| | 董仲舒傳: |
董仲舒，廣川人也。少治春秋，孝景時為博士。下帷講誦，弟子傳以久次相授業，或莫見其面。蓋三年不窺園，其精如此。進退容止，非禮不行，學士皆師尊之。 |
| | Dong Zhongshu was a native of Guangchuan. He studied the Spring and Autumn Annals from an early age, and during the reign of Emperor Jing he served as a Doctor (Bo Shi). He lectured behind a curtain while reciting texts, and his disciples passed on the teachings in succession according to seniority; some never even saw his face. It is said that for three years he did not look out of the garden, such was his concentration and dedication. In all his movements and conduct, he followed only what conformed to ritual propriety; scholars all regarded him as a teacher and held him in high esteem.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
武帝即位，舉賢良文學之士前後百數，而仲舒以賢良對策焉。 |
| | When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he summoned hundreds of virtuous and learned scholars in successive selections, and Dong Zhongshu responded to an imperial inquiry as a "Xianliang" (virtuous and capable) candidate.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
制曰：朕獲承至尊休德，傳之亡窮，而施之罔極，任大而守重，是以夙夜不皇康寧，永惟萬事之統，猶懼有闕。故廣延四方之豪俊，郡國諸侯公選賢良修絜博習之士，欲聞大道之要，至論之極。今子大夫褎然為舉首，朕甚嘉之。子大夫其精心致思，朕垂聽而問焉。 |
| | The imperial edict stated: "I have been fortunate to inherit the supreme virtue and blessings of my ancestors, which I hope will be passed on without end and extended infinitely. With such great responsibilities and heavy duties, I have not had a moment's peace day or night; I constantly ponder over all matters of state, yet still fear that there may be shortcomings." Therefore, we have widely invited the outstanding and virtuous men from all directions; each commandery, kingdom, and feudal state has carefully selected learned scholars of virtue and erudition to present their views, so that we may learn the essentials of the great Dao and reach the highest level of discourse. Now you, Master, have been selected as a leader among those recommended; I am very pleased with this. You must therefore devote your mind and thoughts carefully; I shall listen attentively and ask questions.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
蓋聞五帝三王之道，改制作樂而天下洽和，百王同之。當虞氏之樂莫盛於韶，於周莫盛於勺。聖王已沒，鐘鼓筦絃之聲未衰，而大道微缺，陵夷至虖桀紂之行，王道大壞矣。夫五百年之間，守文之君，當塗之士，欲則先王之法以戴翼其世者甚眾，然猶不能反，日以仆滅，至後王而後止，豈其所持操或誖繆而失其統與？固天降命不可復反，必推之於大衰而後息與？烏虖！凡所為屑屑，夙興夜寐，務法上古者，又將無補與？三代受命，其符安在？災異之變，何緣而起？性命之情，或夭或壽，或仁或鄙，習聞其號，未燭厥理。伊欲風流而令行，刑輕而姦改，百姓和樂，政事宣昭，何脩何飭而膏露降，百穀登，德潤四海，澤臻屮木，三光全，寒暑平，受天之祜，享鬼神之靈，德澤洋溢，施虖方外，延及群生？ |
| | I have heard that the ways of the Five Emperors and Three Kings brought about reforms in institutions, music was created, and thus harmony prevailed throughout the world; this was followed by all subsequent rulers. During the time of Emperor Yu, no music surpassed that of Shao; in the Zhou dynasty, none surpassed that of Zhao. After the sage kings passed away, the sounds of bells, drums, and stringed instruments did not decline; yet the great Dao gradually became slightly deficient, deteriorating until it reached the conduct of Jie and Zhou, when the royal way was completely ruined. In the five hundred years in between, there were many rulers who adhered to established principles and officials in power who wished to follow the laws of previous sage kings to support and protect their era; yet still they could not reverse the decline. Day by day, they fell into ruin until it reached later kings before finally ceasing. Could this be because what they upheld or practiced was erroneous and caused them to lose the true lineage? Is it truly that Heaven decreed a fate that could not be reversed, and only after great decline did it finally come to an end? Alas! All the efforts made, rising early and resting late, striving to emulate the ancient ways—will these prove futile after all? Where are the omens of mandate for the Three Dynasties? What is the cause behind changes in calamities and anomalies? Regarding human nature and destiny, some may die young or live long lives; some are kind while others are vulgar. We often hear these terms, yet we do not fully understand their underlying principles. I wish to establish a virtuous influence so that commands are followed, punishments are light yet wrongdoing is corrected, the people live in harmony and joy, governance becomes clear and orderly. What cultivation and discipline must be practiced for sweet dew to fall, all grains to flourish, virtue to moisten the four seas, blessings to reach even the smallest plants, the three lights (sun, moon, stars) remain complete, cold and heat balanced, so that Heaven's blessings are received, spirits and deities respond favorably, moral grace overflows, extends beyond borders, and reaches all living beings?
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
子大夫明先聖之業，習俗化之變，終始之序，講聞高誼之日久矣，其明以諭朕。科別其條，勿猥勿并，取之於術，慎其所出。乃其不正不直，不忠不極，枉于執事，書之不泄，興于朕躬，毋悼後害。子大夫其盡心，靡有所隱，朕將親覽焉。 |
| | You have long studied the achievements of previous sage kings, become familiar with changes in customs and education, understood the order from beginning to end, and listened for a long time to lofty principles. Please enlighten me clearly. Classify each point carefully; do not confuse or conflate them. Draw from the methods, and be cautious about their sources. If there are those who act unjustly, crookedly, disloyally, or without sincerity, and who distort matters in their duties, record these facts without concealment. Let such actions arise from me personally, so as to avoid future regrets and harm. You must therefore give your full attention, concealing nothing; I shall personally review it.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒對曰： |
| | Dong Zhongshu replied:
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
陛下發德音，下明詔，求天命與情性，皆非愚臣之所能及也。臣謹案春秋之中，視前世已行之事，以觀天人相與之際，甚可畏也。國家將有失道之敗，而天乃先出災害以譴告之，不知自省，又出怪異以警懼之，尚不知變，而傷敗乃至。以此見天心之仁愛人君而欲止其亂也。自非大亡道之世者，天盡欲扶持而全安之，事在彊勉而已矣。彊勉學問，則聞見博而知益明；彊勉行道，則德日起而大有功：此皆可使還至而立有效者也。《》曰「」，《》云「茂哉茂哉！」皆彊勉之謂也。 |
| | Your Majesty has issued a decree of virtue, promulgated clear edicts, and sought to understand Heaven's mandate as well as human nature—matters beyond the capacity of this humble subject. I have carefully examined the Spring and Autumn Annals, reviewed events from previous ages, and observed the relationship between Heaven and humanity; it is indeed a matter of great awe. When a state is about to suffer failure due to moral decline, Heaven first sends calamities as warnings and admonitions. If the rulers do not reflect upon themselves, strange anomalies will then appear to instill fear and caution. Should they still fail to change, disaster and ruin will inevitably follow. From this we see the benevolence of Heaven's heart toward the ruler, desiring to prevent chaos and disorder. Unless it is an age of extreme moral collapse, Heaven will do everything possible to support and preserve the state; what is required lies solely in determined effort. Strive diligently in study, and one's knowledge becomes broad and understanding more profound; Diligently practicing the Dao leads to daily growth in virtue and great achievements: these are all matters that can be restored and yield immediate results. The Book of Songs says, "Day and night without respite," while the Book of Documents states, "How great! How great!" Both refer to diligent effort.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
道者，所繇適於治之路也，仁義禮樂皆其具也。故聖王已沒，而子孫長久安寧數百歲，此皆禮樂教化之功也。王者未作樂之時，乃用先王之樂宜於世者，而以深入教化於民。教化之情不得，雅頌之樂不成，故王者功成作樂，樂其德也。樂者，所以變民風，化民俗也；其變民也易，其化人也著。故聲發於和而本於情，接於肌膚，臧於骨髓。故王道雖微缺，而筦絃之聲未衰也。夫虞氏之不為政久矣，然而樂頌遺風猶有存者，是以孔子在齊而聞韶也。夫人君莫不欲安存而惡危亡，然而政亂國危者甚眾，所任者非其人，而所繇者非其道，是以政日以仆滅也。夫周道衰於幽厲，非道亡也，幽厲不繇也。至於宣王，思昔先王之德，興滯補弊，明文武之功業，周道粲然復興，詩人美之而作，上天祐之，為生賢佐，後世稱誦，至今不絕。此夙夜不解行善之所致也。孔子曰「人能弘道，非道弘人」也。故治亂廢興在於己，非天降命不可得反，其所操持誖謬失其統也。 |
