北宋历史

陈桥兵变

与宋以前的朝代不同，宋朝与隋朝一样，是通过军事政变而非武力攻夺建立的。宋朝的开国君主赵匡胤，原任后周一朝殿前都点检（即禁军统领），由于战功卓著，受后周世宗信任，成为其左右手。显德六年（959年）世宗崩，年仅7岁的恭帝继位，赵匡胤有了代立之心，打算效仿后周太祖的「黄旗加身」。显德七年（960年）春节之际，赵匡胤的党羽制造辽国南下的假情报，时后周宰相范质急令赵匡胤率军出城御敌。正月初三，赵匡胤抵达陈桥驿驻扎，当天夜里他酣睡之时，被手下将卒加黄袍于身（黄袍加身），高呼「万岁」，被拥为天子，时年33岁，是为宋太祖。后周廷臣得知时城内空虚，只得承认现实。后周恭帝被迫逊位，「禅让」帝位予赵匡胤。赵匡胤曾为归德节度使，驻于宋州，春秋时期宋州为宋国故地（今河南商丘一带），故定国号为「宋」，定都开封，改元建隆。依据五行相生的顺序，后周的「木」德之后为「火」德，因此宋朝以「火」为五行德运，并取红色为王朝正色。

建隆元年，赵匡胤平定南北李筠、李重进二人的叛军。建隆二年（961年）七月、开宝二年（969年）十月，他听从赵普的意见前后两次「杯酒释兵权」，将手握重兵的将军石守信、王审琦、高怀德、张令铎、赵彦徽、罗彦瓌等和地方武将的军事指挥权予以剥夺，委以虚职，改以文官治军，并将军权与财政大权全部集中到中央。两宋因此得以避免唐时藩镇割据的局面。然而，这项国策也导致地方军事资源减少，使宋朝在对外战争中始终处于下风。

一统中原

政权稳固后，赵匡胤著手扫除五代残馀割据，一统天下。赵匡胤在与赵普雪夜商讨后，决定以先南后北为战略顺序，先取经济富庶的南方六国以巩固国力，再掉头北伐契丹附庸北汉。他先行假虞灭虢之计，攻灭荆南和湖南割据政权，之后又灭亡后蜀、南汉、南唐三国。赵匡胤一心希望恢复唐时北方领土，设立封桩库储蓄钱财布匹，以期日后从辽人手中赎回被石敬瑭出卖的燕云十六州。开宝九年（976年）八月，他再度北伐，却于当年十月十九日突然去世，留下千古谜团，统一大业暂告停止。其弟赵光义即位，是为宋太宗。

宋太宗稳固帝位后，继续统一事业。其后，割据福建漳泉两府的陈洪进，割据吴越钱氏相继归降。太宗遣大将潘美挥师北上围攻北汉都城太原，击退辽援兵，灭亡北汉，终于结束安史之乱后近二百年藩镇割据的局面。太平兴国四年（979年）五月，太宗不顾众臣反对，趁伐取北汉之势，从太原出发展开北伐。北伐初期一度收复河北易州和涿州。太宗志得意满，下令围攻燕京，宋军与辽人在高粱河畔展开激战。太宗亲临战场，结果受伤中箭，乘驴车仓惶撤离，北伐未果。七年后的雍熙三年（986年），太宗遣曹彬、田重进、潘美兵分三路进行北伐。中、西两路进军顺利，而主力东路军贪功冒进，在岐沟关大败而溃。中、西二路被迫撤军。西路军在撤军后接到将已攻占的云、应、朔、寰州四州百姓内迁的命令，副将杨业中伏被俘，绝食三日而死。淳化四年（993年）二月，四川爆发王小波和李顺发动叛乱。乱军所到之处调发富家大姓除生活品外一切财产于众，得到蜀地农民呼应。次年正月，乱军占据成都，建立大蜀政权，太宗得知后派遣两路大军讨之，乱军终于至道二年（996年）彻底失败。几次边陲防线的失利、后方叛乱的爆发遏制了北宋进一步收复疆土，太宗的施政也不得不转为重内虚外。太宗本人附庸风雅，喜好诗赋，政府也因此特别重视文化事业，宋朝重教之风因而展开。太宗喜好书法，善草、隶、行、篆、八分、飞白六种字体，尤其善书飞白体，宋朝的铜钱淳化元宝也是太宗亲自题写的。

宋太宗即位之事甚为蹊跷，是为「烛影斧声」之事，朝野相传赵光义谋杀宋太祖而得位，为确保政权合法性，赵光义抛出其母杜太后遗命之说，即「金匮之盟」。金匮之盟起源于杜太后临终时召赵普入宫记录遗命，称要宋太祖死后先传其弟赵光义（即宋太宗），再传赵光美（后改名为廷美），再传赵德昭（太祖赵匡胤长子），而宋太祖同意。这份遗书藏于金匮中，因此名为金匮之盟。然而，宋太宗却先后逼死宋太祖之子德昭和赵德芳，又贬黜赵廷美到房州，两年后赵廷美死于谪所。太宗长子赵元佐因为同情赵廷美被废，另一子赵元僖暴死，最后襄王赵元侃被立为太子，改名恒。至道三年（997年），宋太宗崩，李皇后和宦官王继恩等企图立赵元佐为帝。时宰相吕端处置得当，赵恒顺利即位，庙号宋真宗。宋朝始步入安稳守成时期。

北御辽夏

宋真宗奉行太宗末年的黄老政治，无所作为，避免介入军事。自雍熙北伐后，辽国就经常在宋辽交界抢劫杀掠，到景德元年（1004年）终于演变成大规模侵宋战争。宰相寇准力主抗战，结果真宗亲征，宋军士气大振，与辽军相持在澶州城下，辽军求和。经过几番交涉，两国议和成功。和约主要内容是：宋每年给辽绢廿万匹，银十万两，双方为兄弟之国。史称该和约为「澶渊之盟」。历代观点以批评者为主，认为真宗并无收回燕云十六州，且军事胜利者却要年年向战败者赎巨款买和平，甚为屈辱。惟另一种分析认为，击退南侵本身已是胜利，宋时经济发达合约负担并非巨大，难以说成城下之盟，辽朝此后数十年不敢再南侵，宋朝亦没有割地，不像南宋时割地求和的局面。

之后，寇准渐渐失宠，终被罢相。真宗开始信用佞臣王钦若。王钦若长于逢迎，深知真宗希望天下呈现一派祥和的气象，于是与另外一位宰相王旦联手，于各地制造「祥瑞」之象，极力鼓吹真宗封禅，深得真宗之意。真宗在大中祥符元年（1008年）一年内先后三次封禅，严重损耗民力。真宗与皇后刘氏无子，真宗偶尔一次临幸刘氏侍女李氏，结果李氏于大中祥符三年（1010年）产下一子赵受益，就是后来的仁宗。而后，刘氏与另一名嫔妃杨氏共同抚养这名孩子。天禧二年（1018年）中秋，真宗正式封赵受益为太子，改名赵祯。乾兴元年（1022年）二月廿日，真宗驾崩。太子赵祯即位，刘皇后被尊为皇太后，在仁宗成年前代理军国大事。从此开始刘太后十一年的垂帘听政时代。仁宗执政早期一直处在刘氏的阴影之下，直到刘氏死后他才得以施展抱负 ( 后人京戏以此取材编为「狸猫换太子」、「打龙袍」)。

夏景宗于大庆三年（1038年）称帝后，宋夏之间爆发持续数年的战争，宋军在三川口、好水川、定川寨等战役中屡次失败。宋夏战争主要经历五个时期，即宋仁宗－夏景宗时期，宋英宗－夏毅宗时期，宋神宗－夏惠宗时期，宋哲宗－夏崇宗时期，宋徽宗－夏崇宗时期。宋军的失利使辽国趁机施压，导致重熙增币的发生。宋夏战争不利后，仁宗罢免宰相吕夷简，任用范仲淹、富弼、韩琦等名臣推行庆历新政，任用包拯管理京城和御史台 ( 此时期即为包青天戏剧题材的主要背景 )，取得良好效果。在边疆上，任用大将狄青，先后弭平南蛮壮族侬智高叛乱和西夏的挑衅。然而一些守旧派人物指称这些改革派官吏拉帮结夥，互相吹捧，是为朋党。仁宗一向厌恶廷臣结党营私，这些新政官员后来多被贬为地方官，短暂的庆历新政就此结束。

仁宗死后，英宗赵曙即位。他是真宗之弟商王赵元份之孙。嘉佑七年（1062年）被立为皇太子。英宗多病，最初朝政由曹太后掌管。治平元年（1064年）五月以后英宗始才亲政。英宗亲政仅半个月就爆发濮议，这场争论长达十八个月。起因是宰相韩琦提请讨论英宗生父名分的问题，朝中因此分成两派，一派认为应称英宗生父濮王为皇伯，另一派认为该称皇考。最终曹太后下旨称皇考，才平息这场争论。总体来说，英宗是一位有为的君主。他继续任用前朝能臣，也大胆挖掘新人。英宗非常重视书籍的编修，《资治通鉴》便是英宗发起的。

变法党争

英宗死后，其长子神宗赵顼即位。神宗在位期间，宋初制订的制度已产生诸多流弊，民生出现倒退，北方辽与西夏又虎视眈眈。因此，神宗锐意改革。神宗启用著名改革派大臣王安石推行新法，任其为参知政事。王安石推行的新法包括均输、青苗、免役、市易、保甲、保马、方田均税等。但是，新法的实行遭到以司马光为首的保守派的强烈反弹。加之天灾不断，神宗实行新法的决心有所动摇。熙宁七年（1074年），北方大旱，官员郑侠向神宗呈上流民图一幅，图中景象惨不忍睹，神宗受到极大震撼。次日，神宗就下令暂罢青苗、方田、免役等十八项新法。尽管这些法令不久后被恢复，但神宗与王安石之间开始不信任。熙宁七年四月，王安石首次被罢相，出知江宁府。后来变法派中的官员吕惠卿肆意妄为，王安石因此复职回京，但依然受到保守派的坚决阻挠。熙宁九年（1076年）六月，王安石长子，也是王安石主持新法的主要助手王雱去世，王安石借机坚决求退，神宗于十月再罢相位，此后王安石便不问世事。

后人对熙宁新法的看法非常两极，但无庸质疑的是，新法的推行效果远不如预期。新法的实行虽然大大增加国家的财政收入和耕地面积，但是却严重增加平民负担。熙宁新法在军事上的改革停留在头痛医头，脚痛医脚，军队战斗力无明显改善。加上王安石立意求新，把需要很长时间才能「消化」的十馀项改革措施于数年内全盘推行，使变法陷入欲速不达的困境。且新法实施后期，条文与执行效果偏差越来越大，一些措施从利民变成扰民。新法执行过程中用人不当也是最后失去民心的原因，变法派如吕惠卿、曾布、李定和蔡京等都是品性饱受争议之人，以致被视作小人。对于历史上这次改革，黄仁宇曾评论道：「早我们之前九百年，中国即企图以金融管制的办法操纵国事，其范围与深度不曾在世界里其他地方提出。但现代金融是一种无所不至的全能性组织力量，它之统治所及概要全部包含，又要不容与它类似的其他因素分庭抗礼。」。

王安石被罢后，神宗继续改革事业，号为「元丰改制」。元丰改制虽与熙宁变法并称为「熙丰新法」，但力度无法同熙宁变法相提并论。新法施行数年，宋朝国力渐强，神宗逐步将重点转移到外患上，熙宁年间西征吐蕃、西夏取得了数次军事胜利，元丰改制之后神宗决心一举消灭西夏，以绝外患。熙宁五年（1072年）五月，神宗开始西征，取得大捷，大大鼓舞神宗的信心。9年后的元丰四年（1081年）四月，西夏发生政变，神宗藉此再征西夏，不想遭遇惨败，神宗因此一病不起。元丰八年（1085年）正月初，神宗立六子赵佣为太子。神宗颁布的新法虽然短暂地被其母高太后废，但不久又陆续恢复，其中不少沿用到南宋时期。

神宗崩后，太后高氏垂帘听政，对刚即位的哲宗赵煦严加钳制。高太后信用以司马光为首的保守派，冷落哲宗，结果引发严重的新旧党争，此阶段以旧党胜利，新法几乎尽废告终，是为元佑更化。更化期间，以司马光为首的旧党核心不仅对新党进行远超前代报复性打击（首开贬官岭南之例，而非往日闲置西京），甚至连诸如苏轼这类旧党中的新法同情者也都排挤出朝廷。然而元佑年间，朝廷在政治上并没有太大建树，反而重新陷入新法前边事败坏财政紧张的状况。哲宗亲政后，贬斥旧党，信用新党，恢复熙丰新法，史称「绍圣绍述」，「绍述」意为继承，「绍圣」的年号更表明了宋哲宗「绍述先圣」，亦即继承宋神宗变法事业的意图。尽管与王安石主持的熙宁新法相比，绍述之法更著重于朝廷聚敛而非厚养民生，但因为旧党被得势的新党报复性地彻底打击，一些旧党所反对的养民之法得以确实执行，民生也稍有恢复。更重要的是，绍述扭转了元佑以来财政边事败坏的状况，宋廷财政收入重新丰裕，并因此取得了对西夏多次军事胜利，更在元符年间尽取横山，对西夏形成了彻底的战略优势。

靖康之祸

元符三年（1100年），年仅23岁的哲宗驾崩，并没有留下子嗣，故死后由弟弟赵佶即位，是为宋徽宗。徽宗即位第一年由向太后垂帘听政，建中靖国元年（1101年），向太后去世，徽宗亲政。徽宗自幼爱好笔墨、丹青、骑马等，好享乐，对朝政毫无兴趣，曾被章敦批评「端王轻佻，不可以君天下」。即位后徽宗愈加生活奢侈迷醉，喜逛青楼，徽宗还崇信道教，自封为教主道君皇帝，听信道士之言大兴土木，在开封东北角修万岁山，后名为艮岳，方圆十馀里，其中芙蓉池、慈溪等胜地，亭台楼阁、飞禽走兽应有尽有。徽宗在两浙路苏杭地区设立应奉局与造作局，专在南方搜集奇花异石，是为花石纲，引得民怨沸腾。

徽宗既疏于理政，而又爱好佞言逢迎，尽管属意易于聚财的新法，但即位之初便将当初直言反对其即位的绍述主持者章敦逐出朝廷，而政务都交给以蔡京为首的奸佞廷臣，时称六贼。蔡京以恢复新法为名大兴党禁，排斥异己。蔡京当政次日，就下达禁止元佑法的诏书，即谓元佑奸党案，正直的大臣，即便并非旧党拥趸，也全被排出政治中心，甚至于当年新党的干将，诸如曾布、吕惠卿等也皆逐于外州。由于徽宗的穷奢极欲和蔡京的曲意逢迎，厚养民生的熙宁新法演变为盘剥黎民的崇宁新法，各类苛捐杂税，以及蔡京肆意发行「当十大钱」所造成的货币贬值与币制混乱，均造成民众极为沉重的负担。尽管徽宗朝也有诸如《皇宋政典》、《政和五礼新仪》的编撰以及崇宁教育改革等文化教育以及法律制度上的善政，但仍然无法弥补经济民生层面上已经形成的严重破坏，最终引发北宋末年的诸多民变。重和元年（1118年），黄河泛滥，河北、京东四路遭受水灾，流民失所、无可谋生，淮南宋江发动民变，起义军一度占居京东、淮南、河北数县。两年后的宣和二年（1120年），宋江等三十六名起义首领接受朝廷招安，起义结束。同年十月初九（11月1日），方腊在睦州青溪（今浙江淳安西北）举义，各地农民闻风响应，不久发展至万人。三个月内，义军占领两浙六州五十馀县城。次年正月，徽宗派童贯南下征讨，屡败义军，终于七月生擒方腊。

