Family and early life

Yizhu was born in 1831 at the Old Summer Palace, eight kilometres northwest of Beijing. He was from the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, and was the fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor. His mother was the Noble Consort Quan, of the Manchu Niohuru clan, who was made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumously as Empress Xiaoquancheng. Yizhu was reputed to have an ability in literature and administration which surpassed most of his brothers, which impressed his father, who therefore decided to make him his successor.

Early reign

Yizhu succeeded the throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relatively young emperor. He inherited a dynasty that faced not only internal but also foreign challenges. Yizhu's reign title, Xianfeng, which means "Universal Prosperity", did not reflect the situation. In 1850, the first of a series of popular rebellions began that would nearly destroy the Qing dynasty. The Taiping Rebellion began in December 1850, when Hong Xiuquan, a Hakka leader of a syncretic Christian sect, defeated local forces sent to disperse his followers. Hong then proclaimed the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the rebellion spread to several provinces with amazing speed. The following year, the Nian Rebellion started in North China. Unlike the Christian-influenced Taiping rebels, the Nian movement lacked a clear political program, but they became a serious threat to the Qing capital, Beijing, with the mobility of their cavalry-based armies. The Qing imperial forces suffered repeated defeats at the hands of both rebel movements.

Rebellions and wars

In 1853, the Taiping rebels captured Nanjing and for a while it seemed that Beijing would fall next; but the Taiping northern expedition was defeated and the situation stabilized. The Xianfeng Emperor dispatched several prominent mandarins, such as Zeng Guofan and the Mongol general Sengge Rinchen, to crush the rebellions, but they only obtained limited success. The biggest revolt of the Miao people against Chinese rule in history started in 1854, and ravaged the region until finally put down in 1873. In 1856, an attempt to regain Nanjing was defeated and the Panthay Rebellion broke out in Yunnan.

Meanwhile, an initially minor incident on the coasts triggered the Second Opium War. Anglo-French forces, after inciting a few battles (not all victories for them) on the coast near Tianjin, attempted "negotiation" with the Qing government. The Xianfeng Emperor believed in Chinese superiority and would not agree to any colonial demands. He delegated Prince Gong for several negotiations but relations broke down completely when a British diplomat, Sir Harry Parkes, was arrested during negotiations on 18 September.

The Anglo-French invasion clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry on 18 September near Zhangjiawan before proceeding toward the outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in Tongzhou District, Beijing. On 21 September, at the Battle of Palikao, Sengge Rinchen's 10,000 troops, including his elite Mongol cavalry, were completely annihilated after several doomed frontal charges against the concentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces, which entered Beijing on 6 October.

On 18 October 1860, the British and French forces went on to loot and burn the Old Summer Palace and Summer Palace. Upon learning about this news, the Xianfeng Emperor's health quickly deteriorated.

During the Xianfeng Emperor's reign, China lost part of Manchuria to the Russian Empire. In 1858, according to the Treaty of Aigun, the territory between Stanovoy Mountains and Amur River was ceded to Russia, and in 1860, according to the Treaty of Beijing, the same thing happened also to the area east of Ussuri River. After that treaty, the Russians founded the city of Vladivostok in the area they had annexed.

While negotiations with the European powers were being held, the Xianfeng Emperor and his imperial entourage fled to Jehol province in the name of conducting the annual imperial hunting expedition. As his health worsened, the emperor's ability to govern also deteriorated, and competing ideologies in court led to the formation of two distinct factions — one led by the senior official Sushun and the princes Zaiyuan and Duanhua, and the other led by Noble Consort Yi, who was supported by the general Ronglu and the Bannermen of the Yehe Nara clan.