| | The Dao is the path by which one attains good governance; benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and music are all its instruments. Therefore, after the sage kings passed away, their descendants enjoyed lasting peace and stability for hundreds of years; this was all due to the achievements of ritual, music, education, and moral instruction. Before a king composed new music, he would use the music of previous sage kings that was suitable for his time to deeply educate and civilize the people. If moral instruction fails to take root, then the elegant and laudatory music of Ya and Song cannot be created. Therefore, when a sage king achieves success, he composes new music to celebrate his virtue. Music is used to transform the customs of the people and civilize their ways; It changes the people easily, and its influence on human conduct is evident. Therefore, music originates from harmony and is rooted in emotion; it touches the skin and is stored deep within the marrow of the bones. Thus, even though the royal way may be slightly deficient, the sounds of flutes and stringed instruments have not yet declined. The Yu dynasty has long ceased to govern, but the lingering influence of its music and odes still remains; this is why Confucius heard the Shao in Qi. No ruler does not desire stability and wish to avoid danger or downfall; yet there are many whose governance is chaotic and states in peril, because they appoint the wrong people and follow incorrect paths. This is why their rule gradually collapses into ruin. The Zhou dynasty declined during the reigns of King You and King Li, but it was not that the Dao itself perished—it was because they did not follow it. By the time of King Xuan, he reflected upon the virtue of previous kings, revived neglected policies and corrected defects, clarified the achievements of King Wen and King Wu. The Zhou Dao thus brightly revived; poets praised this era in their works. Heaven favored him by providing wise assistants, and later generations extolled his rule, a legacy that continues to this day without ceasing. This was the result of tireless efforts in practicing virtue day and night. Confucius said, "It is people who can magnify the Dao; it is not that the Dao magnifies people." Therefore, whether a state is well governed or in chaos, flourishing or declining depends on the ruler himself. It is not that Heaven's decree cannot be reversed; rather, it is because what he upholds and practices is erroneous and causes him to lose the true lineage.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣聞天之所大奉使之王者，必有非人力所能致而自至者，此受命之符也。天下之人同心歸之，若歸父母，故天瑞應誠而至。書曰「白魚入于王舟，有火復于王屋，流為烏」，此蓋受命之符也。周公曰「復哉復哉」，孔子曰「德不孤，必有鄰」，皆積善絫德之效也。及至後世，淫佚衰微，不能統理群生，諸侯背畔，殘賊良民以爭壤土，廢德教而任刑罰。刑罰不中，則生邪氣；邪氣積於下，怨惡畜於上。上下不和，則陰陽繆盭而妖孽生矣。此災異所緣而起也。 |
| | I have heard that Heaven, in greatly bestowing its mandate upon a ruler, must provide signs and omens not achieved by human effort but appearing naturally; these are the symbols of receiving Heaven's mandate. The people throughout the world unite in their hearts and return to him as they would to parents; thus, auspicious omens from Heaven respond to sincerity and appear. The Book of Documents says, "A white fish entered the king's boat; a fire appeared on the roof of the king's palace and transformed into a flock of crows"—this was presumably an omen of receiving Heaven's mandate. Zhou Gong said, "Revival! Revival!" and Confucius said, "Virtue is never isolated; it must have neighbors"—these were all the results of accumulated virtue and moral cultivation. By later generations, rulers became licentious and corrupt, their virtue waned, and they could no longer govern the people properly. Feudal lords rebelled, harming innocent civilians in their struggle for territory, abandoning moral instruction while relying on punishments and penalties. When punishments are unjust, they give rise to perverse energies; These perverse energies accumulate among the people below, while resentment and hatred fester above. When harmony between ruler and subjects is lost, yin and yang become disordered, giving rise to omens of misfortune and strange phenomena. This is the origin of calamities and anomalies.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣聞命者天之令也，性者生之質也，情者人之欲也。或夭或壽，或仁或鄙，陶冶而成之，不能粹美，有治亂之所生，故不齊也。孔子曰：「君子之德風也，小人之德草也，屮上之風必偃。」故堯舜行德則民仁壽，桀紂行暴則民鄙夭。夫上之化下，下之從上，猶泥之在鈞，唯甄者之所為；猶金之在鎔，唯冶者之所鑄。「綏之斯來，動之斯和」，此之謂也。 |
| | I have heard that "Ming" (fate) is Heaven's decree, "Xing" (nature) is the essence of life, and "Qing" (emotion) is human desire. Some may die young, others live long; some are kind, others vulgar—these traits are shaped and molded through cultivation. Yet they cannot be entirely pure or perfect, as this is where order and chaos originate, hence the diversity among people. Confucius said: "The virtue of a gentleman is like the wind; the virtue of a petty person is like grass. When the wind blows over the grass, it must bend." Therefore, when Yao and Shun practiced virtue, the people became kind and long-lived; but when Jie and Zhou acted with cruelty, the people became vulgar and died young. The influence of rulers upon their subjects, and the obedience of subjects to their rulers, is like clay on a potter's wheel—shaped entirely by the skill of the craftsman. It is also like gold in molten form—molded completely according to the will of the metalworker. "This is what is meant by 'When pacified, they come; when moved, they harmonize.'"
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣謹案春秋之文，求王道之端，得之於正。正次王，王次春。春者，天之所為也；正者，王之所為也。其意曰，上承天之所為，而下以正其所為，正王道之端云爾。然則王者欲有所為，宜求其端於天。天道之大者在陰陽。陽為德，陰為刑；刑主殺而德主生。是故陽常居大夏，而以生育養長為事；陰常居大冬，而積於空虛不用之處。以此見天之任德不任刑也。天使陽出布施於上而主歲功，使陰入伏於下而時出佐陽；陽不得陰之助，亦不能獨成歲。終陽以成歲為名，此天意也。王者承天意以從事，故任德教而不任刑。刑者不可任以治世，猶陰之不可任以成歲也。為政而任刑，不順於天，故先王莫之肯為也。今廢先王德教之官，而獨任執法之吏治民，毋乃任刑之意與！孔子曰：「不教而誅謂之虐。」虐政用於下，而欲德教之被四海，故難成也。 |
| | I have carefully examined the texts of the Spring and Autumn Annals in search of the beginning of the royal way, and found it in upholding righteousness. Righteousness precedes kingship; kingship precedes spring. Spring is what Heaven does; Righteousness is what the king must do. The meaning is that above, one follows Heaven's actions; below, one corrects one's own conduct—this is the beginning of the royal Dao. Therefore, if a king wishes to act in any way, he should seek its foundation from Heaven. The great principle of the Dao of Heaven lies in yin and yang. Yang represents virtue, while Yin represents punishment; Punishment is associated with killing, whereas virtue is associated with life. Therefore, yang remains dominant in the great summer season and is concerned with generating, nurturing, and fostering growth; Yin remains dominant in the severe winter season and accumulates in empty, unused places. From this we see that Heaven relies on virtue rather than punishment. Heaven causes yang to emerge and distribute its blessings above, presiding over the achievements of the year; it causes yin to retreat below and occasionally rise up to assist yang. Without the assistance of yin, yang cannot alone complete the cycle of a year. Thus, the completion of the annual cycle is attributed to yang—this is Heaven's will. A king who follows Heaven's will in his actions therefore relies on moral instruction and virtue, not punishment. Punishment cannot be relied upon to govern the world; it is like yin, which cannot alone complete the year's cycle. To govern by relying on punishment goes against Heaven's will; therefore, none of the sage kings would have done so. Nowadays, if we abolish the offices responsible for moral instruction of previous sage kings and rely solely on officials enforcing laws to govern the people, is this not tantamount to relying on punishment? Confucius said: "To punish without first teaching is called cruelty." If cruel policies are imposed upon the people below, yet one desires moral instruction to spread across the four seas, it will be difficult to achieve.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣謹案春秋謂一元之意，一者萬物之所從始也，元者辭之所謂大也。謂一為元者，視大始而欲正本也。春秋深探其本，而反自貴者始。故為人君者，正心以正朝廷，正朝廷以正百官，正百官以正萬民，正萬民以正四方。四方正，遠近莫敢不壹於正，而亡有邪氣奸其間者。是以陰陽調而風雨時，群生和而萬民殖，五穀孰而草木茂，天地之間被潤澤而大豐美，四海之內聞盛德而皆徠臣，諸福之物，可致之祥，莫不畢至，而王道終矣。 |
| | I have carefully examined the meaning of "Yi Yuan" (the beginning of one) in the Spring and Autumn Annals. The term "one" signifies the origin from which all things arise, while "yuan" refers to what is called great in language. To refer to "one" as "yuan" means to look toward the grand beginning and wish to correct the root. The Spring and Autumn Annals deeply explores its roots, tracing back to those of noble status as a starting point. Therefore, for a ruler to govern well, he must first correct his own heart in order to rectify the court; by rectifying the court, he can correct the officials; by correcting the officials, he can correct the people; and by correcting the people, he can bring harmony to all directions. When all four quarters are rectified, both near and distant regions will dare not deviate from the upright path; there will be no perverse energies or wickedness interfering among them. Therefore, yin and yang will be in harmony, winds and rains timely; all living things flourish and the people thrive; five grains mature and grasses and trees grow luxuriantly. The space between Heaven and Earth is moistened with blessings, bringing great abundance and beauty. Within the four seas, when virtuous rule becomes known, all submit as subjects. All auspicious signs and blessings that can be summoned will arrive in full, thus completing the royal way.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