由于徽宗本人好大喜功，加之对西夏的战事一路凯歌高奏，平靖西寇似乎已近在咫尺，所以当他看到辽朝被金朝进攻后，便于重和元年（1118年）春，派遣使节马政自登州渡海至金。双方商议共同攻辽，北宋负责攻辽南京西京二道之域（即燕云十六州之域）；灭辽后，燕云之地归宋，过去宋给辽的岁币改缴金国。此即海上之盟。然而与势如破竹的攻辽金军相比，宋军在攻辽过程中，屡遭败绩，甚至于攻略幽州时虽一度攻入燕京（辽国称南京，今北京市）内，却因志得意满而再遭辽国残兵痛击而溃退出城，最终还得藉助金兵才得破城。虽然金太祖在占领幽州十六州中的幽州等七州后如约交割给宋，但目睹宋军大都腐败残弱的金兵不再视宋为不可战胜的天朝上国，便乘胜掠去燕京人口北返，更生南下攻宋之意。

宣和七年（1125年），金军以平州知州张觉背金投宋为由，分东、西两路南下攻宋。宋朝杀张觉求和，却导致留守幽州的原辽将郭药师离心。尽管西路军因面对善战的河东禁军而受滞于太原不得南下，但面对荒废兵事的河北禁军，东路金军以摧枯拉朽之势迅速逼近东京城，期间郭药师更献幽州投降，由幽云降卒新组建成的义胜军也降金。徽宗大惊失色，后依李纲建议传位其子钦宗赵桓，自称太上皇，逃到江南。钦宗在啼哭中登上皇位，在战和之间举棋不定，在万般无奈的情况下启用李纲保卫东京。李纲暂时抵挡金军。金军退兵后，钦宗软硬兼施将太上皇迎回东京软禁，诛杀以蔡京、童贯为首的奸臣「六贼」。金人以为宋朝要中兴，一度想就此作罢，但郭药师说宋朝外强中乾。

金军于靖康元年（1126年）二次南下。休战之间仍不曾解围的太原终因内外交困，坚守近一年后于该年九月陷落，而京畿禁军主力却又在朝廷政争的掣肘下以添油战术援晋，结果白白消耗并造成名将种师中阵亡、姚古、种师道兵败，至此开封已彻底暴露在金军兵锋之下，而诸路勤王兵马也难以急援京师。开封城被金军围困期间，城内疫病流行，饿死病死者不在少数。闰十一月丙辰日（1127年1月9日），尽管开封城实际仍能稍守，但慌张失措的钦宗及宰相何栗、枢密使孙傅竟迷信郭京「六甲神兵」的愚蠢把戏，致使完颜宗望、完颜宗翰与诸将破外城，要挟钦宗亲赴金营求和及勒索金银乃至劫持钦宗，宋将范琼也变节，将太上皇及皇族男女都押赴金营。靖康二年二月六日（1127年3月20日），金人以抵债为名，掳妃嫔公主贵戚及宗妇、族妇、歌女等数千人到金国五国城（今黑龙江哈尔滨依兰县），废徽、钦二帝，贬为庶人，史称靖康之变。被掳走的女眷或被金兵轮流蹂躏致死，或被打入洗衣院（金国官妓院）终身为妓，或被金人霸占为妾。金人在五国城侮辱徽钦二帝，封徽宗为「昏德公」，钦宗为「重昏侯」。最后二人皆客死异乡。金朝攻灭北宋后，先后扶持张邦昌、刘豫，建立「大楚」和「大齐」两个傀儡政权。

南宋历史

建炎南渡

金朝在靖康之难中俘虏众多的宋朝宗室，康王赵构得以幸免。靖康二年（1127年），赵构从今天的河北南下到陪都南京应天府（今河南商丘）即位为南宋高宗，改元建炎。因宋朝的五行德运为「火」，改元「建炎」意味著重建王朝的火德。之后高宗一路南行，过淮河渡长江，建炎三年改江宁府为建康府（今南京市）作为行都，称「东都」。绍兴元年（1131年）升杭州为临安府（今杭州市）作为「行在」，绍兴八年正式定临安为行都，建康改为留都。金朝也一路南扑，直逼临安，高宗无路可逃，只得入海逃避，在温州沿海漂泊四个月之久。由于南方天候潮湿河道纵横，加上南宋军民的英勇抗战，金主帅完颜兀术撤兵北返，在北撤镇江时，被宋将韩世忠截断退路，被逼入黄天荡。宋军以八千兵力围困金兵十万之众，竟相持四十八日，最后金军用火攻才打开缺口，得以北撤，途中金军又在建康被岳飞打败，从此不敢渡江。在南宋「中兴四将」中，最著名者当推岳飞。通过北伐，南宋夺回金扶植的伪齐政权之部分土地。

偏安江南

宋高宗在苗刘之变后，为了防范及避免将领因北伐成功提升威望威胁其地位，决定一心议和，只希望偏安江南的统治。宋金在1138年首次议和，南宋一度收回河南与陕西。绍兴十年（1140年）五月，金人撕毁和议，快速攻下河南与陕西，并往南深入。由于宋朝军民抗战英勇，金军在川陕、两淮的进攻皆告失败。七月，金将兀术南攻不利，转攻郾城，被岳飞打败，转攻颖昌，又为岳飞败。岳家军乘胜追击，一直打到距开封仅四十五里的朱仙镇，兀术出逃开封，北方各地义军纷纷响应，以至于金人南望叹「撼山易，撼岳家军难」。就在此时，高宗连下十二道金牌催促岳飞班师。

绍兴十一年（1141年）十一月，宋与金于书面达成《绍兴和议》，两国以淮水—大散关为界。宋割让被岳飞收复的唐州、邓州以及商州、秦州的大半，每年向金进贡银廿五万两，绢廿五万匹。十二月末除夕夜（1142年1月27日），宋高宗以「莫须有」的罪名杀岳飞与其子岳云、部将张宪于临安（今杭州）。《绍兴和议》达成后，宋高宗生父徽宗的灵柩和生母韦氏本人被送回南宋，宋钦宗则因为金人反悔而未能如约南归。

高宗任用秦桧为相。秦桧在靖康年间曾主张抗金，后被金人掠去。建炎四年（1130年）十月，秦桧南返，由于他奉行投降主和政策，与高宗之意甚合。秦桧归朝仅三月就成为副宰相，八月后又成为右丞相。由于秦桧大力提倡的「南自南，北自北」，当时尚与高宗相左，一年后被高宗罢免。绍兴八年（1138年）五月，高宗复任秦桧为右丞相。秦桧迫害与自己意见不同的官员，联姻外戚，结交内臣。高宗对于秦桧的行为采取默许，但同时牵制其权力。秦桧后来权势巨大，引起高宗警觉。高宗亲下命令，使秦桧的孙儿失去状元。秦桧的权势日渐下降。绍兴廿五年（1155年），秦桧病重，策划让其子接替相位，被高宗否决，不久后一命呜呼。秦桧死后，高宗一方面打击其馀党，一方面重用主和派官员，继续主导政事。

高宗在南渡后失去生育能力，因此他从太祖的两名后裔赵瑗和赵璩中选择继承人。最后赵瑗胜出。绍兴卅二年（1162年），赵瑗被立为太子，并改名赵昚。绍兴卅一年（1161年），金帝海陵王完颜亮南侵，被虞允文在采石之战中击退。此时金国发生内乱，金帝海陵王被杀，金军北返。议和失败让高宗萌生退意。六月，五十六岁的高宗下诏退位，太子赵昚即位，是为孝宗。自称太上皇，居德寿宫。淳熙十四年（1187年）十月八日，高宗逝世。

孝宗即位后，改革朝政，力图恢复，宋朝进入相对复兴时期，孝宗平反岳飞，打击秦桧馀党，起用主战派人士，锐意收复中原。隆兴元年（1163年）四月，孝宗令李显忠、邵宏渊等出兵北伐。北伐一度胜利，但由于各路将领不和加之轻敌，历时仅廿日就告失败。之后，孝宗不得已与金和谈，隆兴二年（1164年）十二月，宋、金正式签定隆兴和议。内政上，孝宗积极整顿吏治，裁汰冗官，惩治贪污，加强集权，重视农业生产。总体说来，宋朝的内政形势有所改观。高宗死后，孝宗对政治日益冷淡，最后在守孝三年后，决定让位于其子赵敦，也就是光宗。光宗即位不久就患精神疾病，对孝宗十分不敬。绍熙五年（1194年）七月，孝宗去世。

光宗性好猜忌，非常不信任孝宗朝的大臣，因此即位两年后日渐疯癫。绍熙五年七月孝宗病逝后，光宗不服丧。临安城内混乱不堪，局势不稳。宗室赵汝愚和赵彦逾秘密策划另立新君。最后，太皇太后下诏，光宗被奉为太上皇。其子赵扩即位，是为宁宗，改元庆元。六年后，光宗去世。宁宗一朝被韩侂胄和史弥远两名权臣操控。

内忧外患

宁宗初期，赵汝愚任宰相。赵汝愚本人政治操守良好。但由于宋朝皇室任职宰相无先例不合礼，加上韩侂胄煽风点火，最后被罢去相位。南宋民间依然十分怀念他，临安城门上每天都有悼念的诗文。韩侂胄为了彻底清除赵汝愚的影响，假借学术之名，制造庆元党禁，将理学称为「伪学」。当时朝中信仰理学的大臣大多反对韩侂胄，韩侂胄藉此将这批士大夫全部赶出朝廷。庆元六年（1200年）间，韩侂胄见理学已不成威胁，解除了党禁。党禁不得人心，为了笼络士人，韩侂胄又借北伐的名义蛊惑人心。开禧二年（1206年），韩侂胄贸然进行开禧北伐，很快就遭到失败。北伐的失败让韩侂胄成为众矢之的，政敌史弥远藉此与主和派和韩的反对派结成联盟，金人又以杀韩侂胄作为和谈条件之一。开禧三年（1207年）十一月三日，史弥远等伪造密旨，将韩侂胄杀死。从此之后开始史弥远专政时期。史弥远与杨皇后勾结，大权独揽。

宁宗本有八子，但都夭折了，于是立沂王的儿子赵竑为太子。赵竑对史弥远专政非常不满，因此史弥远废赵竑太子，改立赵昀为皇位继承人。嘉定十七年（1224年）闰八月三日，宁宗去世，赵昀即位，是为理宗。理宗即位，史弥远继续专政，赵昀也就奉行韬晦之策。绍定六年（1233年）十月，史弥远去世，理宗终于摆脱史弥远，次年改元端平，实施一系列改革，史称「端平更化」。理宗将史弥远旧党尽数罢斥，朝政一度得到改观。其时，金朝在蒙古帝国步步紧逼下面临亡国，朝中的对外政策也分成两派，一派认为应该联蒙抗金；另一派以唇亡齿寒的道理和海上之盟的教训，援金抗蒙，使金成为宋的藩屏。

绍定五年（1232年）十二月，蒙古遣使商议宋蒙合作夹击金朝，由于金国主力已在「三峰山之战」被蒙古军歼灭，呈亡国之态，宋廷当朝大臣大多赞同联蒙灭金，只有赵范反对。理宗答应蒙古的要求，蒙古也允诺灭金之后将河南还给宋朝。但是蒙宋口头协定没有留下书面文件，埋下后患。金哀宗得知，也派使节来宋陈述利害，希望联合抗蒙，被理宗拒绝。理宗任命史嵩之主管灭金事宜。绍定六年（1233年），宋军攻克邓州。端平元年（1234年）五月，蔡州被克，金哀宗自缢，金朝灭亡。宋将孟珙将金哀宗遗骨带回临安。理宗将金哀宗遗骨供奉于太庙，以告慰徽、钦二宗在天之灵。

抵御蒙军

金朝灭亡后，蒙军北撤，河南空虚，理宗意图据关（潼关）、守河（黄河），收复三京（东京开封、西京洛阳、南京归德），光复中原。端平元年（1234年）五月，理宗任命赵葵为主帅，全子才为先锋，下诏出兵河南。六月十二日，全子才收复南京。七月五日，宋军进驻开封。但由于粮草不济，贻误战机，进攻洛阳时被蒙军伏击，损失惨重。各路宋军全线败退。「端平入洛」宣告失败，宋于此役损失惨重，大量精兵与物资付诸流水，也为之后蒙古侵宋提供藉口。「端平入洛」之后，理宗怠于政事，沉迷于声色犬马，朝政大坏。

端平二年（1235年），三路蒙军分别大举入侵川陕四路，荆湖北路和淮南西路，都被击退。蒙军并不甘心，于次年九月和第三年再次兵分三路大举南侵，前锋接近长江北岸。由于宋军奋勇作战，打败蒙军，再一次挫败蒙军占领川陕四路从而渡江南下的企图。而后，南宋军民又在抗蒙将领曹友闻、王坚、孟珙、孟瑛、余玠、张钰等人的指挥下，多次击败蒙军，使其不得不绕道而行。开庆元年（1259年），蒙古汗蒙哥在征战合州时受宋军流矢所伤死于军中。其弟忽必烈正于鄂州与宋军交战，听到蒙哥死讯，又得知幼弟阿里不哥准备在和林称汗，准备撤军以争大汗之位，宋臣贾似道藉机与忽必烈议和，以保太平。忽必烈返回北方自立为汗。

理宗两子早夭，因此择其弟赵与芮之子赵禥为皇储。由于其母曾在怀孕期间服过堕胎草药，因此赵禥先天不足。景定元年（1260年）六月，理宗下诏立赵禥为太子。景定五年（1264年）十二月廿六日，理宗去世，赵禥即位，是为度宗。赵禥即位后不理朝政，右丞相贾似道因此擅权。贾似道结党营私，排斥异己，终日在葛岭别墅中与妻妾玩乐，由于他好斗蟋蟀，时人称他为「蟋蟀宰相」。他禁止让度宗了解前线战事。襄阳、樊城被围三年后，度宗才得知此事。咸淳七年（1271年），忽必烈在大都（今北京市）建国，号为「大元」，建立元朝。咸淳十年七月九日（1274年8月12日），度宗去世，终年35岁。

崖山亡国

宋度宗去世后，其长子赵㬎即位。当时，宋朝已进入瘫痪状态。德佑元年（1275年）春，元军攻克军事重镇安庆和池州，威逼建康，长江防线崩溃。朝野大震，各界都冀望贾似道能出征，结果宋军大败，贾似道被贬，在赴任途中被监押官郑虎臣所杀。德佑元年十一月廿日，常州沦陷，元军遂屠城。不久平江也告沦陷，临安人心惶惶。德佑二年（1276年）二月初五，临安城举行受降仪式，赵㬎退位，南宋亡。但赵㬎之兄赵昰和弟赵昺被大臣保护逃出临安。

赵昰在福州即位，是为端宗，改元景炎（1276年）。但是，小朝廷内部斗争不断，景炎元年十一月，元军逼近福州，十一月十五日，朝臣陈宜中、张世杰护送赵昰和赵昺乘船南逃，从此小朝廷只能海上行朝。景炎三年（1278年）春，小朝廷抵达雷州。四月十五日，年仅十一岁的赵昰去世。陆秀夫与众臣拥戴赵昺为帝，改元祥兴（1278年）。在元军猛攻下，雷州失守，小朝廷迁往崖山。元军将领张弘范领军紧追在后，对崖山发动总攻，宋军无力战斗，全线溃败，史称崖山海战，据估计，宋军在此役中阵亡十万，海上都是尸体。身在元营的文天祥亲自目睹惨状，作诗云：「羯来南海上，人死乱如麻。腥浪拍心碎，飙风吹鬓华。」赵昺随陆秀夫及赵宋皇族八百馀人集体跳海自尽，宋朝到此彻底灭亡。张弘范在石壁上刻「镇国大将军张弘范灭宋于此」十二字而还。