Death

The Xianfeng Emperor died on 22 August 1861, from a short life of overindulgence, at the Chengde Mountain Resort, 230 kilometres northeast of Beijing. His successor was his surviving six-year-old son, Zaichun. A day before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor had summoned Sushun and his supporters to his bedside and gave them an imperial edict that dictated the power structure during his son's minority. The edict appointed eight men – Zaiyuan, Duanhua, Jingshou, Sushun, Muyin, Kuangyuan, Du Han and Jiao Youying – as an eight-member regency council to aid Zaichun, who was later enthroned as the Tongzhi Emperor. Xianfeng gave the eight men the power of regency, but their edicts would have to be endorsed by Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen. By tradition, after the death of an emperor, the emperor's body was to be accompanied to the capital by the regents. Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen, who were now known as Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an travelled ahead to Beijing and planned a coup with Prince Gong that ousted the eight regents. Empress Dowager Cixi then effectively ruled China over the subsequent 47 years as a regent.

The Xianfeng Emperor was interred in the Eastern Qing Tombs, 125 kilometres/75 miles east of Beijing, in the Ding (定; lit. "Quietude") mausoleum complex.

Legacy

The Qing dynasty continued to decline during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor. Rebellions in the country, which began the first year of his reign, would not be quelled until well into the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor and resulted in millions of deaths. The Xianfeng Emperor also had to deal with the British and French and their ever-growing appetite to expand trade further into China. The Xianfeng Emperor, like his father, the Daoguang Emperor, understood very little about Europeans and their mindset. He viewed non-Chinese as inferior and regarded the repeated requests by the Europeans for the establishment of diplomatic relations as an offence. When the Europeans introduced the long-held concept of an exchanged consular relationship, the Xianfeng Emperor quickly rebuffed the idea. At the time of his death, he had not met with any foreign dignitary.

Despite his tumultuous decade of reign, the Xianfeng Emperor was commonly seen as the last Qing emperor to have held paramount authority, ruling in his own right. The reigns of his son and subsequent successors were overseen by regents, a trend present until the fall of the Qing dynasty.

Family

Parents

Father- Mianning, the Daoguang Emperor (道光帝) of the Aisin Gioro clan (爱新觉罗)

Mother- Empress Xiaoquancheng (孝全成皇后) of the Niohuru clan (钮祜禄)

Consorts and Issue

Empress

• Empress Xiaodexian (孝德显皇后) of the Sakda clan (萨克达)

• Empress Xiaozhenxian (孝贞显皇后) of the Niohuru clan ( 钮祜禄氏)

• Empress Xiaoqinxian (孝钦显皇后) of the Yehe Nara clan (叶赫那拉), Personal name: Xingzhen (杏贞) ; commonly known as Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧皇太后)

　• Zaichun, the Tongzhi Emperor (穆宗 载淳; 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), first son

Imperial Noble Consort

• Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing (庄静皇贵妃) of the Tatara clan (他他拉)

　• Princess Rong'an of the First Rank (荣安固伦公主; 20 June 1855 – 5 February 1875), first daughter.

　　• Married Fuzhen (d. 1909) of the Manchu Gūwalgiya clan in September/October 1873

• Imperial Noble Consort Duanke (端恪皇贵妃) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏)

Noble Consort

• Noble Consort Mei (玫贵妃) of the Xu clan (徐氏)

　• Prince Min of the Second Rank (悯郡王; 19 March 1858), second son

• Noble Consort Wan (婉贵妃) of the Socoro clan (索绰络氏)

Consort

• Consort Lu (璷妃) of the Yehe Nara clan (叶赫那拉氏), Personal Name: Mudanchun (牡丹春)

• Consort Ji (吉妃) of the Wang clan (王氏), Personal Name: Xinghuachun (杏花春)

　• Miscarriage (male; 1859 or 1860)

• Consort Xi (禧妃) of the Cahala clan (察哈喇氏), Personal Name: Haitangchun (海棠春)

• Consort Qing (庆妃) of the Zhang clan (张氏), Personal Name: Wulingchun (武陵春)

Concubine

• Concubine Yun (云嫔) of the Wugiya clan (云嫔), Personal Name: Qiyun (绮云)

• Concubine Rong (容嫔,) of the Irgen Gioro clan (伊尔根觉罗氏)