孔子曰：「鳳鳥不至，河不出圖，吾已矣夫！」自悲可致此物，而身卑賤不得致也。今陛下貴為天子，富有四海，居得致之位，操可致之勢，又有能致之資，行高而恩厚，知明而意美，愛民而好士，可謂誼主矣。然而天地未應而美祥莫至者，何也？凡以教化不立而萬民不正也。夫萬民之從利也，如水之走下，不以教化隄防之，不能止也。是故教化立而姦邪皆止者，其隄防完也；教化廢而姦邪並出，刑罰不能勝者，其隄防壞也。古之王者明於此，是故南面而治天下，莫不以教化為大務。立大學以教於國，設庠序以化於邑，漸民以仁，摩民以誼，節民以禮，故其刑罰甚輕而禁不犯者，教化行而習俗美也。 |
| | Confucius said: "The phoenix does not appear; the Yellow River produces no map—my time is over!" He lamented that such signs could be summoned, yet his low status and humble position prevented him from doing so. Now, Your Majesty is as exalted as the Son of Heaven, possessing wealth across the four seas. You occupy a position capable of summoning such signs and wield power sufficient to achieve them; you also have the resources necessary for their manifestation. With noble conduct and deep benevolence, with wisdom and virtuous intent, loving your people and valuing scholars, you may truly be called a ruler of righteousness. Yet Heaven and Earth have not yet responded, and no auspicious signs appear—why is this? This is because moral instruction has not been established, and the people are thus not upright. The common people follow profit as water flows downward; without moral instruction and barriers to restrain them, they cannot be stopped. Therefore, when moral instruction is established and wrongdoing ceases, it is because the barriers are intact; When moral instruction declines and wickedness spreads, and punishments cannot prevail, it is because the barriers have crumbled. Ancient kings understood this well; therefore, when they ruled over all under Heaven from the southern throne, none failed to regard moral instruction as their foremost duty. They established great schools to educate within the capital and set up xiang and xu academies to civilize in the localities, gradually guiding the people with benevolence, polishing them with righteousness, and regulating them with propriety. Thus, their punishments were very light yet prohibitions went unbroken—this was because moral instruction prevailed and customs became virtuous.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
聖王之繼亂世也，埽除其跡而悉去之，復修教化而崇起之。教化已明，習俗已成，子孫循之，行五六百歲尚未敗也。至周之末世，大為亡道，以失天下。秦繼其後，獨不能改，又益甚之，重禁文學，不得挾書，棄捐禮誼而惡聞之，其心欲盡滅先王之道，而顓為自恣苟簡之治，故立為天子十四歲而國破亡矣。自古以來，未嘗有以亂濟亂，大敗天下之民如秦者也。其遺毒餘烈，至今未滅，使習俗薄惡，人民嚚頑，抵冒殊扞，孰爛如此之甚者也。孔子曰：「腐朽之木不可彫也，糞土之牆不可圬也。」 |
| | When sage kings succeeded to a time of disorder, they swept away its traces and completely eradicated them, then restored moral instruction and elevated it anew. Once moral instruction was clear and customs firmly established, descendants followed them; for five or six hundred years, they had not yet declined. By the later days of the Zhou dynasty, rulers greatly abandoned righteous ways and thus lost all under Heaven. The Qin dynasty, following in their wake, alone failed to reform and even worsened the situation. They imposed severe restrictions on literature, forbidding people from carrying books; they discarded rites and righteousness and hated hearing of them. Their intent was to completely eradicate the ways of former kings and instead pursue arbitrary, hasty governance for selfish ends. Thus, after only fourteen years as Son of Heaven, their state collapsed. Since ancient times, there has never been a case like the Qin, where disorder was used to resolve disorder and the people of all under Heaven were so greatly ruined. Its lingering poison and residual violence have not yet been extinguished to this day, causing customs to become shallow and wicked, the people cunning and stubborn, defiant and rebellious—how corrupt and severe is this situation! Confucius said: "A rotten tree cannot be carved, and a wall of dung and earth cannot be plastered."
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
今漢繼秦之後，如朽木糞牆矣，雖欲善治之，亡可柰何。法出而姦生，令下而詐起，如以湯止沸，抱薪救火，愈甚亡益也。竊譬之琴瑟不調，甚者必解而更張之，乃可鼓也；為政而不行，甚者必變而更化之，乃可理也。當更張而不更張，雖有良工不能善調也；當更化而不更化，雖有大賢不能善治也。故漢得天下以來，常欲善治而至今不可善治者，失之於當更化而不更化也。古人有言曰：「臨淵羨魚，不如蛛而結網。」今臨政而願治七十餘歲矣，不如退而更化；更化則可善治，善治則災害日去，福祿日來。《》云：「」為政而宜於民者，固當受祿于天。夫仁誼禮知信五常之道，王者所當脩飭也；五者脩飭，故受天之祐，而享鬼神之靈，德施于方外，延及群生也。 |
| | Now the Han dynasty follows after the Qin, like rotten wood or a dung wall. Though one wishes to govern it well, there is nothing that can be done about it. When laws are issued, corruption arises; when decrees are given, deceit follows. It is like using boiling water to stop a boil or hugging firewood to save from flames—this only makes things worse and brings no benefit. I dare compare it to a zither or se whose strings are out of tune; if the problem is severe, one must loosen and retune them before they can be played again. In governance, when policies fail to take effect, if the situation is dire, one must change and reform them entirely before order can be restored. If retuning is needed but not done, even a skilled craftsman cannot tune the instrument well; When reform is necessary but not carried out, even the greatest sages cannot govern effectively. Therefore, since the Han dynasty gained control of Heaven and Earth, it has always desired good governance but still cannot achieve it today—this is because they failed to reform when reform was needed. Ancient people said: "To stand by the pond envying fish is not as good as going home and weaving a net." Now, for more than seventy years we have governed with the wish for order; it would be better to withdraw and carry out reform. If reforms are carried out, good governance can be achieved; with good governance, calamities will gradually disappear and blessings will come daily. The Book of Songs says: "He who benefits the people and the people's well-being receives blessings from Heaven." One who governs in a way that is suitable for the people naturally deserves to receive blessings from Heaven. The five constant virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness are the principles a Son of Heaven should cultivate and maintain; When these five virtues are cultivated and maintained, one receives Heaven's protection and enjoys the blessings of spirits and deities; virtue extends beyond borders and reaches all living beings.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
天子覽其對而異焉，乃復冊之曰： |
| | The Son of Heaven read his response and found it remarkable, so he reinstated him with an imperial edict saying:
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
制曰：蓋聞虞舜之時，游於巖郎之上，垂拱無為，而天下太平。周文王至於日昃不暇食，而宇內亦治。夫帝王之道，豈不同條共貫與？何逸勞之殊也？ |
| | The decree said: "I have heard that in the time of Yu Shun, he roamed above Yulan, sat with his hands resting on his knees without action, and yet all under Heaven enjoyed peace." King Wen of Zhou was so busy that he could not even eat until the sun had passed its zenith, yet within his domain order prevailed. Are the ways of emperors and kings not all fundamentally the same? Why such a difference between ease and toil?
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
蓋儉者不造玄黃旌旗之飾。及至周室，設兩觀，乘大路，朱干玉戚，八佾陳於庭，而頌聲興。夫帝王之道豈異指哉？或曰良玉不瑑，又曰非文無以輔德，二端異焉。 |
| | It is because those who are frugal do not create elaborate decorations of black-and-yellow banners and flags. By the time of the Zhou dynasty, two towers were erected, great chariots used, red halberds and jade 戚 (a ceremonial weapon) displayed, eight rows of dancers arranged in the court, and thus songs of praise arose. Are the ways of emperors truly so different? Some say fine jade requires no carving, yet others claim without culture and refinement virtue cannot be assisted—these two views differ.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
殷人執五刑以督姦，傷肌膚以懲惡。成康不式，四十餘年天下不犯，囹圄空虛。秦國用之，死者甚眾，刑者相望，秏矣哀哉！ |
| | The Yin people enforced five punishments to supervise wrongdoing, injuring flesh and skin to punish evil. During the reigns of Cheng and Kang, no one followed this example; for more than forty years, all under Heaven committed no crimes, and prisons stood empty. The State of Qin employed such methods, resulting in many deaths and criminals seen everywhere—how wasteful and sorrowful!