疆域与行政区划

960年，后周殿前都点检赵匡胤发动兵变取代后周，建立宋朝，依旧建都于开封。太平兴国四年，北宋攻灭北汉，结束自安史之乱和黄巢之乱以来的藩镇割据局面。然而，宋朝与辽国的疆界已经退至今山西的河曲、岢岚、原平、代县、繁峙和河北的阜平、满城、容城、霸州及天津市区一线。在宋辽间的战争中，辽军曾多次南下，最远到达澶州（治所在今河南濮阳市）；宋军也曾推进到此线以北。由于没有燕云十六州以北的冀北山地作屏障，朝廷只能在边界上广植柳树作为界线。在与西夏的作战方面，党项人、定难军节度使李继捧虽一度向宋朝投降，并献出银州、夏州、绥州、宥州四州之地，但他的族弟李继迁在三年后就占据银州，以后又不断进攻夏、灵、麟等州，一直没有真正臣服宋朝的统治。

景佑元年，李继迁之孙李元昊正式建夏国，史称西夏。此后，宋朝的西北界大致稳定在今甘肃兰州、靖远，宁夏同心及陕西北部的白乾山一线。宋神宗力图开扩疆土，取得绥、熙、河、洮、岷、兰等州。哲宗时又进一步取得湟水流域，洮河上游与贵德一带的土地。宣和三年西安州、怀德军又被西夏所取。在西北，是从吐蕃夺取唐朝后期以来的失地。

熙宁四年，宋廷任命王韶为新置的洮河安抚使，开始对河湟一带用兵。最后收复今乌峭岭以南的湟水流域、大夏河流域、洮河流域。宋朝的进展是恢复对大理以外西南地区的控制。经过多次的军事征伐和「招抚」，今四川南部、湖北西南、湖南西部、贵州东北和广西西部重新归入版图，设置正式州县或羁縻州。其中最著名的一次是熙宁五年，宋神宗派章敦开「梅山蛮」。梅山即今湖南中部新化、安化一带，是瑶族聚居地区，从此设县建城，编户籍，定赋税，与汉族地区同样设置正式行政区。宣和四年，为北宋疆域极盛时期，共拥有二十六路、二百五十四州、三十府、五十五军、四监。

靖康元年（1126年），金军攻占开封，次年宋徽宗和宋钦宗二帝被掳北迁，北宋覆灭。1127年，赵构在南京（今河南商丘南）即位，是为宋高宗，史称南宋。在金兵的进逼下，高宗不断南迁，1129年升杭州为临安府，建为行在所（临时首都）。建炎南渡之后，南宋领土仅限于秦岭淮河以南、岷山以东地区，北界却因金人的入侵而大大南移。南宋初，金兵一度进到今湖南、江西和浙江三省的中部。

1138年后，宋金双方确定以当时的黄河为界。但次年金人毁约，出兵取河南、陕西。绍兴十一年（金皇统元年），宋金达成绍兴和议，定以淮河为界。第二年又将西部界线调整至大散关（今陕西宝鸡西南）及今秦岭以南。以后虽有局部变动，基本稳定在这条界线。

南宋的南部和西南边界并没有什么变化，宋朝与大理交界处设立黎、叙、泸、黔、邕等州。至宋徽宗时期，版图最为辽阔，其南至思陵州（今广西宁明）、东至登州（今山东蓬莱）、北至代州（今山西代县）、西及西宁州（今青海西宁）。据赵汝适于1226年所写的《诸蕃志》一书记载，当时澎湖列岛已为福建路的晋江县所占，但无涉及台湾岛。

宋朝的地方政府机构实行路、州（府、军、监）、县虚三实二级制。宋朝虽沿袭唐制，在州县两级保留稳定的区划建制，但又汲取唐朝藩镇割据的教训，一级行政区划从固定的方镇（道），改为按需要功能随时变更的「路」。宋立国之初，承唐之制，分天下为十道。开宝八年，改道为路，各置转运使以司财赋转运，又别置他使分掌刑法军事，诸使路名虽同，但辖区不一定相同。至道三年始定为十五路转运司路，包括京东、京西、河北、河东、陕西、淮南、江南、荆湖南、荆湖北、两浙、福建、西川、峡、广南东、广南西十五路。

咸平四年（1001年）分西川为利州、益州二路，分峡路为夔州、梓州二路。天禧四年（1020年）分江南路为东、西二路。熙宁五年（1072年）分京西路为南北二路，分淮南路为东西二路，分陕西为永兴军、秦凤二路。之后又将河北路分为东西二路，分京东为东、西二路。崇宁五年（1106年）又将开封府升为京畿路。

宣和四年（1122年）宋金盟约，约定灭辽后宋得燕山府路和云中府路，但宣和七年正式置路后不足一年即逢靖康之变，旋即丢失。建炎南渡后，宋朝设立两浙东、两浙西、江南东、江南西、淮南东、淮南西、荆湖南、荆湖北、京西南、成都府、潼川府、夔州、利州、福建、广南东、广南西十六路。宋朝的行政区划设置与地方政治制度可谓重内轻外，中央高度集权。虽然避免藩镇割据的局面，但导致地方防务贫弱，也让终宋一代外患不止。

北宋时期，各路设有安抚司、转运司、提点刑狱司、提举常平司，总称监司，号称「外台」，具有监察职能，权任颇重。路的划分上，则惯常以转运司路为基准进行户口财赋统计，在其基础上按行政军事需要再划分其馀诸司路，所谓「至道十五路」「天禧十八路」「宣和廿六路」皆指转运司路。

安抚司俗称「帅司」，设安抚使一人，俗称「帅臣」，职权有「掌一路兵民之事。皆帅其属而听其狱讼，颁其禁令，定其赏罚，稽其钱谷、甲械出纳之名籍而行以法」，以知州事兼充，太中大夫以上者称安抚使，位卑者称「主管某路安抚司公事」。真宗景德年间始设于河北、河东路。北宋时，边事繁重之河北、河东、陕西等路，少数民族聚居的荆湖北、广南东西等路，以及副翼京畿的京东京西等路安抚使较为常设，其中，河北路分内置大名、高阳关、真定、定州四路帅司，陕西路分（即永兴军路秦凤路两路转运司所辖）内更置京兆、鄜延、环庆、秦凤、泾原、熙河六路帅司，河东路虽止置一路帅司，但与他路帅司仅辖一路兵马钤辖不同，河东帅司下分并代、泽潞、岚石、麟府四路兵马。南宋时期，十六转运司路皆设安抚使，但凡任者二品以上，称安抚大使。

转运司俗称「漕司」，主管所领州县的水陆转运和财政税收，兼管司法和民政等，每路设转运使一人，俗称「漕臣」，以朝官以上并知州以上官员者充任，如以两省五品以上充任或掌管两路以上者称「都转运使」，资历浅者称「权转运使」、「权发遣转运使」。

提点刑狱司俗称「宪司」，主管一路的司法，兼管财政等，设提点刑狱公事一人，简称「提点刑狱」或「提刑」，一般情况下一漕司路范围内设一宪司，但刑事繁重之路常划分为两宪司路。宋神宗时，增设提举常平司，俗称「仓司」，主管本路常平、义仓、免役、市易、坊场、河渡、水利之事，一般情况下一漕司路范围内设一仓司，但仓事繁重之路常划分为两仓司路，南宋时与提举茶盐司合并，增管茶盐。四监司以外，又设提举坑冶、茶马、市舶等司处理专务。

路以下设州、府、军、监，其中州府之设为唐朝旧制，军监之设为唐末五代发展而来的新型政区。州是宋代最主要的中层政区，其按户口多少分为雄、望、紧、上、中、中下、下共七等，又按地位高低划为都督州、节度州、观察州、防御州、团练州和刺史州（军事州）五等，都督州、节度州除州名外另有军额。宋初革五代之弊，召诸镇节帅与其支郡牧守上京，赐宅邸留之，至是自节度州以下五等州之牧守官成为高等武官的转迁之阶，而都督州之都督唯授亲王遥领。而各州郡的实际管理，由朝廷命京朝臣出守，每州设知州事一人，号「知某州军州事」，军谓兵，州谓民，若所知州为都督州，则号「知某州军府事」。凡二品以上带中书、枢密院、宣徽院使职事者任州长官称「判某州军州（府）事」，资浅者任州长官称「权知某州军州（府）事」或「权发遣某州军州（府）事」。除知州事外，另设「通判某州军州（府）事」为副贰，简称「通判」，大州设两三人，小州一人，而原本的州郡副贰，如节度副使、团练副使、州长史、州司马等，沦为被贬文臣所带恶衔。

府分两类，北宋四京与南宋临安府这类首都或陪都政区称「京府」，其他为「次府」，次府实际上只是是等级较高的州，且大部分次府均为皇帝登基前所领亲王封邑的州，皇帝登基后升格为次府。京府中，东京开封府的令制长官牧、尹不常置，以皇太子和亲王兼，皆为虚衔，实际长官以侍制（从四品）或少卿（从六品）以上文臣充任，称「权知开封府事」，因系京师民事繁重故谓「权知」，军事总决于枢府三衙故不知军事；南宋时期，以皇太子兼临安府尹，俗称「判临安府」；实际长官号「知临安军府事」，以侍从官、卿监官以上文臣充。次府建制与一般州郡相似，名义长官为武官、宗室转迁之阶，实际长官设知府事一人，称「知某府军府事」，简称「知府」，以文臣朝官以上、武臣刺史以上者充任，北宋前期官至尚书左、右仆射及使相以上领府事者称「判某府军府事」，俗称「判府」；府之副贰为「通判某府军府事」，俗称「通判」或「府判」。

军、监均是唐末以来发展的新行政区。唐末五代时，在战事繁重或军事要冲之地常设置「军」作为军队驻地，在矿冶、铸钱、煮盐之所设置「监」处理专务。当时这些专务区划俱不领县，也不管民政户口，以州县所改者，撤销其县级建制。进入宋代以后，「地要不成州，而当会津」的部分州郡，因其军事重要性而不省并入他州，只是降改为军，同时不撤销其属县建制，因而除陕西路、河北路、河东路部分以边垒为军者因无涉民政仍旧不领县外，宋代大部分军俱「领县同下州」，兼管户口与民政，但领县一般甚少；监与军类似，在太宗朝以后的辖区调整中出现领县监，亦同下州。领县同下州的军、监各设知军事或知监事一人，称「知某军事」和「知某监事」，俗称「知军」和「知监」。同时，唐末五代以来的不领县而只负责专务的军监依然存在，这些军监一般隶属于州甚至隶属于县，长官分别称「某军使」和「监某监」。

州、府、同下州之军及监下设县，县有赤、畿、望、紧、上、中、中下、下八等，三年升降县一次。京都所治之地为赤县，京城旁县为畿县，其馀县等，按建隆元年十一月所定：四千户以上为望、三千户以下为紧、二千户以上为上、千户以上为中、不满千户为中下、五百户以下为下。凡大县或驻有兵马的县， 朝廷派文臣京朝官或武臣三班使臣充任「知某县事」，简称「知县」，小县以选人赴任，称「县令」或「县尉」（长官为「县尉」者惯称「尉司」而不称县），每两三年一任。

政治制度

中央官制

北宋初期体制大体沿袭唐朝和五代的政治制度，宰相不再由三省长官专任，品位尊崇的尚书令和中书令为名誉职务，不实授，侍中则授予少数位高权重的大臣。一般以中书门下平章事为正宰相，以尚书左右丞、六部侍郎以上至三师（太师、太傅、太保）者充任，通常设两员，有时设一员或三员，宰相还兼馆、殿大学士之职。又增设参知政事为副宰相，以中书舍人以上至六部尚书官者充任，亦无常员，通常设两员，有时设一员、三员或四员。宰相与副宰相、枢密使、知枢密院事、枢密副使、同知枢密院事、签书枢密院事、同签书枢密院事、合称「宰执」。宋朝的相权大幅萎缩，仅负责行政职能。中书门下与枢密院称为东、西「二府」，掌文武大权。又设盐铁、户部、度支三司，主管财政大权，号称计省。这样三司、宰执、枢密使三权互相制衡，因此削弱相权，加强皇权。宋朝还在御史台之外增设谏院和置谏官，这些都是监察机构，负责弹劾等事宜。北宋前期，宰相主管民政、枢密使主管军政、三司使主管财政。宋神宗元丰改制后，宰相实际兼管财政。南宋时，宰相又兼任枢密使，兼管军政。这使得宰相再次握有民政、财政和军政的大权。。

中书门下设于禁中，又称政事堂或都堂，是正副宰相集体处理政事的最高行政机关。其宰相称做「同中书门下平章事」，副宰相称为「参知政事」。设置副宰相是为了分散正宰相权力以及扩充处理政务，这是是宋代政治的特色之一。宋神宗时元丰改制将中书门下恢复为门下、中书与尚书三省，以尚书左、右仆射各兼门下、中书侍郎为正宰相，再设门下、中书侍郎各一人，尚书左、右丞各一人为副宰相。宋徽宗时，权臣蔡京为太师，统领三省事务，改尚书左、右仆射为太宰、少宰，作为宰相。南宋宋高宗时，为了集中政务以应付军政急务，将三省合并为一，宋孝宗又改左、右仆射为左、右丞相，此后不再以三省长官或副长官为宰相。宋哲宗时设平章军国重事或同平章军国事，以处「老臣硕德」，位居宰相之上，每数日一朝，非朝日不到都堂。宋宁宗时，韩侂胄任「平章军国事」，每三日一朝，宰相不再掌印。南宋末年，贾似道专权，任「平章军国重事」，左、右丞相实际上屈居于类似副宰相的地位。

枢密院作为全国军政的最高机关，长官为枢密使或知枢密院事，以谏议大夫以上至六部尚书等官充任，副长官为枢密副使或同知知枢密院事，以起居舍人以上至尚书左右丞等官充任。资历浅者，称签书枢密院事、同签书枢密院事，不常置。为了防止唐朝藩镇割据与五代频繁发生的禁军哗变篡位等事重演，此职务大多由文官担任。枢密院掌管全国军马调度权力与高级武官考选奖惩，而全国禁军兵员的管理、训练、防御、升迁、赏罚等则由殿前司、侍卫亲军马军司与侍卫亲军步军司等三衙联合管理。枢密院长官与参知政事、门下侍郎、中书侍郎、尚书左右丞相等统称执政，宰相与执政官合称宰执。

三司是北宋初期主管财政的最高机构，即盐铁部、度支部、户部三司，号曰计省，位亚执政，号称「计相」。其长官称三司使，以两省五品以上及知制诰、杂学士、学士充。副手称三司副使，以员外郎以上历三路转运及六路发运使充。元丰改制时裁撤三司，职权归户部和工部。南宋时兵役军费繁重，故又增设总领所作为户部的派出机构，专门负责数路或一路各军之钱粮徵收供应，并参预军政。总领所共四处，分别为：

• 淮东总领所：领淮南东、两浙东西、福建、江南东西等路财赋，供应驻淮南东路之御前诸军

• 淮西总领所：领淮南西、江南东西等路财赋，供应驻淮南西路之御前诸军

• 湖广总领所：领荆湖南北、广南东西、京西南、江南西等路财赋，供应驻荆湖北、京西南两路之御前诸军

• 四川总领所：领川峡四路财赋，供应驻川峡四路之御前诸军

总领所长官称「总领某处等路财赋军马钱粮」，简称总领。

中央行政执行机构方面，宋朝早期，六部九寺五监被一些新设一些机构取代职权，如审官院与流内铨分别代行吏部考校京朝官和选人的职权，枢密院和三班院代行兵部考校武官的职权，太常礼院和礼仪院代行礼部与太常寺的礼仪之权，三司代行户、工部及司农太府两寺的大部分职权，审刑院代行刑部复审大理寺所定案牍之事等。直到元丰改制时，撤销朝廷的诸多令外机关，以三省代替中书门下，六部各设尚书和侍郎，主管本部事务，省部寺监才行使相应的职权。但实际上，元丰新官制与《唐六典》所载三省六部九寺五监制仍有相当差别：三省合署办公，两尚书仆射分兼中书门下两省台长，故名为三省实为一省，至建炎正式合并；六部多由原有的令外机构合并重组而成，故而改制后多兼理本应由寺监管理的庶事杂务，而规模变得空前庞大；寺监事权为六部所侵，导致除大理寺外皆不治京外之事，故建炎时一度全部裁并入六部，绍兴后虽有所复置，但也不复九寺五监之设，如以太常寺兼管宗正寺事、光禄寺并入鸿胪寺、太仆卫尉两寺与少府都水两监自此罢置不复。