• Concubine Shu (璹嫔) of the Yehe Nara clan (叶赫那拉氏)

• Concubine Yu (玉嫔) of the Yehe Nara clan (叶赫那拉氏)

First Class Female Attendant

• First Class Female Attendant Chun (瑃常在) of the Ming'an clan (暝谙)

• First Class Female Attendant Xin (鑫常在) of the Daigiya clan (戴佳)

• First Class Female Attendant Ping (玶常在) of the Irgen Gioro clan (伊尔根觉罗氏)

Ancestry

生平

1831年7月17日（道光十一年六月初九日），咸丰帝生于北京圆明园之澄静斋。时道光帝前三个儿子都已去世，咸丰帝出生后即为在世的皇长子。二十六年，按照秘密立储制度，被道光帝立为储君。三十年正月丁未，道光帝驾崩前，宣召大臣开启鐍匣，立为皇太子。

咸丰帝即位后便勤于政事，广开言路、明诏求贤，先后将有损国家利益的穆彰阿和耆英革职，大手笔地对朝政颇有改革。但此时的大清帝国内忧外患不断，先后爆发太平天国运动以及第二次鸦片战争。早年也被恭亲王与康慈皇贵太妃逼迫尊封皇太后之事所困扰，因康慈太妃对正妻名分非常渴求，导致咸丰帝心神疲惫，不能专心处理政事。

在第二次鸦片战争中，俄国西伯利亚总督穆拉维约夫迫使黑龙江将军奕山签订《瑷珲条约》，割去黑龙江以北、外兴安岭以南原属清朝的领土约60万平方公里，咸丰帝拒绝承认该条约。随后英法联军进攻北京，咸丰帝下诏对英国法国宣战：「兵家胜败何常，该国兵远来即有数万，未可当我中国人民千百之一，其能经几战乎？」最后圆明园、清漪园等被焚掠，以签定一系列不平等条约收场。

咸丰十一年（1861年）七月十七日，咸丰帝崩于行在避暑山庄烟波致爽殿。皇长子同治帝继位。同时依遗诏，由肃顺、载垣、端华、景寿、穆荫、匡源、杜翰、焦佑瀛为顾命八大臣，肃顺为首，辅导皇帝施政。同时将「御赏」、「同道堂」两方小玺分别赐给皇后纽祜禄氏和载淳，并规定凡以后下发谕旨必须钤用此二玺为凭。据《热河密札》记载：「两玺均大行所赐，母后用『御赏』玺，上用『同道堂』玺，凡应朱笔处用此代之，述旨亦均用之，以杜弊端。」在咸丰灵柩启程返京期间，东太后慈安、西太后慈禧、恭亲王奕欣、醇亲王奕譞四人联合发动辛酉政变，醇亲王奕譞亲自抓捕肃顺，随之八大臣非死即贬。同时，政府随即由慈安、慈禧两宫听政，咸丰帝生前的辅政遗命宣告废止。

根据内务府档案的记载，如意馆画士沈振麟曾在同治年间绘制了两幅先帝咸丰帝圣容，这两幅圣容均先画稿，呈览后再进一步绘制。和硕恭亲王奕欣向两宫皇太后和同治帝呈览的两幅墨稿分别为便衣墨稿一件及道装配山洞景致墨稿一件。

评价

• 清朝皇帝的评价中，咸丰帝的争议最大。咸丰爱看戏，爱唱戏，即使到热河行在唱戏，「著升平署三拔至热河」，也表现得乐不思蜀。咸丰一朝，财政十分困难，要镇压太平天国，对付英法联军，财源枯竭，「户部因军兴财匮，行钞，置宝钞处，行大钱，置官钱总局，分领其事」，钞票大量发行，造成通货膨胀，「官民交累，徒滋弊窦」。

• 咸丰帝「任贤擢才，洞观肆应」，在面对太平天国运动与「三千年未有之政局」的内忧外患中，咸丰指挥若定，重用汉族大臣曾国藩人等组织团练来对付太平天国，咸丰帝颇思除弊求治，提拔行事果断的肃顺，并支持肃顺等人在朝政上推行的改革。为后来的同光中兴打下良好基础。但也因为采纳肃顺对英法两国强硬的做法，导致引发英法联军之役。

