 648 BCE, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu.

The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of Jin. These alliances kept Chu in check, and the Chu kingdom lost their first major battle at the Chengpu in 632 BCE. During the 6th century BCE, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of central plain. In 597 BCE, Jin was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu, Wey, and Song. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until the year of 579 BCE when a truce was signed between the two states.

At the beginning of the sixth century BCE, Jin strengthened the state of Wu near the Yangtze delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated Qi and then invaded Chu in 506 BCE. Following the Battle of Boju, it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing King Zhao to flee to his allies in Yun and "Sui". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BCE, he temporarily moved the capital into the territory of the former state of Ruo. Chu began to strengthen Yue in modern Zhejiang to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by King Fuchai of Wu until he released their king Goujian, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu.

Warring States period

Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BCE and overran Cai to the north in 447 BCE. However, eventually Chu was completely obliterated by the Qin dynasty (Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BCE). By the end of the 5th century BCE, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality.

In the late 390s BCE, King Dao of Chu made Wu Qi his chancellor. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BCE, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BCE, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue. Yue was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334 or 333 BCE. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BCE. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, The Book of Master Wu. Of Chu, he said:

During the late Warring States period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the Legalistic reforms of Shang Yang. In 241 BCE, five of the seven major warring states–Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han–formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian Yang Kuan, the Zhao general Pang Nuan (庞暖) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic Hangu Pass but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed Lord Chunshen for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun, farther away from the threat of Qin.

As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. By the late 4th century BCE, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually completely wiped out by Qin.

Defeat

The Chu state was completely eradicated by the Qin dynasty.

According to the Records of the Warring States, a debate between the Diplomat strategist Zhang Yi and the Qin general Sima Cuo led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering Han and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that "conquering Shu is conquering Chu" and, "once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united".

The importance of Shu in the Sichuan Basin was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, leading directly into the Chu heartland. King Huiwen of Qin opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BCE, Qin invaded and conquered Shu and nearby Ba, expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BCE, the Qin general Bai Qi finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following the fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun in 241 BCE. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping in 260 BCE. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states.

By 225 BCE, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan, and Qi. Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BCE, Ying Zheng called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng ordered Li Xin and Meng Wu to lead the army against Chu.

The Chu army, led by Xiang Yan secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching a surprise offensive and destroying Li Xin army. Upon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng replaced Li with Wang Jian, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing Meng Wu beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce the king's suspicion.

Wang Jian's army passed through southern Chen (陈; present-day Huaiyang in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch a swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan (蕲南; northwest of present-day Qichun in Hubei) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat.

The next year, in 223 BCE, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King Fuchu was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led the Qin army against Wuyue around the mouth of the Yangtze, capturing the descendants of the royal family of Yue. These conquered territories became the Kuaiji Prefecture of the Qin Empire.

At their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu (黑夫) and Jing (惊), tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.

Qin and Han dynasties

The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the excavated bamboo slips of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu aspired to overthrow the painful yoke of Qin rule and re-establishing a separate state. The attitude was captured in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: "Though Chu have but three clans, Qin surely be perished by none other but Chu" (楚虽三户, 亡秦必楚).

After Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor (Shi Huangdi) and reigned briefly, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of the Qin corvée; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China.

The Dazexiang Uprising occurred in 209 BCE under the leadership of a Chu peasant, Chen Sheng, who proclaimed himself "King of Rising Chu" (Zhangchu). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of the leaders, Jing Ju of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under Xiang Liang. Xiang installed Xiong Xin, a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BCE, after the fall of the Qin Empire, Xiang Yu, Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and promoted King Huai II to "Emperor Yi". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with Liu Bang, another prominent anti-Qin rebel, in a long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the Chu–Han Contention. The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the Han dynasty and was later honored with the temple name Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat.

Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with the Xiongnu through heqin intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. The core Chu territories centered in Pengcheng was granted first to general Han Xin and then to Liu Bang's brother Liu Jiao as the Kingdom of Chu. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, the southern folk culture and aesthetics were mixed with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create a distinct "Chinese" culture.

Culture

Based on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the Yellow River basin. However, subsequently, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the Baiyue lands that it conquered to the south and east, developing a blended culture compared to the northern plains.

During the Western Zhou period, the difference between the culture of Chu and the Central Plains states to the north was negligible. Only in the late Spring and Autumn Period does Chu culture begin to diverge, preserving some older aspects of the culture and developing new phenomena. It also absorbed some elements from annexed areas. The culture of Chu had significant internal diversity from locality to locality. Chu, like Qin and Yan, was often described as being not as cultured by people in the Central plains. However, this image originated with the later development of Chu relative to the Central plains, and the stereotype was retrospectively cultivated by Confucian scholars in the Qin dynasty, to indirectly criticise the ruling regime, and the Han dynasty as a means of curbing their ideological opponents who were associated with such cultural practices. As the founder of the Han dynasty was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty, along with that of the Qin dynasty's and other preceding states' from the Warring States period.

Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of bronze vessels in the Zhou style. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct burial objects, such as colorful lacquerware, iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in bronze vessel offerings.

A common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as snakes, dragons, phoenixes, tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the previous Shang dynasty, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods.

Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for shamans. The Chu culture and government supported Taoism and native shamanism supplemented with some Confucian glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire Zhurong in Chinese mythology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people.

The naturalistic and flowing art, the Songs of Chu, historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the Guodian slips, and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless Legalist state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister Shang Yang, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might.

Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu, the se was preferred over the zither, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states.

Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba, Yue, and the Baiyue. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects.

Some archaeological records of the Chu appear at Mawangdui. After the Han dynasty, some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the "lewd" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture.

Chu artisanship includes color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where the lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay.

Chu used the calligraphic script called "Birds and Worms" style, which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has a design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords but not as intricate.

Chu created a riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying.

Linguistic influences

Although bronze inscriptions from the ancient state of Chu show little linguistic differences from the "Elegant Speech" (yǎyán 雅言) during the Eastern Zhou period, the variety of Old Chinese spoken in Chu has long been assumed to reflect lexical borrowings and syntactical interferences from non-Sinitic substrates, which the Chu may have acquired as a result of its southern migration into what Tian Jizhou believed to be a Kra-Dai or (para-) Hmong-Mien area in southern China. Recent excavated texts, corroborated by dialect words recorded in the Fangyan, further demonstrated substrate influences, but there are competing hypotheses on their genealogical affiliation.

• Aberrant early Chinese dialect, originally from the North

• Austroasiatic (Norman & Mei 1976, Boltz 1999)

• Hmong-Mienic (Erkes 1930, Long & Ma 1983, Brooks 2001, Sagart et al. 2005)

• Tai-Kadaic (Liu Xingge 1988, Zheng-Zhang Shangfang, 2005)

• Tibeto-Burman (Zhang Yongyan 1992, Zhou Jixu 2001)

• Mixture of Austroasiatic or Hmong-Mienic (Pullyblank 1983)

• Mixture of Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman (Schuessler 2004, 2007)

• Unknown

Bureaucracy

Mo'ao (莫敖) and the Prime minister (Chu State) / Lingyin were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong (三公) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin (左尹) and Youyin (右尹) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima (司马) was assisted by Zuosima (左司马) and Yousima (右司马) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court.

Ministers whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin (尹). For example: Lingyin (Prime minister), Gongyin (Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word "Yin". Shenyin (沈尹) was the minister of religious duties or the high priest of Chu, multiple entries in Zuo Zhuan indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Lingyin, Huanlie Zhi Yin (Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin (Minister of Music). In counties and commanderies, Gong (公), also known as Xianyin (minister of county) was the chief administrator.

In many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of a cadet branch of Chu's royal house of Mi. Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu (屈) clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the Ruo'ao rebellion, Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou (鬭) and Cheng (成).

Geography

Progenitors of Chu such as viscount Xiong Yi were said to originate from the Jing Mountains; a chain of mountains located in today's Hubei province. Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to the Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountains are the Tu (涂) mountains. In the north-east part of Chu are the Dabie mountains; the drainage divide of Huai river and Yangtse river. The first capital of Chu, Dangyang (丹阳) was located in today's Zhijiang, Hubei province. Ying (郢), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name Jingzhou. In Chu's northern border lies the Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal defense against states of central plain. Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain.

Yunmeng Ze in Jianghan Plain was an immense freshwater lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng (梦), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun (云). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, Jianli, Shishou, Macheng, Huanggang, and Anlu.

Shaoxi Pass was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of Danfeng County, Shaanxi. Any forces that marched from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi.

List of states later became part of the Chu

• 863 BCE E

• 704 BCE Quan

• 690 BCE Luo

• 688–680 BCE Shen

• 684–680 BCE Xi

• 678 BCE Deng

• 648 BCE Huang

• after 643 BCE Dao

• 623 BCE Jiang

• 622 BCE Liao

• 622 BCE Lù (六).