中央监察机构主要有御史台和谏院。御史台专管监察，其长官称御史中丞，副长官称侍御史知杂事，主管纠察百官，肃正纲纪。台官有弹劾权，可以上疏言事，评论朝政，弹劾官员，还准许「风闻」论事。御史台下设三院：台院、殿院、察院，下设侍御史、殿中侍御史、监察御史。专管规谏讽谕的机构是谏院，宋仁宗时始单独置院，其长官称知谏院事或左、右谏议大夫，凡朝政缺失、百官任非其人、各级官府办事违失都可谏正。台、谏官都以言事弹劾为责，其职权本无多大差别，这一状况导致后世台、谏的合流。

最后，为皇帝起草制诰、国书和宫廷内所用文书的机构是翰林学士院，设翰林学士、翰林学士承旨、翰林侍读学士、直学士院等。翰林学士与中书舍人或知制诰分掌「内制」和「外制」，总称「两制」，翰林学士等还侍奉皇帝，充当顾问。宋初的最高司法机构是大理寺和刑部。宋太宗设置有「审刑院」，其长官称知审刑院事，官属有详议官。各地奏案先经大理寺裁决，报告审刑院复查，写出奏稿，上呈中书。中书申奏皇帝论决，宋神宗元丰改制后，审刑院并入刑部。。

官员管理制度

宋代实行官、职和差遣分离的制度，此乃承晚唐五季遗绪之由。安史之乱后散官因滥授而不为人所荣，导致以职事官为实权，散官为号的制度遭到破坏，唐中后期出现了以使职为实权，职事官为号的新制度，职事官因位高权重、不轻易授人、不掌管实务、闲简无事，或为外官所领而阶官化，有些品秩低的职事官因属清选，成为士人及第后供职于藩镇的起家之选或初转之资而阶官化，也有些职事官因职司清要，被授予藩府立功将佐有功者而阶官化。五代时期，使职之间也逐步系统化和严密化，最后形成等级化，发展成年考成资，依资迁转的阶官化制度。宋代早期没有扭转这个趋势，反而为加强中央集权而进一步发展，从而形成宋代极为复杂的官员管理制度。

官为官员的待遇等级，分文武两类，列班序迁之制不尽相同，其中，文官以朝官、京官、选人序阶，武官以正任、遥郡、内使和军职列班。北宋初期至中期用唐朝中央政府的三省六部、九寺五院等官司之正副官组合而成文官官阶，称为「本官」或「正官」，虽具官名，但无实职，只用以定品秩、俸禄、章服和序迁，因此又称为「阶官」或「寄禄官」，领有本官者位高称「朝官」，位卑称「京官」，是为宋朝的中高级文官。京朝官外，由地方州郡的幕职吏僚和县之长贰官员构成低级文官官阶，号为「选人」，少数选人得任本职，但大多数同样徒具虚名。武官方面，以内使三班借职至内客省使或禁军军职构成武官官阶。「内使」又称「武选」，名义上为禁中供应侍从的使臣，但与文官本官相似，并非常直禁中处理宫中事务，实际职务另有差遣；「军职」则是职事与官名相称，专门负责禁军各级单位的训练管理。武选至诸司正使或横行官以上，军职至军都指挥使或厢都指挥使，因军功再晋升则加刺史、团练使、防御使、观察使、节度观察留后（徽宗改为承宣使）五等州郡牧守官，品秩俸禄仍视内阶军职，号曰「遥郡」，尊为「美官」，至是方可得任一方统兵大将。遥郡武官因功再晋，则落去内阶军职，仅留牧守官号，品秩始视牧守官，号曰「正任」，尊为「贵官」，最高可晋任正任第六阶从二品节度使。按宋制，武官欲入西府执政之列则必须先晋正任，三衙管军亦唯任正任武官。宋神宗元丰改制时，朝廷有意通过恢复《唐六典》模式的律令官制，以扭转中央政府冗官冗费的现状，乃废文武散官，制《元丰寄禄格》，以散官名号的新制寄禄官阶取代前期京朝官迁转官阶，自开府仪同三司至承务郎共二十五阶文阶寄禄官。宋徽宗时增为三十七阶（包括选人），还改定武官内班官为五十二阶武阶寄禄官。绍兴把略显混乱的武阶官厘清以后，文武寄禄官制度基本定型，一直延续到宋亡。

职又称阁职，指三馆秘阁官（昭文馆大学士、监修国史、集贤殿大学士、集贤院学士）、诸殿（观文殿、资政殿、端明殿、保和殿）大学士、诸殿学士、枢密直学士、诸阁（龙图阁、天章阁、宝文阁、显谟阁、徽猷阁、敷文阁、焕章阁、华文阁、宝谟阁、宝章阁、显文阁）学士、诸阁侍制、直阁等诸殿阁图书馆官员。这些官职名义上是禁中诸多图书馆的长贰官员，但实际上不厘馆阁事务，仅为内外差遣所带加衔，以标文学高选。

差遣是指官员临时委任的职务名，故又称「职事官」，带有「判、知、勾当、管勾、权、直、提举、提点、提辖、签书、监」等动词。北宋初年鉴于唐末和五代「君弱臣强、藩镇割据、武臣擅权」等弊端，委派京朝官充任知州事和知县事，以接管节度使等武臣所掌地方之政事、司法、财政等权，而割据一方的地方武将被剥夺事权，原先的刺史、团练使、防御使、观察使、节度观察留后、节度使等常由地方武将担任的六等州郡长官成为武臣迁转之阶，此后「知事」「同知」「通判」取代了以往「刺史」「长史」「司马」「令」「丞」「尉」等地方官名，成为宋、元、明、清四朝地方官的正式官号。元丰改制之前，中央朝廷沿袭唐末五代差遣令外官治事的制度，事务官员也基本上以差遣为本职，但元丰改制以后，绝大部分差遣官按照《唐六典》的模式与本官进行统合，中央的文职差遣官基本消失。

北宋前期的官品沿袭唐、五代之制，文官共九品，有正、从，自正四品以下，又分为上、下，共三十阶。但官品和官职多不相称。元丰改制正名责实，减少官品的等级，改为九品正、从十八阶，同时职事官和差遣统一。朝廷对各级官员制订磨勘（考核劳绩过失）、叙迁、荫补、碍止（中级官员至某级别时停止通过定期磨勘晋升，而必须因大功或才能得皇帝特旨简拔晋升的规定）等法。对于中、上级官员的待遇比较优厚，有俸禄、职田、祠禄、恩赏等。宋神宗后，一些下台的或势将下台的官员有的还被授予或自请担任宫观官、监岳庙等祠禄官，坐领「祠禄」。此外，朝廷的各种临时赏赐，也成为官员的又一重要经济收入。官、职和差遣的分离，导致大批冗员的出现。

军事

宋朝军队实施以募兵为主，徵兵为辅的军队构成，实行自愿性的募兵制,并且将灾年招募流民、饥民当兵，作为一项传统的国策，有社会福利性质，起到稳定政权作用。北宋军队分为四种，即禁军、厢军、乡兵、藩兵，其中禁军厢军为募兵，乡兵藩兵为徵兵。禁军是直属朝廷的正规军，也是宋朝军队的主力，虽名禁军，实际上奉皇命出戍八方，分守天下要紧之处，而非仅仅戍守京师。厢军是各州的镇兵，由地方长官控制，但在重内轻外的国策下，精干兵员均被抽调至禁军，因此厢军战斗力低下，实际上只负责地方治安与后勤杂役，军事任务均交予同驻地的禁军。此外，乡兵则是按机关抽调的壮丁，藩兵则是防守在边境的非汉民族军队。靖康之变以后，原有的禁军战力遭受毁灭性破坏，故开始依赖诸如岳家军这样的武将自建军队。绍兴以后，朝廷重新收拢兵权，岳家军等「行营护军」逐步演化为直属中央，戍守固定区域，由武将直接统领的地方正规军，号称「御前诸军」，俗谓「屯驻大兵」，取代了原本禁军的主力地位。

禁军方面，北宋初年沿袭后周制度，设殿前司和侍卫亲军司以统率，合称两司，设有殿前司都点检、殿前司副都点检、殿前司都指挥使、殿前司副都指挥使、殿前司都虞侯、侍卫亲军司马步军都指挥使、侍卫亲军司马步军副都指挥使、侍卫亲军司马步军都虞侯、侍卫亲军司马军都指挥使、侍卫亲军司马军副都指挥使、侍卫亲军司马军都虞侯、侍卫亲军司步军都指挥使、侍卫亲军司步军副都指挥使、侍卫亲军司步军都虞侯等高级军职。宋太祖为加强皇权和军事阶层的稳定，决定加强中央集权，防止武将剥夺权利。建隆二年三月，宋太祖削去殿前司都点检这个重要的禁军军职。同年七月，宋太祖通过杯酒释兵权解除武将的军权，同时废除殿前司副都点检一职，侍卫亲军司马步军都指挥使和副都指挥使长时间不置，真宗景德二年废置侍卫亲军司都虞侯，侍卫亲军司分为侍卫亲军马军司和侍卫亲军步军司，前两者和殿前司并称三衙，至此完成了从两司到三衙门的演变，三衙分别由殿前司都指挥使、侍卫亲军司马军都指挥使和侍卫亲军司步军都指挥使统领。但是，三衙虽有掌兵之实，却无发兵之权，具体的军事谋划与武官奖惩任命由枢密院负责。

宋朝在三衙以外，另设枢密院以司符节边备、武官铨选等战略规划事务，与三衙并为最高军政机关。枢密院直接对皇帝负责，太祖、太宗之时，其他任何官员，即便是宰相，未得皇帝许可都不得过问枢密院事务。该项规定后来逐渐松弛，南宋时由宰相兼枢密使渐成惯例。而枢密院虽能发兵，且掌统兵官任免之权，却不能直接统军，这样就导致统兵权与调兵权的分离。宋朝又实行更戍法，经常更换统兵将领，同时打散禁军的番号军、厢、厢下军等高级编制，调配军力时以满编五百人的「指挥」（营）为单位进行调动，作战时经常将来自不同军厢的指挥交予未曾管理过这些兵士的武官指挥。如是，使将不得专其兵，以防止军队中出现个人势力。此外战争时战区最高司令皆由文官或太监担任，而且改变战略必须经过皇帝同意，对宋朝战力有负面影响。宋朝实行「崇文抑武，以文制武」，真宗朝以后，枢密院使和枢密院副使多由文臣出身者担任，少数武臣曾入枢密院，但都遭到文臣以祖宗成法反对，都遭到罢黜。真宗以后，以文官任统兵官，督率武将，渐成惯例；安抚使、经略安抚使由文官担任，武将担任都部署（都总管）、副都部署、部署（总管）、副部署、钤辖、巡检、都监，号为将官，领兵马，受指挥。宋朝的建国兵力部署「守内虚外」，但在熙宁年后首都驻军减少。

北宋中期以后对辽、西夏等国的战争，使得军事费用增加，对统兵将帅限制太多「权任轻而法制密」，将不专兵，动相牵掣，「元戎不知其将校之能否，将校不知三军之勇怯，各不相管辖，以谦让自任。」 同时，军纪不明使宋军严重缺乏训练，终日「游戏于廛市间，以鬻巧诱画为业，衣服举措不类军兵」「卫兵入宿不自持被而使人持之；禁兵给粮不自荷而雇人荷之。」。张演评说：「宋朝之待武臣也，厚其禄而薄其礼。」王夫之指出：「宋所忌者，宣力之武臣耳，非偷生邀宠之文士也」。针对以上弊端，熙丰变法后开始实行置将法，将禁军分为「系将禁军」与「不系将禁军」，「不系将禁军」诸指挥（营）仍如旧法，「系将禁军」诸指挥（营）则被组织为固定的大编制单位「将」，不行更戍法，一般驻扎在固定的地域，由固定的将司长贰官员正将与副将负责管理与指挥。各地置将法实施状况不同，其中边事繁重的陕西、河东实施较为彻底，东南诸路禁军则仍以不系将禁军为主。

南宋军队的主力为屯驻大兵以及三衙。屯驻大兵战斗力较强，原本是武将自行召募部队，如岳家军，有「撼山易，撼岳家军难」之说。这时朝廷控制军队的能力已经弱化，枢密院的权责也逐渐缩小。绍兴十一年，韩世忠、岳飞等将领的兵权相继被削减，屯驻大兵逐渐演变为中央统管的正规地方军，与禁军三衙平行。

宋代军事技术的巨大进步，宋朝以前仍处于冷兵器时代，从宋朝开始火器登上战争舞台，使用霹雳炮、震天雷、引火球、铁火炮、火箭、火球、火枪、火炮等火器，逐步进入冷兵器和火器并用时代。水战装具的发展，舟师仍在江河、濒海地区发展，南宋时还尚有车船。投石机方面有车行炮、单梢炮、七梢炮与旋风炮等。各代中央和地方多设立兵器制造与管理机构，严格控制兵器的制造和发放，还规定有兵器查验、维修和授予制度。

在兵种结构上，步兵为主要兵种，并配有少量骑兵，车兵则逐步消失。然而有记载称宋初掌握的马匹曾超过20万匹，天禧年间甚至马多到估直出卖，并且欧阳修指出河东路适宜养马。

城防设施发展出城制、弩台、敌楼等设施。其中以山城防御体制最具有名，南宋守将余玠于四川防御蒙军，为了巩固川西地区，他采用「守点不守线，连点而成线」的方针，修筑钓鱼城（今重庆合川东）、大获（今四川苍溪南）、青居（今四川南充南）、云顶（今四川金堂南）、神臂（今四川合江西北）、天生（今重庆万县西）等十馀城，形成一个防御网，成功抵御蒙军攻击。

外交

宋朝外敌频繁，外交的重要性日益增加。针对不同的外交对象，给予不同的馆待礼遇，并使之专门化。辽与金都对宋朝构成巨大威胁，外交对等，其外交事务主要由枢密院的礼院负责，包括文书往来、使节派遣和一切接待事宜等。元丰年间，枢密院改置北面房，掌北界国信，南宋沿袭之。此外，宋朝专门设置主管往来国信所，作为负责与辽、金交往的具体事务机构。而西夏、高丽、越南（宋朝先称之为「交趾」，后改称「安南」。宋时越南历经丁、前黎、李、陈等王朝统治）等国，由于宋朝视他们为藩属国，所以发出的外交文书和礼物等皆称「制诏」或「赐」，对其国家的外交承认被称为「册封」。宋朝在京城设置许多外交接待馆驿，作为国家接待各国使节的地方。辽国在都亭驿，西夏在都亭西驿，高丽在梁门外安州巷同文馆，回鹘、于阗在礼宾院，三佛齐、真腊、大理、大食等国家在瞻云馆或怀远驿。

宋朝奉行朝贡体制，然而将重心放在政治利益与经济利益，也就是「来则不拒，去则不追」。宋代朝贡制度的完善和发展表现在有较固定的管理机构，明确规定贡期，严格贡使的证明，回赐的制度化等。南宋时，还将海外贸易作为朝廷的财政收入预算之一，对于朝贡物并非照单全收，而是只接受其中的一小部分，其馀的按市舶贸易的规则进行抽买。免税贡物的减少，意味著税收的增加，这样既有利于外交往来，又给朝廷带来实惠，使外交和经济获得双赢。