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
烏虖！朕夙寤晨興，惟前帝王之憲，永思所以奉至尊，章洪業，皆在力本任賢。今朕親耕藉田以為農先，勸孝弟，崇有德，使者冠蓋相望，問勤勞，恤孤獨，盡思極神，功烈休德未始云獲也。今陰陽錯繆，氛氣充塞，群生寡遂，黎民未濟，廉恥貿亂，賢不肖渾淆，未得其真，故詳延特起之士，意庶幾乎！今子大夫待詔百有餘人，或道世務而未濟，稽諸上古之不同，考之于今而難行，毋乃牽於文繫而不得騁歟？將所繇異術，所聞殊方與？各悉對，著于篇，毋諱有司。明其指略，切磋究之，以稱朕意。 |
| | Alas! I, since my early awakening and rising at dawn, have always reflected on the precedents of former emperors. I deeply consider how to serve the supreme throne and uphold great achievements—these all lie in focusing on fundamentals and entrusting capable men. Now I personally till the ceremonial fields to lead in agriculture, encourage filial piety and fraternal respect, honor virtue, and dispatch envoys with carriages and hats seen everywhere. They inquire about diligence, show concern for orphans and widows, exhaust all thoughts and divine wisdom—yet no achievement of merit or virtue has ever been fully realized. Now yin and yang are in disorder, foul energies fill the air; all living things struggle to thrive, the common people remain unrelieved. Integrity and shame have become confused, virtuous and wicked individuals mixed together—true virtue has not yet been discerned. Therefore, I carefully invite those who rise above the ordinary, hoping perhaps for improvement! Now, more than a hundred of you gentlemen awaiting appointment either discuss worldly affairs without achieving results, cite ancient precedents that differ from current practice, and find it difficult to implement them today—perhaps this is because you are constrained by textual formalities and cannot fully express your abilities? Is it perhaps due to different methods or teachings, or have you heard of different approaches from distant regions? Each of you should respond in full detail; record your answers in writing and do not conceal anything from the officials. Clarify your main points, discuss them thoroughly, to meet my expectations.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒對曰： |
| | Dong Zhongshu replied:
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣聞堯受命，以天下為憂，而未以位為樂也，故誅逐亂臣，務求賢聖，是以得舜、禹、稷、镨、咎繇。眾聖輔德，賢能佐職，教化大行，天下和洽，萬民皆安仁樂誼，各得其宜，動作應禮，從容中道。故孔子曰「如有王者，必世而後仁」，此之謂也。堯在位七十載，乃遜于位以禪虞舜。堯崩，天下不歸堯子丹朱而歸舜。舜知不可辟，乃即天子之位，以禹為相，因堯之輔佐，繼其統業，是以垂拱無為而天下治。孔子曰「韶盡美矣，又盡善也」，此之謂也。至於殷紂，逆天暴物，殺戮賢知，殘賊百姓。伯夷、太公皆當世賢者，隱處而不為臣。守職之人皆奔走逃亡，入于河海。天下秏亂，萬民不安，故天下去殷而從周。文王順天理物，師用賢聖，是以閎夭、大顛、散宜生等亦聚於朝廷。受施兆民，天下歸之，故太公起海濱而即三公也。當此之時，紂尚在上，尊卑昏亂，百姓散亡，故文王悼痛而欲安之，是以日昃而不暇食也。孔子作春秋，先正王而繫萬事，見素王之文焉。繇此觀之，帝王之條貫同，然而勞逸異者，所遇之時異也。孔子曰「武盡美矣，未盡善也」，此之謂也。 |
| | I have heard that when Yao received the mandate, he was concerned for all under Heaven and did not take pleasure in his position. Therefore, he punished and drove away corrupt ministers and earnestly sought virtuous sages; thus he obtained Shun, Yu, Ji, Bo, and You Yáo. With many sages assisting virtue and capable men aiding in their duties, moral instruction spread widely; all under Heaven lived in harmony. The people were content with benevolence and delighted in righteousness, each finding their proper place. Their actions conformed to propriety, and they moved gracefully along the Middle Way. Therefore, Confucius said: "If a Son of Heaven were to arise, it would take an entire generation for benevolence to prevail"—this is what he meant. Yao reigned for seventy years before yielding the throne and passing it on to Shun of Yu. After Yao's death, all under Heaven did not return allegiance to his son Dan Zhu but instead to Shun. Shun knew he could not refuse, so he assumed the position of Son of Heaven. He appointed Yu as his prime minister and relied on the former ministers from Yao's reign to continue their legacy; thus, by sitting idly with hands resting on knees and taking no action, all under Heaven was governed well. Confucius said: "Shao is most beautiful and also perfectly virtuous"—this is what he meant by that statement. As for King Zhou of Yin, he defied Heaven and abused all things, killing virtuous men and wise scholars, oppressing and harming the common people. Bo Yi and Tai Gong were both sages of their time who withdrew into seclusion rather than serve as ministers. 邏 Those who held official posts all fled, running away to rivers and seas. All under Heaven was in chaos and the people were restless; thus, Heaven abandoned Yin and followed Zhou. King Wen of Zhou followed the will of Heaven, treated things with reason, and employed sages and virtuous men; thus, Hong Yao, Daidian, Sanyi Sheng, and others also gathered in his court. He bestowed benefits upon the people; all under Heaven submitted to him. Thus, Tai Gong rose from the seashore and became one of the Three Dukes. At that time, King Zhou was still in power; ranks of respect and subordination were confused, the people scattered and perished. Therefore, King Wen mourned deeply and wished to bring peace, which is why he worked so hard that he had no time to eat until after midday. Confucius composed the Spring and Autumn Annals, first establishing the Son of Heaven as a standard to which all events were tied; thus he revealed the writings of the "simple Son of Heaven." From this we see that the principles governing emperors are fundamentally the same, yet their toil or ease differs—this is due to differences in the times they encountered. Confucius said: "Wu is most beautiful, but not perfectly virtuous"—this is what he meant by this statement.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣聞制度文采玄黃之飾，所以明尊卑，異貴賤，而勸有德也。故春秋受命所先制者，改正朔，易服色，所以應天也。然則宮室旌旗之制，有法而然者也。故孔子曰：「奢則不遜，儉則固。」儉非聖人之中制也。臣聞良玉不瑑，資質潤美，不待刻瑑，此亡異於達巷黨人不學而自知也。然則常玉不瑑，不成文章；君子不學，不成其德。 |
| | I have heard that the system of ceremonial dress and decorations in black and yellow are meant to distinguish ranks, differentiate nobility from commoners, and encourage virtue. Therefore, the first measures taken by a Son of Heaven receiving the mandate in the Spring and Autumn period were to reform the calendar, change the lunar cycle, and alter dress colors—these actions were meant to respond to Heaven's will. Thus, the regulations concerning palace halls and banners are established according to fixed principles. Therefore, Confucius said: "Excess leads to impropriety; frugality leads to rigidity." Frugality is not the moderate standard of a sage. I have heard that fine jade requires no carving; its natural quality is already smooth and beautiful, needing no chiseling—this is not different from the man of Daxiang who possessed knowledge without study. However, ordinary jade that is not carved cannot form patterns; A gentleman who does not study cannot perfect his virtue.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣聞聖王之治天下也，少則習之學，長則材諸位，爵祿以養其德，刑罰以威其惡，故民曉於禮誼而恥犯其上。武王行大誼，平殘賊，周公作禮樂以文之，至於成康之隆，囹圄空虛四十餘年，此亦教化之漸而仁誼之流，非獨傷肌膚之效也。至秦則不然。師申商之法，行韓非之說，憎帝王之道，以貪狼為俗，非有文德以教訓於天下也。誅名而不察實，為善者不必免，而犯惡者未必刑也。是以百官皆飾空言虛辭而不顧實，外有事君之禮，內有背上之心，造偽飾詐，趣利無恥；又好用憯酷之吏，賦斂亡度，竭民財力，百姓散亡，不得從耕織之業，群盜並起。是以刑者甚眾，死者相望，而姦不息，俗化使然也。故孔子曰「導之以政，齊之以刑，民免而無恥」，此之謂也。 |
| | I have heard that sage kings governing all under Heaven would, when people were young, teach them in schools; as they grew older, assign them to appropriate positions. Titles and salaries nurtured their virtue, while punishments instilled fear of wrongdoing. Thus the people understood rites and righteousness and felt ashamed to defy their superiors. King Wu practiced great righteousness, pacified the tyrants and oppressors; Duke of Zhou composed rites and music to civilize them. By the flourishing reigns of Cheng and Kang kings, prisons stood empty for more than forty years—this was also a gradual result of moral instruction and the flow of benevolence and righteousness, not merely an effect achieved through physical punishment. But in the Qin dynasty it was different. They followed the legalist doctrines of Shen and Shang, practiced Han Feizi's theories, despised the ways of sage kings, and made greed and ferocity their customs. They did not possess cultural virtue to instruct all under Heaven. They punished by name without examining the facts; those who acted virtuously were not necessarily spared, while those committing evil might escape punishment. Therefore, all officials adorned themselves with empty words and false rhetoric without regard for reality; outwardly they observed the rites of serving their ruler, but inwardly harbored disloyalty. They fabricated falsehoods, pursued profit shamelessly— Moreover, they favored the use of cruel officials who levied taxes without limit, draining the people's wealth and strength. The common folk scattered and fled, unable to pursue farming or weaving; thus, bands of bandits arose everywhere. Thus, many were punished, the dead lay in sight of one another, yet wrongdoing did not cease—this was a result of corrupt customs. Therefore, Confucius said: "To guide the people with government and regulate them through punishment leads to their evading wrongdoing without shame"—this is what he meant.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
今陛下并有天下，海內莫不率服，廣覽兼聽，極群下之知，盡天下之美，至德昭然，施於方外。夜郎、康居，殊方萬里，說德歸誼，此太平之致也。然而功不加於百姓者，殆王心未加焉。曾子曰：「尊其所聞，則高明矣；行其所知，則光大矣。高明光大，不在於它，在乎加之意而已。」願陛下因用所聞，設誠於內而致行之，則三王何異哉！ |
| | Now, Your Majesty unifies all under Heaven; within the four seas none do not submit. You widely observe and listen to many opinions, drawing upon the wisdom of your subjects and exhausting the virtues of all under Heaven—your supreme virtue is evident, extending beyond borders. Yelang and Kangju, distant lands ten thousand li away, praise virtue and return to righteousness—this is the result of a peaceful world. Yet if these achievements do not benefit the people, it may be because Your Majesty's heart has not fully extended to them. Zengzi said: "Respect what you have heard; thus your understanding will become lofty and clear; Act upon what you know, then your virtue will be radiant and great." "Lofty understanding and great virtue lie not elsewhere but in the intention to add to it alone." I wish Your Majesty would act upon what you have heard, cultivate sincerity within and put it into practice—then how different would you be from the Three Kings!