• after 622 BCE Ruo

• 611 BCE Yong

• 601 BCE Shuliao

• Sometime in the 6th century BCE Zhongli

• after 506 BCE Sui

• 574 BCE Shuyong

• 538 BCE Lai (赖国)

• 512 BCE Xu

• 479 BCE Chen

• 445 BCE Qi

• 447 BCE Cai

• 431 BCE Ju

• after 418 BCE Pi

• About 348 BCE Zou

• 334 BCE Yue

• 249 BCE Lu

Rulers

;Early rulers

• Jilian (季连), married Bi Zhui (妣隹), granddaughter of Shang Dynasty king Pangeng; adopted Mi (芈) as ancestral name

• Yingbo (𦀚伯), son of Jilian

• Yuxiong (鬻熊), ruled 11th century BCE: also called Xuexiong (穴熊), teacher of King Wen of Zhou

• Xiong Li (熊丽), ruled 11th century BCE: son of Yuxiong, first use of clan name Yan (酓), later written as Xiong (熊)

• Xiong Kuang (熊狂), ruled 11th century BCE: son of Xiong Li

;Viscounts

• Xiong Yi (熊绎), ruled 11th century BCE: son of Xiong Kuang, enfeoffed by King Cheng of Zhou

• Xiong Ai (熊艾), ruled BCE: son of Xiong Yi, defeated and killed King Zhao of Zhou

• Xiong Dan (熊䵣), ruled BCE: son of Xiong Ai, defeated King Mu of Zhou

• Xiong Sheng (熊胜), son of Xiong Dan

• Xiong Yang (熊杨), younger brother of Xiong Sheng

• Xiong Qu (熊渠), son of Xiong Yang, gave the title king to his three sons

• Xiong Kang (熊康), son of Xiong Qu. Shiji says Xiong Kang died early without ascending the throne, but the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips recorded him as the successor of Xiong Qu.

• Xiong Zhi (熊挚), son of Xiong Kang, abdicated due to illness

• Xiong Yan (elder) (熊延), ruled ?–848 BCE: younger brother of Xiong Zhi

• Xiong Yong (熊勇), ruled 847–838 BCE: son of Xiong Yan

• Xiong Yan (younger) (熊严), ruled 837–828 BCE: brother of Xiong Yong

• Xiong Shuang (熊霜), ruled 827–822 BCE: son of Xiong Yan

• Xiong Xun (熊徇), ruled 821–800 BCE: youngest brother of Xiong Shuang

• Xiong E (熊咢), ruled 799–791 BCE: son of Xiong Xun

• Ruo'ao (若敖) (Xiong Yi 熊仪), ruled 790–764 BCE: son of Xiong E

• Xiao'ao (霄敖) (Xiong Kan 熊坎), ruled 763–758 BCE: son of Ruo'ao

• Fenmao (蚡冒) (Xiong Xuan 熊眴) ruled 757–741 BCE: son of Xiao'ao

;Kings

• King Wu of Chu (楚武王) (Xiong Da 熊达), ruled 740–690 BCE: either younger brother or younger son of Fenmao, murdered son of Fenmao and usurped the throne. Declared himself first king of Chu.

• King Wen of Chu (楚文王) (Xiong Zi 熊赀), ruled 689–677 BCE: son of King Wu, moved the capital to Ying

• Du'ao (堵敖) or Zhuang'ao (庄敖) (Xiong Jian 熊艰), ruled 676–672 BCE: son of King Wen, killed by younger brother, the future King Cheng

• King Cheng of Chu (楚成王) (Xiong Yun 熊恽), ruled 671–626 BCE: brother of Du'ao, defeated by the state of Jin at the Battle of Chengpu. Husband to Zheng Mao. He was murdered by his son, the future King Mu

• King Mu of Chu (楚穆王) (Xiong Shangchen 熊商臣) ruled 625–614 BCE: son of King Cheng

• King Zhuang of Chu (楚庄王) (Xiong Lü 熊侣) ruled 613–591 BCE: son of King Mu. Defeated the State of Jin at the Battle of Bi, and was recognized as a Hegemon.

• King Gong of Chu (楚共王) (Xiong Shen 熊审) ruled 590–560 BCE: son of King Zhuang. Defeated by Jin at the Battle of Chengpu.

• King Kang of Chu (楚康王) (Xiong Zhao 熊招) ruled 559–545 BCE: son of King Gong

• Jia'ao (郏敖) (Xiong Yuan 熊员) ruled 544–541 BCE: son of King Kang, murdered by his uncle, the future King Ling.

• King Ling of Chu (楚灵王) (Xiong Wei 熊围, changed to Xiong Qian 熊虔) ruled 540–529 BCE: uncle of Jia'ao and younger brother of King Kang, overthrown by his younger brothers and committed suicide.

• Zi'ao (訾敖) (Xiong Bi 熊比) ruled 529 BCE (less than 20 days): younger brother of King Ling, committed suicide.

• King Ping of Chu (楚平王) (Xiong Qiji 熊弃疾, changed to Xiong Ju 熊居) ruled 528–516 BCE: younger brother of Zi'ao, tricked Zi'ao into committing suicide.

• King Zhao of Chu (楚昭王) (Xiong Zhen 熊珍) ruled 515–489 BCE: son of King Ping. The State of Wu captured the capital Ying and he fled to the State of Sui.