• 咸丰帝临终前对朝政事宜不合理的安排和权力制衡，使朝臣和后宫在有关朝政和国事方面展开逐鹿，间接导致慈安太后、慈禧太后、恭亲王奕欣、醇亲王奕譞联手，打倒了顾命八大臣，最后慈禧掌权近半个世纪，从而也被有些史家流派认为咸丰帝没有安排好善后事宜，致使后宫干政半个世纪的局面。

• 英、法等国要求清廷能让英法两国在北京设置驻京公使，新任公使到任时能觐见皇帝，但咸丰帝不接受。英国也要求清廷开放中国贸易，咸丰帝也拒绝，虽然天津条约签订后，咸丰帝默许了英、法等国的要求，但又对英、法等国的公使刁难（主因是采纳肃顺对英法两国强硬的做法）。咸丰帝本人的守旧，间接导致英法联军之役清朝的惨败，使清朝失去首都北京，圆明园也遭联军焚毁。

• 太平天国运动与英法联军之役，使咸丰帝遭受打击，逃往热河行宫后就病逝了，太平天国运动与英法联军之役的善后工作，直到慈安、慈禧两宫听政时期才结束。

大事年表

• 道光十一年六月初九日，奕詝出生。后受教于杜受田。

• 道光三十年正月，宣宗去世，奕詝继位。是年太平天国起事。

• 咸丰三年二月，太平军攻占江宁，定都在此，改名天京。九月，太平天国北伐军逼近天津。是年曾国藩建湘军。

• 咸丰五年四月，李开芳被俘，太平天国北伐军覆没。

• 咸丰六年八月，天京事变发生。九月，「亚罗号事件」发生。

• 咸丰八年四月，与俄国签订《瑷珲条约》。五月，先后与俄、美、英、法四国签订《中俄天津条约》、《中美天津条约》、《中英天津条约》及《中法天津条约》。十月，太平军取得三河大捷。

• 咸丰九年五月，清大沽守军击退英、法舰队。

• 咸丰十年七月，英法联军攻占天津和大沽一带。八月，八里桥和大沽口相继被攻占，咸丰帝逃往承德，亦不足两个月，英法联军火烧圆明园，进占北京。十月，《中英北京条约》及《中法北京条约》立。十一月，《中俄北京条约》立。十二月总理各国事务衙门成立。

• 咸丰十一年七月十七日，咸丰皇帝驾崩于承德避暑山庄烟波致爽殿，年三十。其子载淳年仅六岁，继承大统，是为同治帝。咸丰委派载垣、端华、景寿、肃顺、穆荫、匡源、杜翰、焦佑瀛为辅政八大臣，辅助小皇帝。

家族

后妃子女

皇后

• 孝德显皇后，萨克达氏，咸丰即位前即去世。

• 孝贞显皇后（1837年8月12日－1881年4月8日），皇后钮祜禄氏，满洲镶黄旗人，广西右江道三等承恩公穆杨阿之女。1852年（咸丰二年二月）选秀入宫，四月二十七进内，册封为贞嫔，五月晋升为贞贵妃，十月即正式立为皇后。文宗死后，称为「母后皇太后」（慈安太后、东太后）与慈禧太后（西太后）垂帘听政。光绪七年崩，年四十四，相传为西太后所害，曰孝贞慈安裕庆和敬诚靖仪天祚圣显皇后。

• 孝钦显皇后，孝钦显皇后叶赫那拉氏，满洲镶蓝旗人，安徽徽宁池太广道道员惠徵之女。1852年（咸丰二年二月）选秀入宫，五月初九进内，册封为懿贵人，咸丰四年二月乙未晋封为懿嫔，1856年（咸丰六年三月庚辰），懿嫔生下皇长子载淳，当日就晋封懿妃。咸丰七年（1857）正月乙卯晋封贵妃。文宗死后，称为「圣母皇太后」（慈禧太后、西太后）与东太后垂帘听政，光绪三十四年崩，年七十二。生一子载淳，即同治帝。