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
陛下親耕藉田以為農先，夙寤晨興，憂勞萬民，思惟往古，而務以求賢，此亦堯舜之用心也，然而未云獲者，士素不厲也。夫不素養士而欲求賢，譬猶不瑑玉而求文采也。故養士之大者，莫大虐太學；太學者，賢士之所關也，教化之本原也。今以一郡一國之眾，對亡應書者，是王道往往而絕也。臣願陛下興太學，置明師，以養天下之士，數考問以盡其材，則英俊宜可得矣。今之郡守、縣令，民之師帥，所使承流而宣化也；故師帥不賢，則主德不宣，恩澤不流。今吏既亡教訓於下，或不承用主上之法，暴虐百姓，與姦為市，貧窮孤弱，冤苦失職，甚不稱陛下之意。是以陰陽錯繆，氛氣充塞，群生寡遂，黎民未濟，皆長吏不明，使至於此也。 |
| | Your Majesty personally tills the ceremonial fields to lead agriculture, awakens early and rises at dawn, worrying over the people's burdens, reflecting on ancient times, and striving to seek virtuous men—this is also how Yao and Shun used their hearts. Yet still no success has been achieved; this is because scholars have not been properly cultivated. To seek virtue without cultivating scholars beforehand is like seeking patterns in jade that has never been carved. Therefore, the greatest way to cultivate scholars lies above all in nurturing the Taixue (Imperial Academy); The Taixue is where virtuous men are nurtured; it is the fundamental source of moral instruction. Now, in one commandery or kingdom's population, there are none who can respond to written questions—this means the royal way is being cut off again and again. I wish Your Majesty would revive the Taixue, appoint wise teachers to nurture scholars throughout the realm, and frequently examine them to fully develop their talents—then outstanding men should surely be found. Now, commandery magistrates and county officials are the people's teachers and leaders, entrusted with carrying out policies and spreading moral instruction; Therefore, if these teachers and leaders are not virtuous, then the ruler's virtue will not be proclaimed, and his benevolence and grace will not reach the people. Now, officials have given no instruction to the people below; some do not abide by the laws of Your Majesty, oppressing the common folk and colluding with evildoers. The poor, the weak, and orphans suffer injustice and hardship, losing their proper roles—this is far from what Your Majesty intends. Therefore, the yin and yang are in disorder, evil vapors fill the air, all living things struggle to thrive, and the common people remain unrelieved—this is all due to corrupt officials who fail to govern properly.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
夫長吏多出於郎中、中郎，吏二千石子弟選郎吏，又以富訾，未必賢也。且古所謂功者，以任官稱職為差，非所謂積日絫久也。故小材雖絫日，不離於小官；賢材雖未久，不害為輔佐。是以有司竭力盡知，務治其業而以赴功。今則不然。 |
| | Most high-ranking officials are selected from among Langzhong and Zhonglang officers. Those chosen as such from the sons of two-thousand-dan officials often rely on wealth, not necessarily virtue. Moreover, what was called "merit" in ancient times meant that officials were judged by their ability to perform their duties well—not merely by the length of time they had served. Therefore, even if a man of small talent serves for many years, he should not be promoted beyond minor posts; A virtuous and capable man, though newly appointed, is no less fit to serve as an assistant or advisor. Therefore, officials should exert their utmost strength and knowledge, diligently managing their duties in pursuit of achievement. But now it is not so.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
累日以取貴，積久以致官，是以廉恥貿亂，賢不肖渾殽，未得其真。臣愚以為使諸列侯、郡守、二千石各擇其吏民之賢者，歲貢各二人以給宿衛，且以觀大臣之能；所貢賢者有賞，所貢不肖者有罰。夫如是，諸侯、吏二千石皆盡心於求賢，天下之士可得而官使也。遍得天下之賢人，則三王之盛易為，而堯舜之名可及也。毋以日月為功，實試賢能為上，量材而授官，錄德而定位，則廉恥殊路，賢不肖異處矣。陛下加惠，寬臣之罪，令勿牽制於文，使得切磋究之，臣敢不盡愚！ |
| | They accumulate days to gain rank, and prolong their tenure to obtain office. Thus, integrity and shame are confused, the virtuous and the unworthy become mixed together, and true merit is not recognized. I humbly suggest that all marquises, commandery magistrates, and two-thousand-dan officials should each select the most virtuous among their officers and commoners, recommending two persons annually to serve as palace guards; this would also allow us to observe the abilities of high-ranking ministers. Those who recommend virtuous men should be rewarded, while those who recommend unworthy individuals should be punished. If this is done, marquises and two-thousand-dan officers will all strive to seek virtue diligently; thus, the scholars of the realm can be identified and appointed to office. If we can fully obtain all virtuous men throughout the land, then achieving the prosperity of the Three Kings will be easy, and the fame of Yao and Shun may yet be attained. Do not measure achievement by the number of days served; rather, value tested virtue and ability above all. Appoint officials according to their talents, assign positions based on moral character—then integrity and shame will be clearly distinguished, and the virtuous and unworthy will occupy separate places. Your Majesty bestows grace upon me, pardoning my faults and allowing me to speak freely without being bound by formalities so that I may thoroughly examine the matter. How could I dare withhold my humble advice!
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
於是天子復冊之。 |
| | Thus, the Son of Heaven again issued an edict in response to him.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
制曰：蓋聞「善言天者必有徵於人，善言古者必有驗於今」。故朕垂問乎天人之應，上嘉唐虞，下悼桀紂，寖微寖滅寖明寖昌之道，虛心以改。今子大夫明於陰陽所以造化，習於先聖之道業，然而文采未極，豈惑虖當世之務哉？條貫靡竟，統紀未終，意朕之不明與？聽若眩與？夫三王之教所祖不同，而皆有失，或謂久而不易者道也，意豈異哉？今子大夫既已著大道之極，陳治亂之端矣，其悉之究之，孰之復之。詩不云虖？「嗟爾君子，毋常安息，神之聽之，介爾景福。」朕將親覽焉，子大夫其茂明之。 |
| | The imperial decree said: "I have heard that 'those who speak well of Heaven must find evidence in human affairs, and those who speak well of the past must find verification in the present.'" Therefore, I have inquired into the relationship between Heaven and humanity. Above, I praise Tang and Yu; below, I lament Jie and Zhou. The path of gradual decline or revival—gradually fading to extinction or gradually becoming bright and flourishing—I humbly accept this and strive to reform accordingly. Now, you gentlemen understand the yin-yang principles that govern creation and transformation, are well-versed in the teachings of ancient sages—but your writings have not yet reached their full brilliance. Could this be due to confusion over current affairs? Your arguments lack coherence, and your principles remain incomplete—could it be that I, the ruler, am not clear in my understanding? Is it as if you are hearing things in confusion? The teachings of the Three Kings had different origins and all contained shortcomings. Some say that what remains unchanged over time is the Way—could this be any different? Now, you gentlemen have already expounded the ultimate principles of the Way and presented the origins of order and chaos. Please examine them thoroughly and respond in detail. Is it not said in the Book of Songs? "Alas, you gentlemen, do not rest idly; Heaven's will hears this and bestows great blessings upon you." I shall personally review it. You gentlemen must clearly illuminate the matter for me.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒復對曰： |
| | Dong Zhongshu replied again:
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
臣聞論語曰：「有始有卒者，其唯聖人虖！」今陛下幸加惠，留聽於承學之臣，復下明冊，以切其意，而究盡聖德，非愚臣之所能具也。前所上對，條貫靡竟，統紀不終，辭不別白，指不分明，此臣淺陋之罪也。 |
| | I have heard in the Analects say, "He who has a beginning and an end—this is perhaps only the sage!" Now, Your Majesty has shown grace by listening to a humble scholar like me and issued another clear decree to express your earnest intent, seeking to thoroughly explore the virtue of sages—this is beyond my ability as an unworthy minister to fully address. My previous response lacked coherence, failed to complete its structure, and was expressed in unclear terms with indistinct meaning—this is my fault for being shallow and lacking ability.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
冊曰：「善言天者必有徵於人，善言古者必有驗於今。」臣聞天者群物之祖也，故遍覆包函而無所殊，建日月風雨以和之，經陰陽寒暑以成之。故聖人法天而立道，亦溥愛而亡私，布德施仁以厚之，設誼立禮以導之。春者天之所以生也，仁者君之所以愛也；夏者天之所以長也，德者君之所以養也；霜者天之所以殺也，刑者君之所以罰也。繇此言之，天人之徵，古今之道也。孔子作春秋，上揆之天道，下質諸人情，參之於古，考之於今。故春秋之所譏，災害之所加也；春秋之所惡，怪異之所施也。書邦家之過，兼災異之變，以此見人之所為，其美惡之極，乃與天地流通而往來相應，此亦言天之一端也。古者修教訓之官，務以德善化民，民已大化之後，天下常亡一人之獄矣。今世廢而不脩，亡以化民，民以故棄行誼而死財利，是以犯法而罪多，一歲之獄以萬千數。以此見古之不可不用也，故春秋變古則譏之。天令之謂命，命非聖人不行；質樸之謂性，性非教化不成；人欲之謂情，情非度制不節。是故王者上謹於承天意，以順命也；下務明教化民，以成性也；正法度之宜，別上下之序，以防欲也：脩此三者，而大本舉矣。人受命於天，固超然異於群生，入有父子兄弟之親，出有君臣上下之誼，會聚相遇，則有耆老長幼之施；粲然有文以相接，驩然有恩以相愛，此人之所以貴也。生五穀以食之，桑麻以衣之，六畜以養之，服牛乘馬，圈豹檻虎，是其得天之靈，貴於物也。故孔子曰：「天地之性人為貴。」明於天性，知自貴於物；知自貴於物，然後知仁誼；知仁誼，然後重禮節；重禮節，然後安處善；安處善，然後樂循理；樂循理，然後謂之君子。故孔子曰「不知命，亡以為君子」，此之謂也。 |