• King Hui of Chu (楚惠王) (Xiong Zhang 熊章) ruled 488–432 BCE: son of King Zhao. He conquered the states of Cai and Chen. The year before he died, Marquis Yi of Zeng died, so he made a commemorative bell and attended the Marquis's funeral at Suizhou.

• King Jian of Chu (楚简王) (Xiong Zhong 熊中) ruled 431–408 BCE: son of King Hui

• King Sheng of Chu (楚声王) (Xiong Dang 熊当) ruled 407–402 BCE: son of King Jian

• King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) (Xiong Yi 熊疑) ruled 401–381 BCE: son of King Sheng. He made Wu Qi chancellor and reformed the Chu government and army.

• King Su of Chu (楚肃王) (Xiong Zang 熊臧) ruled 380–370 BCE: son of King Dao

• King Xuan of Chu (楚宣王) (Xiong Liangfu 熊良夫) ruled 369–340 BCE: brother of King Su. Defeated and annexed the Zuo state around 348 BCE.

• King Wei of Chu (楚威王) (Xiong Shang 熊商) ruled 339–329 BCE: son of King Xuan. Defeated and partitioned the Yue state with Qi state.

• King Huai of Chu (楚怀王) (Xiong Huai 熊槐) ruled 328–299 BCE: son of King Wei, was tricked and held hostage by the State of Qin until death in 296 BC

• King Qingxiang of Chu (楚顷襄王) (Xiong Heng 熊横) ruled 298–263 BCE: son of King Huai. As a prince, one of his elderly tutors was buried at the site of the Guodian Chu Slips in Hubei. The Chu capital of Ying was captured and sacked by Qin.

• King Kaolie of Chu (楚考烈王) (Xiong Yuan 熊元) ruled 262–238 BCE: son of King Qingxiang. Moved capital to Shouchun.

• King You of Chu (楚幽王) (Xiong Han 熊悍) ruled 237–228 BCE: son of King Kaolie.

• King Ai of Chu (楚哀王) (Xiong You 熊犹 or Xiong Hao 熊郝) ruled 228 BCE: brother of King You, killed by Fuchu

• Fuchu (楚王负刍) (熊负刍 Xiong Fuchu) ruled 227–223 BCE: brother of King Ai. Captured by Qin troops and deposed

• Lord Changping (昌平君) ruled 223 BCE (Chu conquered by Qin): brother of Fuchu, killed in battle against Qin

;Others

• Chen Sheng (陈胜) as King Yin of Chu (楚隐王) ruled 210–209 BCE

• Jing Ju (景驹) as King Jia of Chu 楚假王 (Jia for fake) ruled 209–208 BCE

• Xiong Xin (熊心) as Emperor Yi of Chu (楚义帝) (originally King Huai II 楚后怀王) ruled 208–206 BCE: grandson or great-grandson of King Huai

• Xiang Yu (项羽) as Hegemon-King of Western Chu (西楚霸王) ruled 206–202 BCE

People

• Qu Yuan, poet who committed suicide

• Lord Chunshen, one of the Four Lords of the Warring States

• Xiang Yu, the Hegemon-King of Western Chu who defeated the Qin at Julu and vied with Liu Bang in the Chu–Han Contention

• Liu Bang, later citizen of the Qin dynasty and then founder of the Han dynasty

Astronomy

In traditional Chinese astronomy, Chu is represented by a star in the "Twelve States" asterism, part of the "Girl" lunar mansion in the "Black Turtle" symbol. Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star is Phi or 24 Capricorni. It is also represented by the star Epsilon Ophiuchi in the "Right Wall" asterism in the "Heavenly Market" enclosure.

Biology

The virus taxa Chuviridae and Jingchuvirales are named after Chǔ.

祖源

大致可分为以下几说：

• 颛顼（高阳）说：楚国诗人屈原在其《离骚》中亦称：「帝高阳之苗裔兮，朕皇考曰伯庸。」

• 祝融说：胡厚宣在《楚民族源于东方考》（北京大学《史学论丛》第一册，1934年）认为楚之始祖为祝融。

• 华夏说：王族出自华夏，夏商周三代分封诸侯国一直奉行「夏君夷民」的做法。

• 东夷说：郭沫若《中国古代社会研究》（中国华侨出版社，2008年，ISBN 9787802224735）和胡厚宣《楚族源于东方考》认为楚为东夷部落。

• 土著说：楚人来自中原，但臣民大多为当地土著部落。

• 西来说：认为楚之先祖高阳氏颛顼来自在中国西北境，即昆仑山一带，还有学者认为楚人是来自西亚拜火教的米底亚人。

• 部落融合说：楚先民是由华夏高阳氏的一支，南下与当地土著融合的结果。

历史

起源

楚之先祖出自黄帝之孙，昌意之子，帝颛顼高阳氏。颛顼后第五代曾孙吴回，是帝高辛氏的火正（火官），主管天火与地火，能光融天下，帝喾命之曰祝融。其部落分布在今河南新郑一带，直到春秋时期郑国都城新郑仍被称为祝融之墟。吴回之子陆终，生有六子，幼子曰季连，芈姓，是楚之先祖。周文王曾拜季连后裔鬻熊为师，由于这层师徒关系，鬻熊曾孙熊绎被周朝二代君主周成王封为子楚（楚国国君，爵位为子爵）。