妃嫔

• 庄静皇贵妃，他他拉氏，主事庆海女，道光十七年二月二十七生，咸丰元年入宫，二年五月初九，封为丽贵人，四年十二月二十四，封为丽嫔，五年五月初七，晋为丽妃，穆宗登极后，尊封丽皇贵妃，同治十三年十一月十六，光绪帝尊封为丽皇贵太妃，光绪十六年十一月薨，年五十四，生一女，荣安固伦公主。

• 端恪皇贵妃，佟佳氏。

• 玫贵妃，徐佳氏，皇二子生母。

• 婉贵妃，索绰络氏，咸丰帝时为婉嫔，同治帝晋尊为皇考婉妃，再诏晋尊为婉贵妃。

• 璷妃，叶赫那拉氏。咸丰五年二月初十日，封璷贵人，二月二十四日，璷贵人如嫔位的内庭宫各退。同治帝尊其为皇考璷嫔。光绪帝再尊其为璷妃，所享的内庭宫分同贵妃之位。

• 禧妃，察哈拉氏，名海棠春。

• 吉妃，王氏。咸丰八年五月十五日，封为吉贵人。同治帝尊其为皇考吉嫔，后光绪帝再尊其为吉妃。

• 庆妃，张氏。

• 云嫔，武佳氏，咸丰帝为皇子时，入侍为「格格」。

• 容嫔，伊尔根觉罗氏，咸丰三年十月二十日已为容常在，咸丰五年十月初一日已晋为容贵人，咸丰十一年尊封容嫔。尊封伊尔根觉罗氏为容嫔的尊封事宜，于同治八年仍未办理，因伊尔根觉罗氏突然去世而停止。

• 璹嫔（1840年—1874年），叶赫那拉氏，正白旗满洲员外郎桂祥之女。道光二十年二月二十日子时出生。咸丰五年二月初十日，经外八旗选秀入宫，封为𤩇贵人，所享的内庭宫分同嫔位。咸丰七年十一月至咸丰八年二月，那拉氏的待遇因故如常在之位。咸丰九年十一月初十日，改号为璹贵人。咸丰十一年尊封璹嫔。与庄静皇贵妃同居永和宫。尊封叶赫那拉氏为璹嫔的尊封事宜，于同治十三年仍未办理，因叶赫那拉氏突然去世而停止。同治十三年三月二十四去世，葬在清定陵妃园寝。

• 玉嫔（1843年—1863年），叶赫那拉氏，正白旗满洲员外郎桂祥之女，有一姐璹嫔，同为咸丰帝妃嫔。咸丰八年三月二十五日，由本家送入圆明园，为玉贵人。咸丰十一年同治帝继位，奉两宫皇太后懿旨晋封为玉嫔。同治元年十一月十六日（1863年1月5日）去世。同治四年九月二十五日奉安妃园寝。

• 玶常在，伊尔根觉罗氏，初号英贵人，咸丰二年封英嫔，咸丰三年降为伊贵人，咸丰五年降为伊常在，再降为伊答应，六年升回玶常在。

• 瑃常在

• 錱常在（？—1859年），《内务府谱牒》记载为戴氏，戴吉禄原配之女。包衣管领下辛者库人。咸丰九年（1859年）五月初六日去世。

皇子

咸丰共生有2子1女，是中国最后一位有生育子女的皇帝。

• 皇长子载淳，即同治帝，母懿嫔叶赫那拉氏；

• 皇二子悯郡王，出生后未及命名即逝世，母玫贵人徐佳氏；

皇女

• 皇长女荣安固伦公主，母丽嫔他他拉氏；

养子

• 养子载湉，醇亲王奕譞之次子。

养女

• 养长女荣寿固伦公主，恭亲王奕欣之女。

影视形象

注释