| | The decree said: "Those who speak well of Heaven must have evidence in human affairs; those who speak well of the ancient past must have verification in the present." I have heard that Heaven is the origin of all things; therefore, it universally covers and contains everything without distinction. It establishes the sun, moon, winds, and rains to harmonize them, and regulates yin-yang, cold, and heat to complete them. Therefore, sages emulate Heaven in establishing the Way; they also universally love without partiality. They spread virtue and extend benevolence to strengthen relationships, and establish righteousness and institute rites to guide people. Spring is how Heaven brings forth life; benevolence is how a ruler shows love for his subjects; Summer is how Heaven promotes growth; virtue is how a ruler nurtures his people; Frost is how Heaven brings about death; punishment is how a ruler administers penalties. From this, it follows that the correspondence between Heaven and humanity is the principle of both ancient and modern times. Confucius composed the Spring and Autumn Annals, looking upward to measure it against the principles of Heaven, downward to examine human feelings, cross-referencing with antiquity, and testing it in his own time. Therefore, what the Spring and Autumn Annals criticize is where calamities are visited; What it condemns is where strange omens appear. It records the faults of states and families, along with strange disasters and changes. Through this, it reveals human actions—whether good or evil—and how these extremes connect with Heaven and Earth, flowing back and forth in mutual correspondence. This is also one aspect of speaking about Heaven. In ancient times, officials responsible for moral instruction worked diligently to transform the people through virtue. After the people had been greatly transformed, there was never a single case of unjust punishment in all the realm. Now, these offices have been neglected and not maintained; there is no way to transform the people. Therefore, the people abandon morality for the sake of wealth and profit, leading them to break laws and commit many crimes, with thousands upon thousands of cases judged each year. From this we see that the ancient ways cannot be dispensed with; therefore, the Spring and Autumn Annals censure those who change from antiquity. The will of Heaven is called "fate." Fate cannot be carried out without a sage; Natural simplicity is called "nature," but nature does not become virtuous without moral instruction; Human desires are called "feelings," and feelings cannot be regulated without proper restraint. Therefore, a sage ruler above all carefully follows the will of Heaven to align with fate; below he diligently clarifies moral instruction for the people in order to cultivate their nature; he establishes proper laws and regulations, distinguishes the hierarchy between superiors and inferiors, to restrain desires: cultivating these three aspects ensures that the fundamental principles are upheld. Human beings receive their mandate from Heaven, and thus are naturally distinct from all other creatures. Within the family there is the closeness of father and son, elder and younger brothers; outside the home, there is the righteousness between ruler and subject, superiors and inferiors. When people gather together, there is respect for elders and juniors— clearly defined by rites to connect with one another, joyfully bound by benevolence in mutual love—this is why human beings are esteemed. Heaven provides the five grains to feed them, mulberry and hemp for clothing, domestic animals for sustenance. They harness oxen and ride horses, cage leopards and imprison tigers—this is how humans receive Heaven's spirit and are esteemed above all things. Therefore, Confucius said: "Among the natures of Heaven and Earth, human beings are most precious." Understanding one's nature as bestowed by Heaven, a person knows that he is more valuable than other things; knowing this value, then one understands benevolence and righteousness; understanding benevolence and righteousness, then one values rites and propriety; valuing rites and propriety, then one finds peace in goodness; finding peace in goodness, then one rejoices in following reason; rejoicing in following reason—then one is called a gentleman. Therefore, Confucius said, "He who does not know fate cannot be considered a gentleman"—this is what he meant.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
冊曰：「上嘉唐虞，下悼桀紂，寖微寖滅寖明寖昌之道，虛心以改。」臣聞眾少成多，積小致鉅，故聖人莫不以晻致明，以微致顯。是以堯發於諸侯，舜興虖深山，非一日而顯也，蓋有漸以致之矣。言出於己，不可塞也；行發於身，不可掩也。言行，治之大者，君子之所以動天地也。故盡小者大，慎微者著。《》云：「惟此文王，小心翼翼。」故堯兢兢日行其道，而舜業業日致其孝，善積而名顯，德章而身尊，此其寖明寖昌之道也。積善在身，猶長日加益，而人不知也；積惡在身，猶火之銷膏，而人不見也。非明虖情性察虖流俗者，孰能知之？此唐虞之所以得令名，而桀紂之可為悼懼者也。夫善惡之相從，如景鄉之應形聲也。故桀紂暴謾，讒賊並進，賢知隱伏，惡日顯，國日亂，晏然自以如日在天，終陵夷而大壞。夫暴逆不仁者，非一日而亡也，亦以漸至，故桀、紂雖亡道，然猶享國十餘年，此其寖微寖滅之道也。 |
| | The decree said: "Above, I praise Tang and Yu, below, I mourn Jie and Zhou; the path of gradual fading to extinction or gradual becoming bright and flourishing—humbly accept this and reform." I have heard that many small things accumulate to form the great, and minor efforts lead to grand achievements. Therefore, no sage fails to achieve clarity from obscurity or prominence from subtlety. Therefore, Yao rose from among the feudal lords and Shun emerged from deep mountains; their prominence did not come in a single day but was achieved gradually. Words spoken by oneself cannot be suppressed; Actions originating from one's own body cannot be concealed. Speech and conduct are the great principles of governance; they are how a gentleman moves Heaven and Earth. Therefore, those who perfect small matters achieve greatness, and those cautious about subtle details become renowned. The Book of Songs says: "This was King Wen; he acted with utmost care and caution." Therefore, Yao was always cautious and diligent in practicing his Way day by day, while Shun with reverence and diligence cultivated filial piety daily. Their accumulated virtue brought fame; their shining morality earned them respect—this is the path of gradually becoming bright and flourishing. Virtue accumulated within a person, like the gradual increase of daylight, goes unnoticed by others; Evil accumulating in one's body is like fire consuming fat—others do not see it happening. Who but those who clearly understand human nature and discern prevailing customs can know this? This is why Tang and Yu earned their illustrious reputations, while Jie and Zhou are objects of mourning and fear. Goodness and evil follow each other like the shadow follows a form or an echo follows sound. Therefore, Jie and Zhou were cruel and arrogant; flatterers and villains advanced together while virtuous men hid in seclusion. Evil became increasingly evident, the state grew more chaotic day by day. Yet they remained complacent, believing themselves as unshakable as the sun in the sky—until finally their downfall was complete. Those who are violent, rebellious, and unkind do not fall in a single day; their downfall comes gradually. Thus, though Jie and Zhou abandoned the Way, they still ruled for more than ten years—this is the path of gradual decline to extinction.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
冊曰：「三王之教所祖不同，而皆有失，或謂久而不易者道也，意豈異哉？」臣聞夫樂而不亂復而不厭者謂之道；道者萬世亡弊，弊者道之失也。先王之道必有偏而不起之處，故政有眊而不行，舉其偏者以補其弊而已矣。三王之道所祖不同，非其相反，將以捄溢扶衰，所遭之變然也。故孔子曰：「亡為而治者，其舜虖！」改正朔，易服色，以順天命而已；其餘盡循堯道，何更為哉！故王者有改制之名，亡變道之實。然夏上忠，殷上敬，周上文者，所繼之捄，當用此也。孔子曰：「殷因於夏禮，所損益可知也；周因於殷禮，所損益可知也；其或繼周者，雖百世可知也。」此言百王之用，以此三者矣。夏因於虞，而獨不言所損益者，其道如一而所上同也。道之大原出於天，天不變，道亦不變，是以禹繼舜，舜繼堯，三聖相受而守一道，亡救弊之政也，故不言其所損益也。繇是觀之，繼治世者其道同，繼亂世者其道變。今漢繼大亂之後，若宜少損周之文致，用夏之忠者。 |
| | The decree said: "The teachings of the Three Kings originated differently and all had shortcomings. Some say what remains unchanged over time is called the Way—could this really be different?" I have heard that harmony without disorder, repetition without weariness—is called the Dao (Way); The Way is free from flaws for all generations; a flaw is the loss of the Way. The Way of former kings must have had aspects that were neglected or not fully implemented, hence some policies became unclear and failed to be carried out. They merely selected those partial approaches to remedy the flaws. The teachings of the Three Kings differed in their origins, but this was not because they were opposed to each other. Rather, it was to rescue excess and support decline—responses shaped by the changing circumstances they encountered. Therefore, Confucius said: "He who governs without action is perhaps Shun!" To reform the calendar and change the colors of dress was merely to align with Heaven's mandate; Everything else followed Yao's Way—what more needed to be changed! Therefore, a king may have the name of instituting reforms but not the reality of changing the Dao. Yet the Xia valued loyalty, the Yin valued reverence, and the Zhou valued culture—these were the remedies they inherited and applied appropriately. Confucius said: "The Yin dynasty followed the Xia rites; what was reduced or added can be known; the Zhou followed the Yin rites; what was reduced or augmented is also knowable; and whoever succeeds to the Zhou, even after a hundred generations, can be known." This means that all rulers throughout history have relied on these three principles. The Xia followed the Yu dynasty, yet no mention is made of what was reduced or added—because their Way remained consistent and their values were the same. The great origin of the Dao comes from Heaven. If Heaven does not change, neither does the Dao. Therefore, Yu succeeded Shun, and Shun succeeded Yao; these three sage rulers passed on the same Way without altering it. There was no need for policies to remedy flaws, so there is no mention of what was reduced or added. From this we see that those who succeed a well-governed era follow the same Way, while those who succeed a chaotic age must change their approach. Now that the Han dynasty follows a time of great disorder, it would be appropriate to slightly reduce the elaborate rituals of the Zhou and adopt instead the loyalty of the Xia.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
陛下有明德嘉道，愍世俗之靡薄，悼王道之不昭，故舉賢良方正之士，論誼考問，將欲興仁誼之休德，明帝王之法制，建太平之道也。臣愚不肖，述所聞，誦所學，道師之言，势能勿失耳。若乃論政事之得失，察天下之息秏，此大臣輔佐之職，三公九卿之任，非臣仲舒所能及也。然而臣竊有怪者。夫古之天下亦今之天下，今之天下亦古之天下，共是天下，古 |