西汉史家司马迁在《史记·楚世家》中记载西周初期楚人领袖熊绎：「当成王之时，举文、武勤劳之后嗣，而封熊绎于楚蛮，封以子男之田，姓芈氏，居丹阳。」此一论述认为商末周初，楚先人祝融的后裔从北方迁徙至「丹阳」。「楚鬻熊居丹阳，武王徙郢」，楚国国都在楚武王时期从丹阳迁至郢，据考古学家刘玉堂、王红星、高崇文研究，古「丹阳」位于丹水和淅水交汇之处（今河南省淅川县丹江口水库淹没区），因处丹水之北，故称为丹阳。国学大师钱穆在《国史大纲》中说：「楚之先亦颛顼后，始起在汉水流域丹、淅水入汉水处，曰丹阳」,而楚国令尹（相当于宰相）之墓子庚墓和大量楚国贵族墓在淅川县仓房镇的香严寺下寺附近的发现，印证了古丹阳位于河南淅川境内。楚国历史有800多年，其中有300多年在丹江流域建都。

据《清华简·楚居》记载，商王盘庚的女儿妣隹徵婚，楚部族的首领季连趁机追上了她，此后便居住在盘地，与妣隹生了𦀚伯、远仲两个儿子，他被尊为楚国的始祖。可见楚人与殷人存在亲缘关系，这也为后来楚国人「不服周」埋下了伏笔。湖北省武汉市有商代的盘龙城遗址，这里出土有青铜器和玉器，说明商代时荆楚地区已有初步发达的文明。

建国及南征

商代早期，楚人逐渐从河南新郑一带南迁许昌，位于商朝王畿的南部，《诗经•殷武》写到「唯女荆楚，居国南乡」，约前13世纪，商帝武丁派大军征伐荆蛮，将楚人向南驱逐。商朝晚期，楚人最终迁徙到河南淅川一带（古丹阳）。鬻熊担任部落首领后审时度势，主动投奔周文王，鬻熊像儿子一样侍奉文王。武王克殷后，楚人并没有封国赐爵，直到周成王即位后，封赏曾经侍奉文王、武王有功之人的后裔，才将鬻熊的曾孙熊绎封于丹阳，赐为子爵，楚子熊绎与王孙牟、 晋侯燮 、齐丁公共同侍奉周康王。楚国初创之时十分贫弱，熊绎辟居荆山，筚路蓝缕，开辟山林，不仅如此还要跋山涉水向周王进贡桃木弓、棘矢。然而楚人的忠诚并没有引起周王的重视，《国语•晋语》记载，周成王在岐阳主持诸侯会盟，拒绝让熊绎参与仪式，而让其狄夷鲜卑一起守燎，并负责茅蕝缩酒，根本是仆役的工作，为日后周楚的决裂埋下了种子。

周昭王十六年，周军渡过汉水南征荆楚，掠夺大量物资。昭王十九年，再次伐楚，这次却遭遇失败，周王室的核心军事力量宗周六师全军覆没。周昭王在回师的途中渡过汉水时被伏击身亡，这是楚国与西周的第一次大规模冲突。但当时的楚国辟居荆山，国贫民少，恐怕不值得昭王派大军征讨，昭王讨伐的对象应当是居住在江汉地区的土著，周人把这些土著统称荆蛮，周军远征目的是掠夺铜矿。到熊渠在位时期，正值周夷王之时，周室衰微，诸侯开始轻慢周天子，部分诸侯已经停止朝贡，甚至相互攻伐。楚国开始了分庭抗礼的初步尝试，熊渠在江汉一带的民心和威望很高，遂兴兵伐庸，杨粤，至于鄂，扬言「我蛮夷也，不与中国之号谥」，并立长子康为句亶王，中子红为鄂王，少子执疵为越章王。