宋朝有名的外交家有富弼、沈括与洪皓。富弼在外交上面对大军压境的辽国时屡立奇功。他以理挫败自傲的辽使，迫使辽使行参拜之礼，后又两次出使辽国，挫败辽国割地要求。富弼分析宋、辽、西夏三国的关系，认为辽与西夏强盛的原因是获得中国的资源与人力而至，并且协助宋朝撬开辽夏同盟，使宋、辽、西夏三足鼎立的格局逐渐稳定下来。沈括以翰林侍读学士的身分，出使辽国交涉划界事宜，获成而还。他在出使途中绘记辽国山川险阻及风俗人情，完成《使虏图抄》，上于朝廷。《宋史》称：沈括「使契丹。凡六会，敌人环而听者千辈，无以驳其议。」洪皓在南宋危难之时出使金国，被拘15年，但仍不愿投降金国。洪皓曾屡次派人向被囚禁在五国城（今黑龙江依兰县）的宋徽宗、宋钦宗及在临安（今浙江杭州）的宋高宗秘密传递消息。归国后，宋高宗称他「虽苏武不能过」。

人口

据《太平寰宇记》所载，宋太宗太平兴国五年（980年）全国有6,499,145户，人口约3250万。据《元丰九域志》记载，元丰（1078年—1085年）年间，全国有户1,600万。据《宋史·地理志》记载，宋徽宗崇宁元年（1102年）全国有户1,730万。宋徽宗大观四年（1110年）户数达20,882,258户，人口约1亿1275万；估计宣和二年（1120年）有户二千二百万。人口1亿1880万。靖康之祸后，中国再次出现中原人口大量南徙的现象。这次南迁有两波。第一个高潮是从「靖康之难」到《绍兴和议》；第二个高峰则是在金主完颜亮南侵期间。南方人口因此大量增加，根据估计，南宋人口峰值是宋宁宗嘉定十一年（1218年），户口达到1360万。若以绍兴卅二年（1162年）与崇宁元年比较，两浙路户口增加26万户、江南西路增加42万户、福建路增加33万户、潼川府路增加24万户，夔州府路增加14万户。宋代的城市人口大量增加，10万户以上的城市有50个，其中临安人口过120万（1274年），汴梁人口过180万（1125年），是当时世界上人口最多的两个城市。

在人口分布上。宋徽宗崇宁年间，华北各路中以京畿路人口最集中，元丰六年有户23万，崇宁元年有户26万。而永兴军路则有户100万。以长安为中心的京兆府也有户23万。这两路人口集中的原因主要是因为宋朝与西夏的战争中这些地方处于前线有关。南方人口主要集中在两浙、江南东西、福建、川陕四路。这五路户口达到571万户，占南方户口的一半。其中两浙路最多，达到197万户。江南西路户口则有166万、江南东路则有户101万。福建路有户106万。淮南东西路共计达到130万户。川峡四路总计有200万户（1231年有500万户.）、荆湖南北路总计有140—150万户，广南东西路仅80馀万户，京西南路有40万户。

经济

宋太祖建国时就确立土地私有产权制度，买卖自由，并采取不抑兼并的政策，租佃经营成为重要的土地经营形式。租佃契约期满后佃农可以自由决定终止或续约。人口流动性增强，城市商品经济发展。有学者认为宋代已经出现资本主义萌芽。

宋代大量开金、银、铜、铁、煤等矿藏，在宋代煤炭作为一种新型的能源进入了生产和人民生活的领域，汴京家家户户都以煤作为家庭燃料，形成「汴都数百万户，尽仰石炭，无一家燃薪者」的社会风貌。在生产上，煤应用于冶炼工业也大大提高了铜、铅、钖的产量。冶铸、切削和加工技术的长足进步又为陶瓷、纺织、造船、井盐等行业的成长提供了燃料、工具等必要条件。

宋代的经济繁荣程度可谓前所未有，农业、印刷业、造纸业、丝织业、制瓷业均有重大发展。各地也出现了各种制造工厂和加工工厂。如造船厂、火器厂、造纸厂、印刷工厂、织布厂、各地的官窑等。同时也进口原料，加工制造成商品出售到各地。航海业、造船业成绩突出，海外贸易发达，和南洋、南亚、西亚、非洲、欧洲等地区总计58个国家通商。

农业

在宋朝，农业逐步走向专业化与商业化。北宋初期大面积开荒，土地不抑兼并，农田规模扩大，为提高耕种效率，注重兴修水利，改进农具，改良品种，农业发展迅速。许多新形田地在宋朝出现，例如梯田（在山区出现）、淤田（利用河水冲刷形成的淤泥所利用的田地）、沙田（海边的沙淤地）、架田（在湖上做木排，上面铺泥成地）等。这大幅增加宋朝的耕地面积。至道二年（996年），宋廷掌握耕地为三百一十二万五千两百馀顷。到宋神宗元丰年间（1078年—1085年）达到耕地面积顶点四百六十馀万顷，各种新的农具在宋代出现，例如新式水车龙骨翻车和筒车。代替牛耕的踏犁，用于插秧的鞅马。新工具的出现也让农作物产量大幅成长。一般华北的麦地田每年可亩收二石到三石半，江淮、两浙、福建、川陕、荆湖等地区一年可达到三至七石。宋真宗大中祥符五年（1012年）从占城引进耐旱、早熟的稻种，分给江淮两浙，就是后来南方的早稻尖米，又叫占城米、黄籼米。两宋时太湖地区稻米产量居全国之首，尤其以平江府（今苏州）为代表，有「苏湖熟，天下足」（指苏州和湖州）或「苏常熟，天下足」（指苏州和常州）之称。宋朝的农业走向专业化、商业化的倾向。例如长江流域和珠江流域农业发展迅速，一些北方农作物粟、麦、黍、豆来到南方。宋朝农业经济作物种植面积扩大，南宋中期，棉花盛行种植于川陕、江淮、两浙、荆湖、闽、广（即粤）地区，种桑养蚕和麻的地区也在增加。茶叶在北宋时遍及淮南、荆湖、福建及四川诸路。这些地区每年上缴给政府专卖机构的茶叶达一千四、五百万斤，不仅供应国内市场，而且远销国外。当时以福建所产最为著名，其它名茶尚有两浙的日经茶，江西的双井白茶，广西容州的竹茶等。南宋时，南方的注茶地比北宋更多，吴兴的紫笋、常州的阳羡、绍兴的日注、隆兴的黄龙等，都被称为「绝品」。。甘蔗种植遍布苏、浙、闽、广（粤）、等省，糖已经成广泛使用的食品，出现世界上第一部关于制糖术的专著：王灼著《糖霜谱》。

手工业

北宋的主要矿产包括金、银、铜、铁、铅、锡、煤等。北宋仁宗在位时代金属矿藏达到两百七十馀处，较盛唐年间增加一百馀处。仁宗时期，每年得金一万五千多两、银廿一万九千多两、铜五百多万斤、铁七百廿四万斤，铅九万多斤、锡卅三万斤。

宋朝的丝、麻、毛纺织业都非常发达，而西北地方流行毛织业，四川、山西、广西、湖北、湖南、河南等地麻织业非常兴盛。到南宋时，广东的雷州半岛地区和广南西路成为棉纺织业的中心。两浙和川蜀地区则为丝织业，朝廷在丝织业密集的地区设立织锦院，即是官办的丝织作坊，也同时造福相关的印染业。1295年前后，黄道婆把海南岛黎族的纺织技术带到松江府的乌泥泾，并改进纺织工具与技术，在推广棉纺织方面的历史功绩是很突出的。。

宋朝官窑、民窑遍布全国。时有河北曲阳定窑、河南汝州汝窑、禹县钧窑、开封官窑、浙江龙泉哥窑弟窑、江西景德镇景德窑、福建建阳建窑等七大名瓷窑，和分布在各地的许多大小瓷窑，所产宋瓷通过海上丝绸之路远销海外，如日本、高丽、东南亚、南亚、中西亚等地。

北宋时，主要的造纸材料包括丝、竹、藤、麻、麦杆等。四川、安徽、浙江是主要的造纸产地，蜀地的布头笺、冷金笺、麻纸、竹纸，安徽的凝霜、澄心纸、粟纸及浙江的藤纸等都闻名于世，甚至还有纸被、纸衣、纸甲等制品。纸张的大量生产与活字印刷术为印刷业的繁荣提供基础，宋朝的印刷业分三大系统，官刻系统的国子监所刻之书被称为监本，而民间书坊所刻的书被称为坊本，士绅家庭自己刻印的书籍属于私刻系统。东京、临安、眉山、建阳、广都等都是当时的印刷业中心。当时坊刻书中以浙江口碑最佳，称浙本，四川次之，称蜀本。福建的刻书以量取胜，称建本的其中尤以建阳麻沙镇最多，世称麻沙本。社会上流行刻书的风气，以临安国子监所刻的书品质最顶尖。宋朝的刻书以纸墨精良、版式疏朗、字体圆润、做工考究、传世稀少、价值连城而闻名于后世。

运输业

宋朝政治经济中心向东向南转移，东南地区河道发达，水网密布，是天然的交通网络。宋朝又注重疏浚河道，建造桥梁，创造良好的交通条件。南宋时期，海上交通的发展也格外兴旺。

宋代造船技术水准处于当时世界极度先进的状态。宋神宗元丰元年（1078年），明州造出两艘万料（约600吨）神舟。1974年福建泉州出土一艘宋代古船，有13个隔水仓，在船出海航行过程之中一两个隔水仓漏水，船也不会有多大危险。宋代的主要造船厂分布在江西、浙江、湖南、陕西等地区。虔州、吉州、温州、明州都是重要的造船基地。宋太宗至道年间(995年—997年)，全国年船量均超过三千三百馀艘。到了南宋，由于南方多水加上海上贸易日益发达，造船业发展更快。临安府（今杭州）、建康府（江宁府，今南京）、平江府（苏州）、扬州、湖州、泉州、广州、潭州、衡州等成为新的造船中心。广州制造的大型海舶木兰舟可「浮南海而南，舟如巨室，帆若垂天之云，舵长数仗，一舟数百人，中积一年粮」。南宋初年还出现车船、飞虎战船等新式舰船。

金融商业

货币

宋代是工业革命之前，站在世界发展巅峰的超大规模经济体；有学者认为宋代在经济上乃是中国历代王朝中旷古空前的伟大年代。宋代商业繁盛，通行的货币有铜钱、铁钱、白银与黄金。黄金是用以保值、跨洲贸易的最佳首选，铜钱、白银是作为中远距离交易通货，铁钱则是作为零钱于在地市集、做小额交易使用。宋政府每年铸造的货币量来衡量，其中个别年分所生产的货币数，就超过有唐一代发行货币的总额。宋太宗至道年间（995—997年），每年铸币83万贯。到神宗熙宁六年，已达506万贯；在工业革命以前的货币发行规模仅此一例，且远远超过世界各国。尽管如此，宋货币的供给仍无法应付增长的市场对货币的需求；每年的朝议都将「钱荒」列为讨论议题。加上商品入口，宋代大量铜钱、白银外流。另一方面宋代货币精良信用稳定，东南亚、日本、朝鲜、金、辽（东北亚）等区域经济体一致通行宋货币，至于其他地区，如西亚、欧洲和非洲并非如此，如在20世纪50年代，丹麦考古队在中东仅发现两枚宋钱；宋钱在南洋、日本、金国、辽国、朝鲜等国取代本国货币，成为当地主要通行货币。作为一级东亚货币，宋代的铜钱大量外流东亚地区，帝国内部铜矿稀缺，造成硬通货短缺。

为应付不断增长的货币需求，真宗时期，成都民间十六家富户主持印造一种信用本位的兑换纸钞，代替铜钱仅仅在四川使用的一种地方货币，是为交子（按照纸币的经济学定义，只有国家发行的才算真正纸币）。仁宗后改归官办，并定期限额发行。徽宗时期，改交子名为钱引，并扩大流通领域。宋高宗绍兴三十年（1160年）改为官办「会子」，会子主要有东南会子（也叫行在会子），湖北会子和两淮会子。但是为防止铜钱北流，宋朝政府规定在与金交界处仍然只能使用铁钱。与交子不同，会子是以铜钱为本位的，面值有一贯（一千文）、两贯和三贯三种，后增印两百文、三百文与五百文小面额钞票。乾道五年（1169年）定为三年一界，每界发行一千万贯，以旧换新。熙宁十年（1077年）岁入7070万贯，农业的两税为2162万贯，占30% ；工商税为4911万贯，占70%。工商税收入构成朝廷财政收入的主体。

会子危机

第一界会子的发行额仅三百万贯。到乾道四年（1168年）仅七年的时间，发行额增加到七百万贯。之后固定在一千万贯。尽管会子的加印与隆兴北伐有关，但是由于作为本位的金属货币没有相应追加，币值增长指数已经达到300%以上。到理宗淳佑六年，会子发行额增加六十五倍。会子虽与铜钱可自由兑换，但由于会子不断贬值，两者汇率也急遽走低。

南宋对维持会子的稳定与信用进行过一定的努力，除了制定数年一界的换新旧会子兑换制度控制流通量外，宋孝宗时期还制定了「中半纳入(地方上缴的税赋可以有一半用会子缴纳，并且不计贬值、依其面值计价)」的制度来确保其信用；然而1205年北伐失败造成的财政恶化导致了会子制度逐步走向破产，自宁宗宣布十一、十二、十三界会子同时流通后，会子之多犹如决堤之水，物价飞涨犹如脱缰野马，出现会子挤兑铜钱的现象。嘉定二年（1209年），会子换界。政府规定新旧会子以一比二的比例兑换，同时严禁不按比例兑换会子，否则抄家，并鼓励打小报告互相揭发。这种以行政权力而非经济政策强制确保会子价值的手段无异于宣告会子信用破产。反而导致拒收会子与贬值的浪潮越演越烈。超级通货膨胀导致社会无论中下层都损失惨重。迫不得已，政府发还抄没的家产，并筹措一千四百万贯来回收旧会子。嘉定五年后危机才渐渐平息。从此之后，会子换界已无法正常进行。政府一旦发生财政危机，就会以滥印钞票饮鸩止渴。理宗亲政后，由于十六及十七界会子数量巨大，险些再度造成通货膨胀。端平入洛之后，会子与铜钱的汇率从端平初年暴跌25%。十八界会子发行量更加大，白米涨到每斗米三贯四百文钱，是孝宗年间（1162年—1189年）的十一倍。淳佑七年，理宗颁诏，十七、十八界会子永远使用，希望藉此来抑制物价上涨。但是两百文的十八界会子却连一双草鞋都买不到，会子已与废纸无异。景定五年（1264年），贾似道规定十七界会子须在一月之内全部换成十八界会子，并将会子改为「金银见钱关子」，宣布关子与会子的兑换比例为1:3，但通货膨胀更恶性发作。不过，南宋的会子虽然一路贬值，但与元、明两朝的彻底失败相比仍维持了相当长时间的流通与信用，故可视为近代前较为成功的纸币实验。

海外贸易

由于西夏阻隔西北的丝绸之路，加上经济中心的南移，从宋朝开始，东南沿海的港口成为新的贸易中心。唐代时全国仅于唐高宗龙朔元年（661年）在广州一地设有市舶司，负责外贸事务。宋代先后在广州、临安府（杭州）、庆元府（明州，今宁波）、泉州、密州板桥镇（今胶州营海镇）、嘉兴府（秀州）华亭县（今松江）、镇江府、平江府（苏州）、温州、江阴军（今江阴）、嘉兴府（秀州）澉浦镇（今海盐）和嘉兴府（秀州）上海镇（今上海市区）等地设立市舶司专门管理海外贸易。其中以广州、泉州和明州最大。泉州在南宋后期更一跃成为世界第一大港和海上丝绸之路的起点。宋代海外贸易分官府经营和私商经营两种方式，其中民营外贸又占大宗。宋神宗元丰三年（1080年），北宋朝廷制定一部《广州市舶条法》，是中国历史上第一部贸易法。而各个外贸港口还在城市里设立「蕃市」，专卖外国商品；「蕃坊」供外国人居住；「蕃学」供外商子女接受教育，朝廷还专门制定蕃商犯罪决罚条。现在广州和泉州城内仍然有许多藩客墓，成为当时海外贸易繁荣的佐证。