| | Your Majesty possesses bright virtue and a noble Way, lamenting the decadence of current customs and mourning the obscurity of royal governance. Therefore, you have summoned virtuous and upright scholars to discuss righteousness and examine their views, intending to promote benevolence and moral excellence, clarify the laws and systems of sage kings, and establish the path to universal peace. I am a foolish and unworthy subject; I merely recount what I have heard, recite what I have learned, and convey my teacher's words, striving not to lose their meaning. As for discussing the gains and losses of governance or examining the prosperity and decline throughout the realm, this is the duty of high ministers who assist in government and the responsibility of the Three Dukes and Nine Ministers—not something I, Zhongshu, am capable of. Yet there is one thing that puzzles me secretly. The ancient world was the same as today's world, and today's world is also the same as the ancient one. This shared world—ancient
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
亦大治，上下和睦，習俗美盛，不令而行，不禁而止，吏亡姦邪，民亡盜賊，囹圄空虛，德潤草木，澤被四海，鳳皇來集，麒麟來游，以古準今，壹何不相逮之遠也！安所繆盭而陵夷若是？意者有所失於古之道與？有所詭於天之理與？試跡之古，返之於天，黨可得見乎。 |
| | was also in great order, with harmony between ruler and people. Customs were refined and flourishing; orders did not need to be given for them to follow, prohibitions did not have to be issued for wrongdoing to cease. Officials had no corruption or wickedness, the people committed no theft or crime. Prisons stood empty. Virtue moistened the grasses and trees, grace extended across the four seas. Phoenixes came in flocks; qilins roamed freely. Measured by ancient standards, how far today falls short! Where has this deviation and decline come from? Could it be that we have lost something of the ancient Way? Or is there some distortion in accordance with Heaven's principles? Let us trace the past, return to Heaven's will—perhaps we may yet see it.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
夫天亦有所分予，予之齒者去其角，傅其翼者兩其足，是所受大者不得取小也。古之所予祿者，不食於力，不動於末，是亦受大者不得取小，與天同意者也。夫已受大，又取小，天不能足，而況人乎！此民之所以囂囂苦不足也。身寵而載高位，家溫而食厚祿，因乘富貴之資力，以與民爭利於下，民安能如之哉！是故眾其奴婢，多其牛羊，廣其田宅，博其產業，畜其積委，務此而亡已，以迫蹴民，民日削月朘，寖以大窮。富者奢侈羨溢，貧者窮急愁苦；窮急愁苦而上不救，則民不樂生；民不樂生，尚不避死，安能避罪！此刑罰之所以蕃而姦邪不可勝者也。故受祿之家，食祿而已，不與民爭業，然後利可均布，而民可家足。此上天之理，而亦太古之道，天子之所宜法以為制，大夫之所當循以為行也。故公儀子相魯，之其家見織帛，怒而出其妻，食於舍而茹葵，慍而拔其葵，曰：「吾已食祿，又奪園夫紅女利虖！」古之賢人君子在列位者皆如是，是故下高其行而從其教，民化其廉而不貪鄙。及至周室之衰，其卿大夫緩於誼而急於利，亡推讓之風而有爭田之訟。故詩人疾而刺之，曰：「節彼南山，惟石巖巖，赫赫師尹，民具爾瞻。」爾好誼，則民鄉仁而俗善；爾好利，則民好邪而俗敗。由是觀之，天子大夫者，下民之所視效，遠方之所四面而內望也。近者視而放之，遠者望而效之，豈可以居賢人之位而為庶人行哉！夫皇皇求財利常恐乏匱者，庶人之意也；皇皇求仁義常恐不能化民者，大夫之意也。《》曰：「」乘車者君子之位也，負擔者小人之事也，此言居君子之位而為庶人之行者，其患禍必至也。若居君子之位，當君子之行，則舍公儀休之相魯，亡可為者矣。 |
| | Heaven also has its divisions and bestowals: those given teeth are deprived of horns, those with wings have two feet—those who receive much cannot also take little. In ancient times, those granted official salaries did not earn their living through labor or engage in commerce; this too was an expression of the principle that those who receive much may not also take little—harmonizing with Heaven's will. If one has already received much, yet seeks more, even Heaven cannot satisfy such greed—and how much less can human beings! lineno This is why the people are restless and constantly complain of insufficiency. When individuals are honored and hold high positions, their families live in comfort and receive generous salaries. They then use the resources of wealth and status to compete with commoners for profit at the grassroots level—how can the people possibly match them! Therefore, they multiply their slaves and servants, increase their cattle and sheep, expand their fields and houses, broaden their assets and properties, amass wealth in storage, and pursue these endlessly to squeeze the people. The people are gradually impoverished day by day, month by month, sinking deeper into destitution. The rich indulge in extravagance and excess, while the poor suffer from poverty and sorrow; when those who are destitute and distressed receive no relief from above, then the people will not find joy in life; if the people do not take pleasure in living, they will not even fear death—how much less will they fear crime! This is why punishments multiply and wickedness becomes uncontainable. Therefore, those who receive official salaries should merely live on their stipends and not compete with the people for livelihood. Only then can benefits be fairly distributed and every household achieve sufficiency. This is the principle of Heaven, as well as the Way of ancient times; it is what an emperor should emulate in establishing systems and what officials should follow in their conduct. Therefore, when Gongyi Zi served as prime minister of Lu and visited his home to see his wife weaving cloth, he became angry and sent her away. When he saw vegetables being grown in the house and ate gourds, he was displeased and uprooted them, saying: "I already receive a salary—am I now also seizing the profits from gardeners and weavers?" Ancient virtuous men and gentlemen in official positions were all like this. Therefore, the people admired their conduct and followed their teachings; the populace was transformed by their integrity into a society free from greed and baseness. But when the Zhou dynasty declined, its high officials and ministers became indifferent to righteousness but eager for profit. The custom of humility and yielding disappeared, replaced by lawsuits over land disputes. Therefore, the poets of old condemned and censured this situation, saying: "That towering southern mountain—its rocks stand firm. O great minister, your dignity is bright; all the people look to you." If you love righteousness, then the people will turn toward benevolence and customs will become virtuous; if you pursue profit, then the people will favor wickedness and customs will decay. From this we see that emperors and officials are role models for the common people, figures toward whom all distant regions look inwardly from every direction. Those nearby observe and emulate them; those far away gaze and follow their example. How then can one occupy the position of a sage yet behave like an ordinary person! To anxiously seek wealth, always fearing poverty and scarcity—is this not the mindset of common people? To earnestly pursue benevolence and righteousness, constantly fearing one cannot transform the people—is this not the concern of officials? The Yijing says: "Carrying valuables while riding a carriage invites bandits." Riding in a carriage symbolizes the position of a gentleman, while carrying burdens is the task of commoners. This saying means that one who occupies the position of a noble but behaves like an ordinary person will surely invite disaster. If one holds the position of a gentleman and acts accordingly, then apart from Gongyi You serving as prime minister in Lu, there is no other example to follow.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
春秋大一統者，天地之常經，古今之通誼也。今師異道，人異論，百家殊方，指意不同，是以上亡以持一統；法制數變，下不知所守。臣愚以為諸不在六藝之科孔子之術者，皆絕其道，勿使並進。邪辟之說滅息，然後統紀可一而法度可明，民知所從矣。 |
| | The Spring and Autumn Annals extol the principle of unity under one rule; this is an eternal constant of Heaven and Earth, a universal principle for all ages. Now, teachers follow different doctrines, people hold differing views; the hundred schools of thought take diverse paths and have conflicting intentions. Therefore, above, there is no way to uphold a unified system; laws and systems change frequently, leaving those below uncertain what they should follow. I humbly believe that all teachings not included within the Six Arts or Confucius's doctrine should be cut off, and allowed no parallel advancement. When heretical doctrines are extinguished, then unity can be achieved in the system of governance and laws clarified; the people will know where to follow.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
對既畢，天子以仲舒為江都相，事易王。易王，帝兄，素驕，好勇。仲舒以禮誼匡正，王敬重焉。久之，王問仲舒曰：「粵王句踐與大夫泄庸、種、蠡謀伐吳，遂滅之。孔子稱殷有三仁，寡人亦以為粵有三仁。桓公決疑於管仲，寡人決疑於君。」仲舒對曰：「臣愚不足以奉大對。聞昔者魯君問柳下惠：『吾欲伐齊，何如？』柳下惠曰：『不可。』歸而有憂色，曰：『吾聞伐國不問仁人，此言何為至於我哉！』徒見問耳，且猶羞之，況設詐以伐吳虖？繇此言之，粵本無一仁。夫仁人者，正其誼不謀其利，明其道不計其功，是以仲尼之門，五尺之童羞稱五伯，為其先詐力而後仁誼也。苟為詐而已，故不足稱於大君子之門也。五伯比於他諸侯為賢，其比三王，猶武夫之與美玉也。」王曰：「善。」 |
| | After presenting his response, the emperor appointed Dong Zhongshu as prime minister of Jiangdu, serving under King Yi. King Yi was the emperor's elder brother and had always been arrogant and fond of bravery. Zhongshu used propriety and righteousness to guide and correct him, and King Yi respected him greatly. 褛 After some time, the king asked Zhongshu: "The Yue ruler Goujian and his ministers Xieyong, Zhong, and Lü plotted to attack Wu and eventually destroyed it. Confucius praised the Yin dynasty as having three benevolent men; I too believe that Yue had three benevolent figures." Duke Huan resolved doubts with Guan Zhong; I resolve doubts with you, my lord." Zhongshu replied: "I am foolish and unworthy to respond to such a great question. I have heard that in the past, Duke Lu asked Liu Xiaohui: 'I wish to attack Qi—what do you think?' Liu Xiaohui replied: 'It is not advisable.' After returning, he looked worried and said: "I have heard that when a ruler plans to attack another state, he does not consult the benevolent. Why then has this question come to me!" He was merely asked and still felt ashamed; how much more so for plotting deceitfully against Wu! By this reasoning, Yue had not a single benevolent man. A truly benevolent person upholds righteousness without seeking profit, clarifies the Way without calculating merit. Therefore, in Confucius's school, even a child of five would be ashamed to mention the Five Hegemons, for they valued deceit and force before righteousness. If one resorts merely to deception, then indeed he is unworthy of being mentioned among great gentlemen. The Five Hegemons were superior to other feudal lords, but compared with the Three Kings, they are like a warrior compared to fine jade." King Yi said: "Well spoken."