周厉王时，南方强国鄂国反叛，被周厉王攻灭，击败叛军之后，周厉王多次强调：扑伐鄂侯驭方，勿遗寿幼。熊渠畏周伐楚，亦去其王号。熊勇六年（前841年），宗周镐京国人暴动，周厉王奔彘。熊勇死后，其弟熊严即位，熊严死后，长子熊霜即位，熊霜五年（前823年），周宣王派大臣方叔伐楚，大获全胜，俘获楚国宗庙重器楚公逆钟。周宣王为防止楚国坐大，在江汉间封了许多周室成员或者依附于周朝的势力，史称「江汉诸姬」，西周的战略就是试图以这些亲周势力封锁江汉通往中原的门户用以遏制楚国的北下对西周造成威胁，而且周王还从「汉阳诸姬」抽调兵力，组建南国之师，直接听命于周天子，以达到威慑楚国等怀有异心的诸侯国。楚若敖二年（前789年），周宣王徵调南国之师伐姜氏之戎，在千亩之战中全军覆没，周朝的构筑南方防线全面崩溃。楚国乘机向外扩张，江汉诸姬尽被吞并、臣服融合于楚。

自立为王

不满自己国大爵小的楚君熊通从传说中找到例证，他说其先祖鬻熊是周文王的老师，有辅佐推翻殷商，建立周朝的功劳，只因早死而仅得到子爵，遂攻打姬姓诸侯随国，目的是要周天子晋升其爵位，遭拒，熊通率兵再次征讨随国（今湖北随州），迫使随侯投降。熊通因此在前704年自称为王（后諡武）。被楚国消灭的小国还有古麋国（湖北郧阳、房州一带）、卢国、罗国（湖北襄阳、荆门一带），一路向南征伐百苗等大小诸侯国，成为江汉流域的霸主。

争霸中原

熊通子楚文王定都于郢（今湖北省宜城市西南），因取名于该地已被填埋的湖泊「疆浧」而得名，后人通称为「鄢郢」，以区别于日后为防备吴国的再次入侵而迁徙的新国都纪郢及一系列皆称之为「郢」的同名陪都。此后为扩充领域，楚国与中原的中原诸侯国经常发生战事。

根据史记楚世家记载，西元前 505年，楚昭王将新的国都迁往郢都(纪郢)，当时规模宏大的皇城郢都盛极一时、扬名天下。

楚成王时，楚在令尹子文的治理下更显强盛。前632年，晋楚城濮之战，楚人大败。晋师「三日馆谷」，向周天子献楚捷「驷介百乘、徒兵千，」，楚国几十年不敢北向。《子犯和钟》即记载此事，中有「诸楚荆不听命于王所，子犯及晋公率西之六师博伐楚荆，孔休大功，楚荆丧厥师，灭厥渠」云。后来的楚庄王武功彪炳，又励精图治，选拔孙叔敖施行文冶，使楚国经济繁荣、文化鼎盛。前606年庄王征伐陆浑之戎（在雒邑西南），派人向周天子问九鼎之轻重。

前597年，楚围郑，迫郑降，晋派兵救郑，两军于邲会战，晋大败。此后，陈、蔡、许、郑俱从楚。公元前594年，楚围宋，宋告急于晋，晋不能救，宋遂与楚言和，尊楚。这时中原各国除晋、齐、鲁之外，尽尊楚庄王为霸主，确立了楚庄王在春秋五霸的历史地位。史载，透过战事，楚国先后吞并了四十五个较弱小的诸侯方国。

邲之战后，楚庄王称霸一时，但是晋国国势犹不可忽视，晋、楚双方形成南北对峙、各霸一方。前546年，宋国执政向戌倡议弭兵，奔走于晋国执政赵武和楚国令尹子木之间，使晋、楚、齐、秦、宋、鲁、郑、卫、陈、蔡、曹、许、邾、滕等十四国于宋召开弭兵大会。结果由前述十国签订盟约，规定除齐、秦等大国外，小国须既朝晋又朝楚，霸权乃由晋、楚二强平分，尊两国为共同霸主。史称『向戌弭兵』。

衰而复兴

前506年，楚昭王时，吴国君主阖闾派孙武、伍子胥率军攻打楚国，于柏举之战中击败楚国，攻占其首都郢，楚国几乎覆亡。这时越国允常趁机攻打吴国，秦国也出兵帮助楚国，楚国得以保全。

及后楚惠王即位，继续执行安邦定国、伺机发展的方针。对外，楚惠王四十二年（前447年），楚兼并蔡。两年后，兼并杞，楚东拓疆土至泗水之上，尽有江淮以北之地。楚简王元年（前431年），楚又兼并掉莒。

吴起变法

进入战国时代，主要的六大强国皆曾进行片面或全面性的政经改革，唯有楚国固步自封未曾稍加变法。前400年，自晋分家的韩、赵、魏三国屡次联军攻楚。当时在位的楚悼王为求富国强兵，任用吴起开始变法兴革，使楚国国力迅速强大起来。由于楚悼王不幸早逝，吴起失去了坚强的靠山，被旧贵族残酷杀害。虽然变法时间不长，但变法的成果还是有所保留，比如之后的楚国封君的继承不超过三代没有自己独立的武装，一切财政大权听命于中央等等。