与宋王朝通商的国家有：占城、真腊、三佛齐、吉兰丹、渤泥、巴林冯、兰无里、底切、三屿、大食、大秦、波斯、白达、麻嘉、伊禄、故临、细兰、登流眉、中里、斯伽里野、木兰皮等欧亚地区五十八个国家。宋朝出口货物包括丝绸、瓷器、糖、纺织品、茶叶、五金。进口货物包括象牙、珊瑚、玛瑙、珍珠、乳香、没药、安息香、胡椒、琉璃、玳瑁等几百种商品。宋朝从大量进口货物通过市舶司获得的税收，从宋仁宗皇佑年间（1049年—1054年）的53万贯，治平年间（1064年—1067年）63万贯，到了宋高宗绍兴年间（1131年—1162年）已达200万贯，约占全国财政收入的百分之六，对宋代的繁荣起重要作用。南宋时代，宋朝在与金和大理的交界处设立榷场来互通有无。宋朝出口药材、茶叶、棉花、犀角、象牙等，进口北珠、人蔘、毛皮、马匹等货物。民间也有大量的走私贸易。由于宋朝铜钱信用佳，被大量走私到东南亚和西亚，而当时的辽国、金国、西夏、越南、朝鲜和日本更停用自己的通货，改用宋钱。

赋税制度

宋朝税收制度特点是赋重役轻。

首先，兵役基本消失。唐中叶以后，均田制破坏，府兵制解体，兵农分离的募兵制逐渐取代兵农合一的调兵制。南宋人王栐说：北宋「兵农既分，军制大异于古。」募兵制已占居主导地位。兵源既不像唐代前期那样调集世袭军户，也不像南唐那样差调全国农民，而主要是来自招募和雇佣的普通老百姓，特别是饥民。府兵制虽有残留，诸如存在于某些特定地区的弓箭手之类的乡兵，但也不是全国各地的普遍现象。北宋的基本状况是：职业士兵「以起军旅」，普通农民「无预征役」。政府一般不再「籍农民之身以为兵」，转而「赋敛农民之粟帛以赡正军」。北宋人韩琦在比较汉唐调兵和北宋养兵的优劣时说：「杜甫诗中《石壕吏》一首，读之殆可悲泣，调兵之害乃至此」，进而得出养兵「自有利民处不少」的结论。苏辙也曾将北宋兵制同前代兵制作对照，称：「古者兵出于民」，「民之于兵，可谓劳矣」；「近世兵民既分」，「民可谓逸，而兵可谓习矣。」从当时人这些前后对比和劳逸、利害之论，都是北宋农民大体摆脱兵役负担的确证。其次，厢军分担夫役。北宋农民的主要徭役负担是包括春夫和急夫在内的夫役。第三，夫役雇法推行。人们通常所称王安石的免役法或雇役法，指的是差役即职役雇法。

宋代的杂税名目众多，「经制、折帛钱为诸州之害，板帐、月桩为诸县之害」，此外还有二税盐钱、蚕盐钱、丁绢、丁盐钱、僧道免丁钱、秤提钱、市例钱、折估钱、折布钱、布估钱、畸零绢估钱等，「不可以遍举，亦不能遍知」。其征敛赋税的手段，诚如朱熹所说：「古者刻剥之法，本朝俱备。」宋人的类似说法颇多，诸如：「正税之外，杂赋至繁，诡制异科，丑名暴敛」；「其色不一，其名不同。」以致世人「不能尽举」；「当官者不能悉其详」。蔡戡又言：「其赋敛繁重，可谓数倍于古矣。」各人的具体说法虽然不尽一致，但共同之处是肯定赋税的名目繁多。赋税倍增的结果是：「民间苦赋重。」。其赋税之重导致宋朝的杀婴风俗盛行。

政府又通过将税收大量投入到军队里，利用灾年招募流民、饥民当兵的政策辅以一系列常设的社会救济政策（特别是对老人和儿童）。

宋代的农才赋役制度，名称和中唐之后的两税法一样，但内容不同，宋两税是单纯以土地为徵收对象的土地税，标准是按各户所占有田地的数量和质量收取。而唐两税却是要综合每户的人丁和资产包括土地、桑、居宅、牲畜和钱财等定户等再以户等计算本户之两税。可知唐两税的范围远较宋两税为广，唐两税包括田亩税、户税、力役，而宋两税只是纯田亩税而不包括户税、力役。在宋，户税、力役是另算的，按各户人丁收的税称丁税，也就是户税，按户等财产分级别收的税称役钱，也就是力役的内容。也就是说，宋的两税加丁税再加役钱才约等于唐的两税。宋朝的税制是「以贫富为差」的「两税法」，根据居民有无不动产，划分户别，再以家庭财产之多寡，划为不同户等，按户等财产分级，高资产户纳税多，低资产户纳税少，没有田产，则不用缴税。役钱则是宋制规定，凡应服劳役者可输钱免役，也就是付朝廷募兵制的费用。

宋商税主要有住税和过税。住税即买卖交易税，税率３％，过税即商品流通税，税率２％。宋公布商税则例，把应纳税的商品名目颁布于税务、官署、交通要道，使商人了然。税务按照则例收税，商旅按照则例纳税，非则例所载（即假如税务私增收税条目），商旅可以拒纳并越级上诉。另一项税收是海关税。主要对商品进出口和流通收税。外船来经商先经市舶检查，抽取十分之一到十分之二的税。

文化

宋太祖曾要求其子孙永远不得杀害文人，文人在宋朝地位得到空前的提升，重文轻武的风气在宋朝达到极致，「好铁不打钉，好男不当兵」、「满朝朱紫贵，尽是读书人。」等俗谚都是出在宋朝。宋真宗时，状元出身的陈尧咨拒绝出任官级更高的武职。在理学的兴起、宗教势力退潮、言论控制降低、市民文化兴起、商品经济繁荣与印刷术的发明等一系列背景下，宋朝优秀文人辈出，知识份子自觉意识空前觉醒。史尧弼在《策问》中认为：「惟吾宋二百馀年，文物之盛跨绝百代。」陆游在《吕居仁集序》中也认为：「宋兴，诸儒相望，有出汉唐之上者。」。

学术思想

儒学在宋朝得到的空前的复兴，在佛、道思想的影响下，产生新的儒学思想—理学。理学以阐释义理、兼谈性命为主要内容，在建构儒家形而上学和本体论方面取得重大进展。其代表人物包括「北宋五子」（周敦颐、邵雍、张载、程颢、程颐）、朱熹和陆九渊。理学的集大成者朱熹认为：「理」和「气」是并存的，密不可分，但有先后之分。理是万物之源。「天理」与「人欲」是对立的两方，人欲是一切罪恶之根源，应当去人欲、存天理。经过二程与朱熹的发展，理学发展成为一套完整的哲学体系，南宋末年理宗时成为官方哲学。之后，陆九渊又认为「宇宙便是吾心，吾心即是宇宙」「心即理也」。人们应当去人欲，存本心，到达清明寡欲的境界，陆九渊之思想经过之后明朝大儒王守仁的继承发展，成为新的哲学体系—心学，在明朝中叶以后占据主导地位。除了理学与心学之外，宋朝晚期还出现第三种学术势力—浙东事功学派，其由以吕祖谦为代表的金华学派、陈亮为代表的永康学派和叶适为代表的永嘉学派所组成。

史学

与前代相比，宋朝的史学特别发达。历史学家陈寅恪说：「中国史学，莫盛于宋」，「宋贤史学，古今罕匹」。宋朝有多个官方修史机构，如起居院、日历所、实录院、国史院、会要所等。最著名的史学著作当属司马光主编的《资治通鉴》。《资治通鉴》的编写过程长达十九年（加上《通志》超过二十年），共二百九十四卷，敍事上起周烈王廿三年（前403年），下迄周世宗显德六年（959年）。采用编年体方法书写，为后人提供一本系统广博的史书。随后，另一史学家袁枢又对《资治通鉴》进行全面的整理，写成《通鉴纪事本末》，这是中国历史上第一部纪事本末体史书。朱熹也作了一部《通鉴纲目》，共五十九卷，可谓《资治通鉴》的简略版。史学家郑樵写成《通志》，与唐杜佑《通典》、元马端临《文献通考》合称「三通」。

此外重要的史学著作还有廿四史中薛居正等奉旨编修的《旧五代史》和欧阳修私撰的《新五代史》。以及王溥私撰的《唐会要》和《五代会要》。著名的地方志有《太平寰宇记》、范成大《吴郡志》、孟元老《东京梦华录》、周密《武林旧事》等。由于金石学和考古学快速兴起，也有一些相关史书诞生，如欧阳修的《集古录》、吕大临《考古图》、赵明诚《金石录》等」。

此外宋代编修不少与史学相关的类书，著名的「宋四大书」：《太平御览》、《册府元龟》、《文苑英华》、《太平广记》。

文学

宋朝文学空前发达，秉诗、词、散文都有伟大成就。让宋朝散文走向兴盛并承接古文运动的大师是欧阳修。欧阳修的散文主旨明确、内容充实、平易自然，为宋朝散文的风格奠定基调。三苏之中，苏洵的文章以议论见长，文风雄奇劲简。苏轼的文章洒脱自然，清新豪放之中又带些忧郁，前后《赤壁赋》等文章确定他在文坛上不可撼动的地位。他的弟子也颇有出息，陈师道、黄庭坚、秦观、张耒、晁补之和李廌号称「苏门六君子」。南宋时期，苏轼的散文甚至成为科举考试的范文，时人言：「苏文熟，吃羊肉；苏文生，吃菜羹」。而苏辙的文章疏于敍事而长于议论。曾巩忠实的追随欧阳修的风格，以记敍文和议论文为主。文风自然纯朴，少有华丽辞藻。王安石也以议论文为长，风格雄健自然。但是到了南渡之后，宋朝的散文就开始衰落，其后的文人都无法同北宋六家相比」。

宋诗虽不及唐诗，但远在明、清之上，目前正在编撰的《全宋诗》收录宋诗作品达十六万多首之巨。与散文相同，欧阳修也开创宋朝的诗风，中国诗歌史上第一部诗话《六一诗话》就是其所著。王安石诗风工练，比欧阳修更讲究修辞技巧与典故运用。苏轼的诗变化多端，雄放洒脱。其吸收前朝所有诗人的手法，并长于各种诗体，尤其是古体与七言近体，可谓别开生面，奔放灵动，成为宋诗一代大宗。黄庭坚虽出于苏门，但却开创江西诗派，他的诗歌模仿杜甫，讲究炼字煆句，显得耐人寻味。之后又有「南宋四大家」，即杨万里、范成大、陆游和尤袤，也堪与北宋三家相比。杨万里的诗歌清新活泼，以天然风景为主；范成大的诗歌关心民生，诗风清丽秀婉；陆游的诗以爱国著称，他的诗对偶工整，后人言「好对偶被放翁用尽」。

词是曲子词的简称，也称长短句。根据《全宋词》的记录，宋朝词人达到一千三百卅家，作品及残篇总计达到两万零四百多首。词是宋朝文学的标志性体裁。晏殊被称为宋朝词家初祖，继承先唐五代花间词的风格，其词和婉明丽。欧阳修的词也具类似词风。柳永在宋词发展史上具有转折性的作用，他的慢词令人耳目一新，确定长调的地位，充实词的形式，丰富词的表现手法。作品广为大众喜爱以至于当时人言「凡有井水饮处，即能歌柳词」。其后，苏轼又对宋词进行革新，创立豪放派，扩大词的选材范围，为后来的南宋爱国词奠定基础。周邦彦是格律派的始祖，其后的女词人李清照也属此列。在靖康之难后，忧患意识使得豪放派词大放异采。其中以辛弃疾为大成，也有另一派词人姜夔、吴文英等延续先周邦彦的风格，继续发展婉约的词风。。

此外，宋代「说话」（评书）非常流行，说话的内容就是话本。最著名的话本有《三国志平话》、《新编五代史平话》、《大唐三藏取经诗话》、《大宋宣和遗事》等；一些明清白话小说也是根据宋朝的话本改编。

宗教

与唐朝相比，宋朝宗教对社会生活的影响力略有下降，宗教也更加世俗化与汉化。后周时，周世宗下令限制佛教，废除各地非敕额的寺院，又贬斥儒学，废除孔子后代的免税权。

宋太祖建立宋朝后，致力于统一全国，加强中央集权制的统治，在一些方面继承和发展周世宗的政策。宋太宗任用文臣执政，儒学随之逐渐兴起，佛教也渐流行。宋真宗自称「礼乐并举，儒术化成」，大力提倡儒术，同时又提倡佛教，信奉道教，建立起儒佛道的思想统治。然而整体来说，宋朝宗教以道教较为兴盛，北宋许多帝王如宋太宗、宋真宗、宋徽宗等都信道教，政府支持提倡，使北宋道教大盛，南宋较衰，但馀风仍在民间。佛教在后周周世宗时，曾受打击，宋初渐复，但宋徽宗崇道抑佛，又略受打击，南渡后又复，在佛学研究上比之唐代要黯然消沉。此外，民间尚有祆教、摩尼教、伊斯兰教、犹太教等。

佛教在五代十国时期，于吴越、南唐、后蜀等南方各国流行。宋初，宋廷对佛教采取保护政策，李蔼作《灭邪集》反佛，宋太祖说他是「非毁佛教，诳惑西姓」，把他发配沙门岛。宋太宗进而认为佛教「有裨政治」，在五台山、峨眉山、天台山等处修建寺庙，在开封设译经院翻译佛经。宋太祖开宝年间，开始在益州雕印大藏经，宋太宗时雕版完成。这是第一部印行的佛经总集。宋真宗更加大力提倡佛教，撰写《崇儒术论》的同时，又作《崇释论》，说佛教与孔孟「迹异而道同」。宋真宗继续建寺译经，并亲自作佛经注释。宋真宗统治时期，成为宋朝僧徒最多，佛学最盛的时期。当时管理佛教事务的中央机构是左右街僧录事，隶属于鸿胪寺。各州府或大刹设僧政司，管理一境或一寺事务。宋朝沿用唐朝的度牒制度，度牒相当于出家许可证，没有度牒就属于不合法的「私度」。度牒制度原本是为控制僧尼人数，限制寺院的规模。但是自神宗朝起，为解决财政短缺，政府开始将度牒货币化，度牒沦为国家的敛财手段。其后度牒买卖始终参与国家财政运转，徽宗时期和绍兴年间尤为严重。佛教宗派以禅宗和净土宗最为兴盛。而禅宗之中又以临济、云门二宗最为繁茂。净土宗相对禅宗而言更为俗化。原先艰深的理论被阐释的更加简单化与口号化。

道教在宋朝变化繁多，十分兴旺。宋朝管理道教的机构是礼部所属的祠部。宋朝道教出现内丹派南宗、正一天师道（参见正一道、天师道）、忠孝净明道（即净明道）和全真道等新的道教教派。最后全国形成真大道教、正一天师道和全真教三足鼎立的局面。宋太祖时，道士们进见，劝他「无为无欲」「恬淡寡欲」，太祖不予理睬。宋太宗召见华山道士陈抟，赐给封号，命南唐降臣徐铉校正道书，又在东京、苏州等地修建道观，道教逐渐得到朝廷的提倡。宋真宗是道教的狂热的信奉者，对人说：「释道二门，有补世教」，又说：「三教（儒、道、释）之设，其旨一也」。宋真宗和道士们编造神话，说玉皇在他梦中传告赵氏始祖是轩辕帝。宋真宗尊玉皇为玉皇大天帝，赵氏始祖为圣祖天尊大帝，布告天下。参知政事丁谓等制定礼仪，大事祭祀。并且在东京修建玉清昭应宫，表明他是道教的忠实信徒。宋真宗又命王钦若主持续修道藏，搜编道书四千三百多卷。全国各地大修道观。道教得以广泛流行。