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒治國，以春秋災異之變推陰陽所以錯行，故求雨，閉諸陽，縱諸陰，其止雨反是；行之一國，未嘗不得所欲。中廢為中大夫。先是遼東高廟、長陵高園殿災，仲舒居家推說其意，草稿未上，主父偃候仲舒，私見，嫉之，竊其書而奏焉。上召視諸儒，仲舒弟子呂步舒不知其師書，以為大愚。於是下仲舒吏，當死，詔赦之。仲舒遂不敢復言災異。 |
| | Zhongshu governed the state by interpreting calamities and anomalies in the Spring and Autumn Annals to deduce how yin and yang interacted. Therefore, when seeking rain, he would close all yang influences and open yin; for stopping rain, the opposite was done; when applied to a single state, these methods never failed to achieve their desired effects. Later he was demoted and became an official of the Zhongdafa rank. Before this, when a fire broke out at the Gao Miao temple in Liaodong and the Gaoyuan Hall of Changling, Zhongshu while at home analyzed its meaning. He had not yet submitted his draft when Zupuyan visited him secretly, envied him, stole his manuscript, and presented it to the emperor. The emperor summoned other scholars for their opinions; Zhongshu's disciple Lü Bushu, unaware that the text was his teacher's work, considered it extremely foolish. Zhongshu was then handed over to officials for punishment and sentenced to death, but an imperial decree pardoned him. From then on, Zhongshu dared not speak again about calamities or anomalies.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒為人廉直。是時方外攘四夷，公孫弘治春秋不如仲舒，而弘希世用事，位至公卿。仲舒以弘為從諛，弘嫉之。膠西王亦上兄也，尤縱恣，數害吏二千石。弘乃言於上曰：「獨董仲舒可使相膠西王。」膠西王聞仲舒大儒，善待之，仲舒恐久獲罪，病免。凡相兩國，輒事驕王，正身以率下，數上疏諫爭，教令國中，所居而治。及去位歸居，終不問家產業，以修學著書為事。 |
| | Zhongshu was an upright and incorruptible man. At that time, the court was focused on repelling the four foreign tribes; Gongsun Hong studied the Spring and Autumn Annals less thoroughly than Zhongshu did. Yet Hong catered to the times and rose to power, attaining high positions among the dukes and ministers. Zhongshu regarded Hong as a flatterer; Hong resented him for this. Jiaxi Wang was also the emperor's elder brother, even more unrestrained and licentious, frequently harming high-ranking officials. Hong then said to the emperor: "Only Dong Zhongshu is suitable as prime minister for Jiaxi Wang." Jiaxi Wang, having heard of Zhongshu's great learning, treated him well. Yet Zhongshu feared that prolonged service would bring trouble and resigned on grounds of illness. In total, he served as prime minister to two states. Each time, he dealt with arrogant kings by setting a personal example and frequently submitting memorials to advise and remonstrate. He issued instructions within the state, and wherever he was stationed, order prevailed. After retiring from office and returning to private life, he never inquired about his family's property or assets; instead, he devoted himself entirely to study and writing.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒在家，朝廷如有大議，使使者及廷尉張湯就其家而問之，其對皆有明法。自武帝初立，魏其、武安侯為相而隆儒矣。及仲舒對冊，推明孔氏，抑黜百家。立學校之官，州郡舉茂材孝廉，皆自仲舒發之。年老，以壽終於家。家徙茂陵，子及孫皆以學至大官。 |
| | While at home, whenever the court had major deliberations, envoys and Minister of Justice Zhang Tang would visit his residence to consult him. His responses were always grounded in clear principles. Since the beginning of Emperor Wu's reign, when Lord Weiqi and Marquis Wu'an served as prime ministers, Confucianism had already been elevated. And with Zhongshu's response to the imperial edict, he promoted and clarified Kongzi's teachings while suppressing all other schools of thought. The establishment of official schools and the system by which prefectures and commanderies recommended outstanding talents and filial, upright men all originated with Zhongshu. In his old age, he died at home of natural causes. His family later moved to Maoling; his son and grandson all attained high official positions through their learning.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
仲舒所著，皆明經術之意，及上疏條教，凡百二十三篇。而說春秋事得失，聞舉、玉杯、蕃露、清明、竹林之屬，復數十篇，十餘萬言，皆傳於後世。掇其切當世施朝廷者著于篇。 |
| | Zhongshu's writings clarified the meanings of Confucian classics, as well as his memorials and instructions to the emperor—altogether 123 essays. His discussions on the gains and losses of events in the Spring and Autumn Annals, as well as works such as "Wenju," "Yubei," "Fanlu," "Qingming," and "Zhulin" totaled dozens more essays, over 100,000 words, all passed down to later generations. Only those selections most pertinent to the governance of the state and court are included in this text.
|
| | 董仲舒傳: |
贊曰：劉向稱「董仲舒有王佐之材，雖伊呂亡以加，筦晏之屬，伯者之佐，殆不及也。」至向子歆以為「伊呂乃聖人之耦，王者不得則不興。故顏淵死，孔子曰『噫！天喪余。』唯此一人為能當之，自宰我、子贛、子游、子夏不與焉。仲舒遭漢承秦滅學之後，六經離析，下帷發憤，潛心大業，令後學者有所統壹，為群儒首，然考其師友淵源所漸，猶未及乎游夏，而曰筦晏弗及，伊呂不加，過矣。」至向曾孫龔，篤論君子也，以歆之言為然。 |
| | Commentary: Liu Xiang remarked, "Dong Zhongshu possessed the talent to assist a sage ruler; even Yi Yin and Lü Shang could not surpass him. Officials like Guan Zhong and Yan Ying, who assisted hegemonic rulers, likely fell short in comparison." Liu Xiang's son Liu Xin believed, "Yi Yin and Lü Shang were the counterparts of sage men; without them, a sage ruler could not achieve success. Hence when Yan Yuan died, Confucius said, "Alas! Heaven has deprived me." Only this one person was capable of filling his place; Zai Wo, Zi Gan, Zi You, and Zi Xia were not among them. Zhongshu encountered the Han dynasty's period following the Qin dynasty's destruction of learning; the Six Classics were fragmented. He secluded himself in study, filled with determination, and devoted his heart to great scholarship, enabling later scholars to have a unified foundation. As the leader among Confucian scholars, yet when examining the depth of his teachers' and friends' influences on him, he still did not reach the level of You Yu or Xia Yan. To say that Guan Zhong and Yan Ying fell short of him, and that Yi Yin and Lü Shang could surpass him, is an exaggeration." Liu Xiang's great-grandson Liu Gong, a man of firm principles and virtue, accepted Liu Xin's words as correct.
|