至楚威王时代，楚国的西部领土已扩张至巴蜀之间，东灭越国，兴盛一时。在经过5年的昭滑谍报与卧底工作后，楚怀王派后者率军消灭越国残馀势力，占领吴、越故地，并设立江东郡。 《史记。甘茂传》「王前尝用台滑于越，而内行章义之难，越国乱，故楚南塞厉门而郡江东。计王之功，所以能如此者，越国乱而楚治也。」《楚策一．楚王问于范环》亦有记载，范环曰：「且王尝用滑于越而纳句章，昧之难，越乱，故楚南察濑胡而野江东，计王之功所以能如此者，越乱而楚治也。」

衰落

楚怀王即位后，开始重用屈原等大臣，针对主要弊政进行一系列的革新，却引来楚国贵族一致反对。日久，难以抵挡反对声浪的楚怀王遂意兴阑珊，变法终告失败。

秦国并吞了巴、蜀之后，在秦国张仪合纵连横的策略下，挑拨楚国和齐国的联盟，楚怀王被骗；前312年，秦国和楚国因此接连在丹阳、蓝田之战两场战役中交战，然而皆为楚军大败，是楚国和秦国势力反转的一个拐点。前299年，楚怀王晚年被秦昭襄王骗去秦国，客死咸阳，欲兴兵夺回楚王的楚国军队又为秦将白起击败。楚国国势迅速衰弱。

楚顷襄王即位后，周赧王二十二年（前293年），秦国派大将白起攻打韩国，在伊阙获大胜。伊阙之战后，秦昭王写给楚顷襄王一封国书说：「楚国背叛了秦国，秦国将率领诸侯军攻打楚国，决一雌雄。希望您重整军队，以便痛快地打一场。」楚顷襄王很担心，便打算跟秦国讲和。周赧王二十三年（前292年），楚国到秦国迎接新妇，秦楚讲和。

周赧王三十年（前285年），楚顷襄王与秦昭王在宛（今河南省南阳市宛城区一带）友好相会，议和结亲。

周赧王三十二年（前283年），楚顷襄王与秦昭王在楚国的别都鄢（今湖北省宜城市东南）友好相会，同年秋季，又和秦昭王在秦国的穰（今河南省邓州市）相会。

前281年楚顷襄王意图联合齐国和韩国联合讨伐秦国为楚怀王复仇，前280年，秦先发制人，派大将司马错率领军队从陇西郡出兵，攻取了楚国的黔中郡，楚顷襄王被迫割让上庸（今湖北省竹山县东南）和汉江以北的土地给秦国。次年（前279年）秦白起率军大举攻楚，占领邓，并水淹鄢城，城中百姓死亡数十万，之后势如破竹，一举攻陷楚国国都郢，烧毁其先王陵墓夷陵（今湖北省宜昌市夷陵区），向东进兵至竟陵（今湖北省潜江市东北）楚军败，楚顷襄王在兵败后，向东北方溃逃至陈（今河南省淮阳县），被迫迁都于此以自保。

危局

前263年，楚考烈王继位，任用春申君为令尹，春申君派兵助赵国解邯郸之围，又领兵灭鲁国，楚国一度复兴。但前241年，春申君组织东方国家最后一次合纵，但被秦军所败，楚考烈王怕秦国报复，再次迁都至更东面的寿春。

前238年楚考烈王死后，春申君门客李园发动政变杀害春申君，楚国国力更加一蹶不振。秦王政亲政后，知楚将项燕擅战，先遣李信为将，领二十万兵马，欲灭楚，惨败。

前229年（秦王政十八年），楚军败走，秦军把已经完全控制郢都的疆域，并改郢为南郡，并委任来自韩国的降将腾驻守于此。

覆亡

前223年，由秦国老将王翦所统率的秦师六十万大败楚军，俘虏了楚国国君负刍。到了公元前222年，王翦平定了楚国长江以南的广大土地，楚国彻底灭亡。

楚人作为六国最强的国家，对于秦国的亡国之辱极为痛恨，在秦末天下大乱时楚地开始兴起「楚虽三户，亡秦必楚」的顺口溜以彰兴兵雪恨之志。后来项燕之孙项羽果然灭秦。

复国馀绪

秦二世元年（前209年）七月，赴燕京的戍卒领袖陈胜、吴广，自称秦始皇长子扶苏与楚国大将军项燕，发动大泽起义，建立张楚，恢复楚国。旋即败亡。陈胜败亡后，陈胜的大司马秦嘉，立楚宗室景驹为楚假王（即代理楚王），后又称楚王。项燕之子项梁起兵，将景驹斩杀。