祆教、摩尼教与景教被称为「三夷教」，于晚唐时先后被禁。祆教在宋朝以后则基本消失。摩尼教转而在民间秘密流传，并渐与其他宗教结合，历五代两宋仍不衰。北宋的方腊和锺相起义都与摩尼教有关。伊斯兰教方面，唐朝时，穆斯林开始到中国进行贸易，宋朝伊斯兰教的影响更大。穆斯林在西洋与南洋贸易中占优势，他们负责市舶司，最著名的是蒲寿庚。犹太教徒主要分布在宋朝开封一带，当时被称为「蓝帽回回」、「天竺教」等。他们自称「一赐乐业」教徒，极有可能是以色列的音译。他们是现今开封犹太人的祖先。

教育

宋朝政府对文人之待遇在中国史上属于最高水准，由于宋代非常重视考生质素，教育事业也得到政府的支援。宋仁宗时，下诏州、县办学，进一步完善科举制度。宋代官学，规模空前，政府在中央设立国子监、太学、武学、律学及四门学和广文馆。中央各部门也设立书学、算学、画学、医学。地方上，设立州县两级学校，并在路设立学官。教师先由地方选聘，后改聘进士或国子监、太学毕业学生，教材有国家统一颁布，多以五经为主。

宋神宗时期，王安石制订太学三舍法（内舍、外舍、上舍）。学校会于每年按成绩升舍，在上舍成绩优秀时，可免州试和礼部考试，并特赐及第。有宋一代，各地书院式私学盛行，主要由于自唐朝以来，印刷业发达，书籍增多，民间可掌握的教育资料也开始增加，又因五代时战乱四起，教育中断，想学习的人一般都集中在有学识的学者的周围，既而形成书院。宋朝时，官方为了对私人办学进行管理，对私学「赐匾」、「赐书」、「赐学田」，给予承认，于是书院形成以私学，半官办，官办私学等多种方式。另外由于当时有学识有威望的学者，比如朱熹、陆九渊都喜欢在书院讲学，在一定程度上提高书院式私学的威望。著名书院有石鼓书院、白鹿洞书院、嵩阳书院、岳麓书院、应天府书院和茅山书院。南宋时期，书院规模扩大，学生增多，逐步在社会上形成另一种办学和上学的风气。书院也从最初的教学场所变为兼顾研究的学术机构。宋朝政府还于宋仁宗庆历四年（1044年）、神宗熙宁四年（1071年）至元丰元年（1078年）、徽宗崇宁元年（1102年）三次进行兴学运动，以改革教育制度，提高人文品质，这三次运动也取得一定的成效。

宋代改良科举制度也促成教育的发展，新的措施包括殿试的设立，防弊措施的增加，放宽应考条件，并增加取士数量等等。宋代的科考分为三级：解试（州试）、省试（由礼部举行）和殿试。解试由各地方进行，通过的举人可以进京参加省试。省试在贡院内进行，连考三天。通过者在宫内由皇帝主持殿试，在宋代凡于殿试中进士者皆即授官，不需要再经吏部选试。南、北宋三百二十年，总共开科一百一十八次。取进士二万人以上，考试的公平使得平民的机会均等，因而促进社会阶层的流动。

科技

科学技术史学者李约瑟认为，对科技史来讲，唐朝不如宋朝有意义。宋朝也可谓是古代中国历史上科技进步最快的时代，四大发明之中的胶泥活字印刷术诞生于宋朝，不过，一直到1440年德国谷登堡的铅字活字印刷术出现和印刷术开始在欧洲传播以后（1833年传入中国），世界各地居民的识字率才开始攀升。

史学家黄仁宇在《中国大历史》一书中指出，由于宋朝的经济未能在改革社会上发挥作用，导致科学技术无法系统地演进。庆历年间，布衣毕升在雕版印刷术的基础上发明活字印刷术。这种印刷术成本较低，省功省力，快速就得到推广。不久就传入日本、朝鲜、越南等国。指南针的系统应用也是在宋朝，特别是用于航海导航「舟师识地理，夜则观星，昼则观日，阴晦观指南针」。指南针的使用方法据沈括《梦溪笔谈》记载有四种：一是水浮法，即将指南针放到盛水的容器中指示方向；二是置指甲法，即将指南针置于手指指甲上指示方向；三是置碗唇法，即将指南针放在碗唇边上指示方向；四是缕悬法，既将指南针用丝线悬空指示方向。后来第一种方法演化成水罗盘，第二种演化为旱罗盘，而第三、四种由于精密度低而被淘汰。火药发明于唐末。北宋初年，曾用以制作火箭、火球等。后来又出现带爆炸性的霹雳炮。南宋时期更出现铁火炮、突火枪枪、火铳等新式武器。这些武器威力巨大，被广泛使用在对蒙战争中。《武经总要》是仁宗时期官方编修的一部详细的军事理论与军事技术的巨著，其中就有大量的火器介绍与火药的配制方法。后来在蒙古人西征时，火药又被传到西方。

传统数学在宋朝取得很大成就与进步，贾宪、秦九韶和杨辉都是出众的数学家。著名的成果有「杨辉三角形」等，数学著作则有《数书九章》和《杨辉算法》。宋朝的历法一共更改了十九次，是中国历史上历法改革非常频繁的时代。在神宗之前，使用的是楚衍所编制的崇天历。神宗到徽宗期间，改采以姚舜辅编制的纪元历。南宋的历法是以杨忠辅编制的统天历为主。它定一回归年的长度为365.2425日，比实际周期仅差廿六秒。与目前所用的西历格里历完全一致。但比格里历要早四百年。在天文仪器上，燕肃在天圣八年（1030年）发明的莲花漏首次使用漫流系统，记时的精准性因此获得大幅度的提高。苏颂在元佑七年（1092年）研制成功的水运仪象台实现浑仪、浑象和报时的三位一体，并且具有近世天文台的开启式圆顶等工具。景德三年（1006年）对豺狼座超新星的观察记录和至和元年（1054年）的天关客星观察记录是宝贵的天文资料。宋朝政府对医药学非常重视，设有太医局与翰林医官院，官修医方有《太平圣惠方》等，官修本草有《开宝本草》等。中医的分科由唐朝的四科增加到九科，妇科与儿科在宋朝正式成形。针灸学、解剖学与法医学进步尤大，最著名的法医著作是宋慈所著的《洗冤集录》。宋朝最重要的科技著作是沈括所著的《梦溪笔谈》。梦溪笔谈共计达卅卷，六百零九条，全面总结当时宋朝的科技成就。

建筑

宋朝在经济、手工业和科学技术方面都有发展，使得宋代的建筑师、木匠、技工、工程师、斗栱体系、建筑构造与造型技术达到很高的水平。建筑方式也日渐趋向系统化与模组化，建筑物慢慢出现自由多变的组合，并且绽放出成熟的风格并且拥有更专业的外型。为了增强室内的空间与采光度，采用减柱法和移柱法，梁柱上的斗拱铺作层数增多，更出现不规整形的梁柱铺排形式，跳出唐朝梁柱铺排的工整模式。宋代的建筑明显瘦长单薄，有弧形的屋顶以及宋代特有的尖塔。

虽然宋朝有很多不同类型的建筑物，但杰出的建筑都是佛塔、石桥、木桥、园林、皇陵与宫殿。由于注重意境的园林设计特意追求把自然美与人工美融为一体的意境，所以这一时期的建筑，一改唐代雄浑的特点，变得纤巧秀丽，柔弱纤秀，曲线柔和，注重装饰，华丽而繁细。建筑物的屋脊、屋角有起翘之势，不像唐代浑厚的风格，给人一种轻柔的感觉。油漆的大量使用，颜色十分突出。在窗棂，梁柱与石座的雕刻与彩绘的变化十分丰富，柱子造型更是变化多端。

虽然数千年来，建筑智慧依靠口耳相传，子承父业相传下来，关于建筑的文献却早已存在。历史学家通过水墨画中所描绘的建筑物了解宋朝建筑的配搭。此外李诫所著之《营造法式》是宋朝建筑学的重要文献，它对施工和度量的描述非常深入，比以前的文献更有组织，也对后世中国建筑设计，影响深远。另一方面，朝廷设立专门负责建筑营造及相关的官职与机构－将作监来掌管宫室建筑，让建筑智慧有系统地流传下来。

艺术

宋朝是中国书画艺术的顶峰期，宋朝皇帝特别重视书画事业，在宫廷设立翰林画艺局，翰林图画院与画学。宋画主要可分为山水画、人物画、花鸟画三大分类。中国山水画到宋朝为一多方发展之时期，派别之分演既多，画家亦彬彬辈出。宋朝初期中国山水画承袭五代荆浩、关仝、董源与巨然等人，使中国山水画推向高峰。北宋以米芾、米友仁父子最为卓越，他们成功的将文人画与山水画风格相融合，后人难以企及。其他山水画名家还有北宋的范宽、郭熙。范宽的《溪山行旅图》中峰鼎立的构图方式，表现出山的气势雄伟，前景作一巨石与主峰取得平衡，并以山腰的一线飞瀑，连贯上下气势。到了宋代南渡以后，山水画风大变，崇尚水墨。有名的有号称为「南宋四家」的李唐、刘松年、马远和夏圭等。李唐、刘松年等画家的笔法细润，色彩富丽，精丽巧整，世称院体。后来的马远与夏圭学习唐朝画法并参以南宋水墨之法。。

文人画与花鸟画互相融合，让宋朝花鸟画显得格外清丽脱俗。花鸟画自从五代黄筌与徐熙分道扬辉之后，到了宋朝，纯綷审美之风气盛行起来，以致于花鸟画与山水画更加兴盛，几乎取代人物画的中心地位。宋初名家有黄居寀和徐崇嗣二人并起，其情形颇兴北宗山水发展于院内，南宗山水发展于院外者相似。除了黄徐二人之外，还有崔白和宋徽宗擅长花鸟画。徽宗的书法和绘画都在中国艺术史上有重要地位。徽宗独创瘦金体，并重视书画事业。翰林书画院的地位大幅提高，著名画家，清明上河图的作者张择端就是其提拔。其子赵构也受到薰陶，成为杰出书法家。徽宗时期，院体画中的花鸟画大盛，徽宗本人就是个花鸟画大家。宋朝人物画的宗师是李公麟，他绘画体裁广泛，无所不工无所不能。以建筑物比例构图的界画在宋朝勃兴，郭忠恕和张择端是其代表。南渡以后，历史人物题材画开始兴起。苏汉臣的《秋庭婴戏图》，画中的两个小孩推枣磨时的精神和眼神，就令人叹为观止。道释人物画在宋代不甚盛行，不过确有一些重要画家出现，包括武宗元、李公麟、梁楷等人。其中以《八十七神仙卷》最为出名，众多仙人仙女，飘然列队而行，行如流水，极为生动。

宋朝是中国历代当中陶瓷艺术的鼎盛时期，其形制优美，高雅凝重，不但超越前人成就，即使后人仿制也少能匹敌。宋瓷经学者研究归纳，以定、汝、官、哥、钧五大名窑最为出名。定窑以白瓷浅刻见长；汝窑、官窑与哥窑则以青瓷为主，青瓷系以氧化铁为发色剂，先在坏体上施以浅浮雕，再施釉，烧成翠绿，影青等等；钧窑位于钧州，作品特色为用铁、铜、钛等金属氧化物，经烧成后在土坏表面形成各种红、绿、紫、白，多采多姿的效果。官窑，顾名思义，即专门为皇室烧制的陶瓷。南宋时由于许多北方名窑的工匠避难来到南方，为南宋的青瓷、白瓷工艺带来新的技术，加上海上丝瓷之路的便利，使中国瓷器开始zh-hans:畅销; zh-hant:畅销; zh-tw:行销;到世界各地。

宋朝书法主张尚意，注重在哲理性、书卷气、风格化与意境表现，同时也提倡个性化和独创性。宋朝书法跳脱唐朝的风格而开创新局。隋唐五代的书法注重在「工」的体现，而宋朝书法主张尚意抒情的部分，需具有「学识」即「书卷气」的部分。苏轼提出「我书意造」的口号，他的笔法内紧外松，险竣多变。苏（苏轼）、黄（黄庭坚）、米（米芾）、蔡（蔡襄，「蔡」原指蔡京，为北宋误国六贼之一，后世以其「人品奸恶」，遂改为蔡襄）为北宋书法四大家。宋四家一改唐楷面貌。直接晋帖行书遗风。无论是天资既高的蔡襄和自出新意的苏东坡，还是高视古人的黄庭坚和萧散奇险的米芾，都力图在表现自己的书法风貌的同时，凸现出一种标新立异的姿态，使学问之气郁郁芊芊发于笔墨之间，并给人以一种新的审美意境。而南宋的吴说、宋徽宗、陆游、范成大、朱熹、文天祥等书家中进一步延伸，其中宋徽宗特殊的书法风格被称作瘦金体，然而南宋书家的学问和笔墨功底已不能和北宋四家相比。

宋朝时，油画较有发展，作品有如易元吉《寒梅雀兔图》、赵大年《雪犬》、陈公储《画龙》、龚吉《兔》册、宋澥山水画册等。时油画多为绢帛油画。北宋《营造法式》记载了桐油炼制法。有说中国油画在元代传入欧洲，其说待订。

社会

由于晚唐五代时期门阀士族已经没落，科举考试制度到宋代真正得到广泛应用，对社会真正产极其生重大影响。科举制度使大量过去贫寒的读书人一跃成为士大夫阶级，使政府与社会有了紧密的联系，也打开平民入仕为官的管道。透过科举入仕的知识阶级在宋朝时已在政治、经济、法律、文化各方面取得十分全面的优势地位，在法律上也拥有许多特权，因而社会大众以中举任官做为读书的首要目标，社会也就衍生出「万般皆下品，唯有读书高」的风尚。儒家的忠孝节义观念，透过社会、乡约、族规、家礼等各种方式深入民间，推广于全社会。中国自宋代以后也得以构成一个比唐代远为普及的文化社会族群。而基层知识分子，构成基层乡绅，并成为村镇百姓与官府的桥梁。他们指导公共工程、支援学校与书院、编纂地方地志、参加地方祭典、纠集赈灾工作、招募地方自卫武力、提供村镇行为规范。两宋时期，透过科举孕育而成的士大夫阶级，是一个同时拥有政治权力、经济优势、学术文化素养的新兴族群。

就连南宋灭亡后，马可·波罗依然称杭州为「天城」。

瓦舍是重要的庶民游乐场所，内有勾栏，专供大众娱乐。东京的瓦舍见于《东京梦华录》的就有十座。临安的瓦舍见于《武林旧事》的有廿三座。瓦舍的演出内容呈现商业化、专业化、通俗化、大众化的新趋势。演出的内容主要包括说唱、戏剧、杂技和武术等。其形式多样，深受大众的好评。而在农村，宗族制度成为维系社会的主因。廿世纪之前，中国的政权只向下延伸到县衙，其下完全通过「乡保」与「族长」进行管理。在理学的教化下与士人的影响下，官方办理社会救助；透过理学薰陶，商人阶级出资办理社会救助。救助内容除了办书院、订乡约以激励品德外，还普遍办理义庄，以救贫恤孤，资助教育；办社仓，以备荒歉 ；办保甲，以补地方之武装而保民。这种由士人自发的救助工作，成为自南宋以降中国社会安定的重大因素。在宋代之前，官方的社会救助活动多属临时性质；宋代开始，各州县普遍设立各种社会救助的永久性机构。族长通过订立乡约乡规来保持社会的秩序。地方绅士通过办学、救济事业、修桥铺路等手段造福乡里。

学者柳诒徵认为宋朝的会社企业、集会集市以及行业协会组织十分发达。例如，吴自牧《梦粱录》记录了文化、艺术、宗教、娱乐、食品餐饮、商业、制作、服务等各行业各种社会团行，诸如踏弩社、蹴鞠社、打球社、赌钱社、灵宝会、茶汤会、花团、菜行、鱼行、酒行、食饭行、布行、销金行、香水行、腰带作、油作、木作、竹作、香烛作、裱褙作、装銮作、裁缝作等各种企业，以及斗宝会、米市、肉市、药市、花市、珠子市等各种集会集市。各种行业协会、商会十分活跃。公共慈善事业，有米场、柴场、药局、养济坊、安济局、慈幼局、居养院等机构，由官府举办或平民捐助，用以救助遇灾或贫病幼老无告之人家。政府和民间无不认为慈善事业为公共事业之最要者，其风实自宋启之。※宋朝人的生活方式和现代人基本毫无差别，奉天（渖阳）的发展程度堪比现代

君主年表

注：宋太祖黄袍加身后所追諡之其祖宗从未称帝、掌权，故不收录，可见宋朝君主列表一文

注解

History

Northern Song, 960–1127

After usurping the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty, Emperor Taizu of Song ( 960–976) spent sixteen years conquering the rest of China, reuniting much of the territory that had once belonged to the Han and Tang empires and ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. In Kaifeng, he established a strong central government over the empire. The establishment of this capital marked the start of the Northern Song period. He ensured administrative stability by promoting the civil service examination system of drafting state bureaucrats by skill and merit (instead of aristocratic or military position) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire. In one such project, cartographers created detailed maps of each province and city that were then collected in a large atlas. Emperor Taizu also promoted groundbreaking scientific and technological innovations by supporting works like the astronomical clock tower designed and built by the engineer Zhang Sixun.