前208年六月，项梁立楚怀王孙熊心，仍为楚怀王。陈婴为上柱国，项梁自号为武信君，楚国复国。

楚国复国后，齐国受到秦将章邯的进攻，项梁引兵北攻亢父、救东阿，破秦军。后不久项梁战死。而楚将项羽、刘邦率楚军西略地至雍丘，与秦军战，大破之，斩其将李由（丞相李斯之子），还攻外黄，未下。

秦二世三年（前207年），楚怀王徙都盱眙，并吕臣、项羽军，自将之。以沛公刘邦为砀郡长，封武安侯，将砀郡兵；项羽为长安侯，号鲁公；吕臣为司徒，其父吕青为令尹。

秦将章邯攻赵，赵向楚求救兵。楚怀王分兵，令宋义为上将军，项羽为次将、范增为末将，北上救赵。同时令沛公刘邦为将，率楚军西略咸阳。项羽斩杀宋义，夺其军权，北上于巨鹿之战大破秦军主力，虏秦将王离，秦将涉间不降楚，自烧杀。与此同时，楚将刘邦经过一系列战斗，成功攻入关中。（前207年）十月，沛公刘邦军驻灞上，秦王子婴素车白，系颈以组，封皇帝印玺，向刘邦投降。秦朝灭亡。

前207年十一月，项羽引兵西入关。十二月中，至戏（今陕西西安），与刘邦会霸上鸿门宴。汉王元年（前206年）正月，项羽自封为西楚霸王，分封诸侯，比如刘邦被分封为汉王。尊楚怀王为义帝。四月，项羽徙义帝都郴州，途中，使六和王黜布、九江王黥布与衡山王吴芮弑义帝于江南。

西元前202年9月，项羽所率楚军兵败垓下，楚霸王在长江北岸乌江渡自刎，楚汉战争结束，西楚国灭亡。

楚文化

语言

在春秋时代，楚语和中原语言之间有较明显的区别。楚国的官名和其他诸侯国不同：楚国宰相叫令尹，司马叫莫敖。除此之外，《左传·宣公五年》还记载春秋时代楚语的两个词意：

• 谷为「乳（母乳）」

• 于菟（wūtú，上古汉语发音为*qa-laa）为「虎」（hǔ，*qhlaaʔ）（有人怀疑可能与缅甸语 က���ား kla 同源）

我们之所以知道这两个词的意思，是因为令尹子文名字叫做鬬谷于菟，《左传》对他名字的原意做了解释。

《左传·庄公二十八年》有一句话：「楚言而出」（今译：「他们讲楚语就撤退了」），证明当时的楚语和中原的语言有差异。

在战国时代，屈原《楚辞》所用词汇也显示出楚国语言的特点。

音乐

据《左传 襄公十八年》载「南风不竞多死声」，楚音绵软无力。楚国巫风盛行，喜欢举行祭祀活动，由巫女主持祭祀。祭祀时要奏乐、歌唱、跳舞以娱神。王国维在《宋元戏曲史》中曾谈到楚国：「至于浴兰沐芳，华衣若芙，缓节安歌，歌舞之盛也。乘风载云之词，生别新知之语，荒淫之意也。是则灵之为职，或偃蹇以像神，或婆娑以乐神……」

风俗

楚俗尊凤尚赤、崇火拜日、喜巫近鬼。

楚人认为自己是日神远裔，火神嫡嗣，日火皆为赤色，故而尚赤，楚地广阔。楚王族是祝融（中国神话中的火神）的后裔于史有载，尚赤之俗源远流长。《墨子》中有记载「楚庄王鲜冠组缨，绛衣博袍……」。「绛衣」就是大红色的衣服。王族的信仰和喜好具有很大的影响力，如「楚王好细腰，宫中多饿死」。王族尚赤，久而久之，楚地百姓也都以赤为贵了。从现今出土的楚文物也可以佐证楚人尚赤。

楚国君主列表

楚国公族

• 若敖氏

• 鬬氏

• 成氏

• 屈氏

• 景氏：楚平王之子子西之后

• 昭氏：楚昭王之子子良之后

• 庄氏：楚庄王之后

• 囊氏：楚庄王之子公子贞之后

• 柳氏：北宋 章定 据《名贤氏族言行类稿》楚义帝之后

人物

武将

• 景阳

• 庄蹻

• 项燕

• 娲鲜

• 淖齿

• 唐昧

• 临武君

文臣

• 昭子

• 庄辛

• 景鲤

• 汗明

• 屈平

诗人

• 屈原

楚臣

考古

• 淅川下寺春秋楚墓群：有春秋墓葬25座、车马坑5座，从这座古墓葬群中共发掘出青铜器、玉器7000多件。楚国令尹子庚便葬于此地。

• 淅川和尚岭与徐家岭楚墓群：是继下寺楚墓之后在河南发现的最大的一批春秋战国时期的楚国贵族墓群，从楚国箴尹克黄的墓内出土了大批精美的青铜器。

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