The Song court maintained diplomatic relations with Chola India, the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt, Srivijaya, the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Central Asia, the Goryeo kingdom in Korea, and other countries that were also trade partners with Japan. Chinese records even mention an embassy from the ruler of "Fu lin" (拂菻, i.e. the Byzantine Empire), Michael VII Doukas, and its arrival in 1081. However, China's closest neighbouring states had the greatest impact on its domestic and foreign policy. From its inception under Taizu, the Song dynasty alternated between warfare and diplomacy with the ethnic Khitans of the Liao dynasty in the northeast and with the Tanguts of the Western Xia in the northwest. The Song dynasty used military force in an attempt to quell the Liao dynasty and to recapture the Sixteen Prefectures, a territory under Khitan control since 938 that was traditionally considered to be part of China proper (Most parts of today's Beijing and Tianjin). Song forces were repulsed by the Liao forces, who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into Northern Song territory until 1005, when the signing of the Shanyuan Treaty ended these northern border clashes. The Song were forced to provide tribute to the Khitans, although this did little damage to the Song economy since the Khitans were economically dependent upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song. More significantly, the Song state recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal. The Song created an extensive defensive forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks.

The Song dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). However, this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer of Shen disobeying direct orders, and the territory gained from the Western Xia was eventually lost. The Song fought against the Vietnamese kingdom of Đại Việt twice, the first conflict in 981 and later a significant war from 1075 to 1077 over a border dispute and the Song's severing of commercial relations with Đại Việt. After the Vietnamese forces inflicted heavy damages in a raid on Guangxi, the Song commander Guo Kui (1022–1088) penetrated as far as Thăng Long (modern Hanoi). Heavy losses on both sides prompted the Vietnamese commander Thường Kiệt (1019–1105) to make peace overtures, allowing both sides to withdraw from the war effort; captured territories held by both Song and Vietnamese were mutually exchanged in 1082, along with prisoners of war.

During the 11th century, political rivalries divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist Chancellor, Fan Zhongyan (989–1052), was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he attempted to institute the Qingli Reforms, which included measures such as improving the recruitment system of officials, increasing the salaries for minor officials, and establishing sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible for state service.

After Fan was forced to step down from his office, Wang Anshi (1021–1086) became Chancellor of the imperial court. With the backing of Emperor Shenzong (1067–1085), Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the New Policies. These involved land value tax reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, the support of local militias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass.

The reforms created political factions in the court. Wang Anshi's "New Policies Group" (Xin Fa), also known as the "Reformers", were opposed by the ministers in the "Conservative" faction led by the historian and Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086). As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire. One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.

The continual alternation between reform and conservatism had effectively weakened the dynasty. This decline can also be attributed to Cai Jing (1047–1126), who was appointed by Emperor Zhezong (1085–1100) and who remained in power until 1125. He revived the New Policies and pursued political opponents, tolerated corruption and encouraged Emperor Huizong (1100–1126) to neglect his duties to focus on artistic pursuits. Later, a peasant rebellion broke out in Zhejiang and Fujian, headed by Fang La in 1120. The rebellion may have been caused by an increasing tax burden, the concentration of landownership and oppressive government measures.

While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs, alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention. The Jurchen, a subject tribe of the Liao, rebelled against them and formed their own state, the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). The Song official Tong Guan (1054–1126) advised Emperor Huizong to form an alliance with the Jurchens, and the joint military campaign under this Alliance Conducted at Sea toppled and completely conquered the Liao dynasty by 1125. During the joint attack, the Song's northern expedition army removed the defensive forest along the Song-Liao border.

However, the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchens, who immediately broke the alliance, beginning the Jin–Song Wars of 1125 and 1127. Because of the removal of the previous defensive forest, the Jin army marched quickly across the North China Plain to Kaifeng. In the Jingkang Incident during the latter invasion, the Jurchens captured not only the capital, but the retired Emperor Huizong, his successor Emperor Qinzong, and most of the Imperial court.

The remaining Song forces regrouped under the self-proclaimed Emperor Gaozong of Song (1127–1162) and withdrew south of the Yangtze to establish a new capital at Lin'an (modern Hangzhou). The Jurchen conquest of North China and shift of capitals from Kaifeng to Lin'an was the dividing line between the Northern and Southern Song dynasties.

After their fall to the Jin, the Song lost control of North China. Now occupying what has been traditionally known as "China Proper," the Jin regarded themselves the rightful rulers of China. The Jin later chose earth as their dynastic element and yellow as their royal color. According to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing), the earth element follows the fire, the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, their ideological move showed that the Jin considered Song reign in China complete, with the Jin replacing the Song as the rightful rulers of China Proper.

Southern Song, 1127–1279

Although weakened and pushed south beyond the Huai River, the Southern Song found new ways to bolster its strong economy and defend itself against the Jin dynasty. It had able military officers such as Yue Fei and Han Shizhong. The government sponsored massive shipbuilding and harbor improvement projects, and the construction of beacons and seaport warehouses to support maritime trade abroad, including at the major international seaports, such as Quanzhou, Guangzhou, and Xiamen, that were sustaining China's commerce.

To protect and support the multitude of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters of the East China Sea and Yellow Sea (to Korea and Japan), Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, it was necessary to establish an official standing navy. The Song dynasty therefore established China's first permanent navy in 1132, with a headquarters at Dinghai. With a permanent navy, the Song were prepared to face the naval forces of the Jin on the Yangtze River in 1161, in the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi. During these battles the Song navy employed swift paddle wheel driven naval vessels armed with traction trebuchet catapults aboard the decks that launched gunpowder bombs. Although the Jin forces commanded by Wanyan Liang (the Prince of Hailing) boasted 70,000 men on 600 warships, and the Song forces only 3,000 men on 120 warships, the Song dynasty forces were victorious in both battles due to the destructive power of the bombs and the rapid assaults by paddlewheel ships. The strength of the navy was heavily emphasized after that. A century after the navy was founded it had grown in size to 52,000 fighting marines.

The Song government confiscated portions of land owned by the landed gentry in order to raise revenue for these projects, an act which caused dissension and loss of loyalty amongst leading members of Song society but did not stop the Song's defensive preparations. Financial matters were made worse by the fact that many wealthy, land-owning families—some of which had officials working for the government—used their social connections with those in office in order to obtain tax-exempt status.

Although the Song dynasty was able to hold back the Jin, a new foe came to power over the steppe, deserts, and plains north of the Jin dynasty. The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227), initially invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209, engaging in large raids across its borders, and in 1211 an enormous Mongol army was assembled to invade the Jin. The Jin dynasty was forced to submit and pay tribute to the Mongols as vassals; when the Jin suddenly moved their capital city from Beijing to Kaifeng, the Mongols saw this as a revolt. Under the leadership of Ögedei Khan (r.1229–1241), both the Jin dynasty and Western Xia dynasty were conquered by Mongol forces in 1233/34.

The Mongols were allied with the Song, but this alliance was broken when the Song recaptured the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Chang'an at the collapse of the Jin dynasty. After the first Mongol invasion of Vietnam in 1258, Mongol general Uriyangkhadai attacked Guangxi from Hanoi as part of a coordinated Mongol attack in 1259 with armies attacking in Sichuan under Mongol leader Möngke Khan and other Mongol armies attacking in modern-day Shandong and Henan. On August 11, 1259, Möngke Khan died during the siege of Diaoyu Castle in Chongqing.

Möngke's death and the ensuing succession crisis prompted Hulagu Khan to pull the bulk of the Mongol forces out of the Middle East where they were poised to fight the Egyptian Mamluks (who defeated the remaining Mongols at Ain Jalut). Although Hulagu was allied with Kublai Khan, his forces were unable to help in the assault against the Song, due to Hulagu's war with the Golden Horde.

Kublai continued the assault against the Song, gaining a temporary foothold on the southern banks of the Yangtze. By the winter of 1259, Uriyangkhadai's army fought its way north to meet Kublai Khan's army, which was besieging Ezhou in Hubei. Kublai made preparations to take Ezhou, but a pending civil war with his brother Ariq Böke—a rival claimant to the Mongol Khaganate—forced Kublai to move back north with the bulk of his forces. In Kublai's absence, the Song forces were ordered by Chancellor Jia Sidao to make an immediate assault and succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern banks of the Yangtze. There were minor border skirmishes until 1265, when Kublai won a significant battle in Sichuan.

From 1268 to 1273, Kublai blockaded the Yangtze River with his navy and besieged Xiangyang, the last obstacle in his way to invading the rich Yangtze River basin. Kublai officially declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty in 1271. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by Kublai's newly appointed commander-in-chief, general Bayan. By 1276, most of the Song territory had been captured by Yuan forces, including the capital Lin'an.

In the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta in 1279, the Yuan army, led by the general Zhang Hongfan, finally crushed the Song resistance. The last remaining ruler, the 13-year-old emperor Zhao Bing, committed suicide, along with Prime Minister Lu Xiufu and 1300 members of the royal clan. On Kublai's orders, carried out by his commander Bayan, the rest of the former imperial family of Song were unharmed; the deposed Emperor Gong was demoted, being given the title 'Duke of Ying', but was eventually exiled to Tibet where he took up a monastic life. The former emperor would eventually be forced to commit suicide under the orders of Kublai's great-great grandson, Gegeen Khan, out of fear that Emperor Gong would stage a coup to restore his reign. Other members of the Song Imperial Family continued to live in the Yuan dynasty, including Zhao Mengfu and Zhao Yong.

Culture and society

The Song dynasty was an era of administrative sophistication and complex social organization. Some of the largest cities in the world were found in China during this period (Kaifeng and Hangzhou had populations of over a million). People enjoyed various social clubs and entertainment in the cities, and there were many schools and temples to provide the people with education and religious services. The Song government supported social welfare programs including the establishment of retirement homes, public clinics, and paupers' graveyards. The Song dynasty supported a widespread postal service that was modeled on the earlier Han dynasty (202 BCE – CE 220) postal system to provide swift communication throughout the empire. The central government employed thousands of postal workers of various ranks to provide service for post offices and larger postal stations. In rural areas, farming peasants either owned their own plots of land, paid rents as tenant farmers, or were serfs on large estates.

Although women were on a lower social tier than men (according to Confucian ethics), they enjoyed many social and legal privileges and wielded considerable power at home and in their own small businesses. As Song society became more and more prosperous and parents on the bride's side of the family provided larger dowries for her marriage, women naturally gained many new legal rights in ownership of property. Under certain circumstances, an unmarried daughter without brothers, or a surviving mother without sons, could inherit one-half of her father's share of undivided family property. There were many notable and well-educated women, and it was a common practice for women to educate their sons during their earliest youth. The mother of the scientist, general, diplomat, and statesman Shen Kuo taught him essentials of military strategy. There were also exceptional women writers and poets, such as Li Qingzhao (1084–1151), who became famous even in her lifetime.

Religion in China during this period had a great effect on people's lives, beliefs, and daily activities, and Chinese literature on spirituality was popular. The major deities of Daoism and Buddhism, ancestral spirits, and the many deities of Chinese folk religion were worshipped with sacrificial offerings. Tansen Sen asserts that more Buddhist monks from India traveled to China during the Song than in the previous Tang dynasty (618–907). With many ethnic foreigners travelling to China to conduct trade or live permanently, there came many foreign religions; religious minorities in China included Middle Eastern Muslims, the Kaifeng Jews, and Persian Manichaeans.

The populace engaged in a vibrant social and domestic life, enjoying such public festivals as the Lantern Festival and the Qingming Festival. There were entertainment quarters in the cities providing a constant array of amusements. There were puppeteers, acrobats, theatre actors, sword swallowers, snake charmers, storytellers, singers and musicians, prostitutes, and places to relax, including tea houses, restaurants, and organized banquets. People attended social clubs in large numbers; there were tea clubs, exotic food clubs, antiquarian and art collectors' clubs, horse-loving clubs, poetry clubs, and music clubs. Like regional cooking and cuisines in the Song, the era was known for its regional varieties of performing arts styles as well. Theatrical drama was very popular amongst the elite and general populace, although Classical Chinese—not the vernacular language—was spoken by actors on stage. The four largest drama theatres in Kaifeng could hold audiences of several thousand each. There were also notable domestic pastimes, as people at home enjoyed activities such as the go and xiangqi board games.

Civil service examinations and the gentry

During this period greater emphasis was laid upon the civil service system of recruiting officials; this was based upon degrees acquired through competitive examinations, in an effort to select the most capable individuals for governance. Selecting men for office through proven merit was an ancient idea in China. The civil service system became institutionalized on a small scale during the Sui and Tang dynasties, but by the Song period, it became virtually the only means for drafting officials into the government. The advent of widespread printing helped to widely circulate Confucian teachings and to educate more and more eligible candidates for the exams. This can be seen in the number of exam takers for the low-level prefectural exams rising from 30,000 annual candidates in the early 11th century to 400,000 candidates by the late 13th century. The civil service and examination system allowed for greater meritocracy, social mobility, and equality in competition for those wishing to attain an official seat in government. Using statistics gathered by the Song state, Edward A. Kracke, Sudō Yoshiyuki, and Ho Ping-ti supported the hypothesis that simply having a father, grandfather, or great-grandfather who had served as an official of state did not guarantee one would obtain the same level of authority. Robert Hartwell and Robert P. Hymes criticized this model, stating that it places too much emphasis on the role of the nuclear family and considers only three paternal ascendants of exam candidates while ignoring the demographic reality of Song China, the significant proportion of males in each generation that had no surviving sons, and the role of the extended family. Many felt disenfranchised by what they saw as a bureaucratic system that favored the land-holding class able to afford the best education. One of the greatest literary critics of this was the official and famous poet Su Shi. Yet Su was a product of his times, as the identity, habits, and attitudes of the scholar-official had become less aristocratic and more bureaucratic with the transition of the periods from Tang to Song. At the beginning of the dynasty, government posts were disproportionately held by two elite social groups: a founding elite who had ties with the founding emperor and a semi-hereditary professional elite who used long-held clan status, family connections, and marriage alliances to secure appointments. By the late 11th century, the founding elite became obsolete, while political partisanship and factionalism at court undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite, which dissolved as a distinguishable social group and was replaced by a multitude of gentry families.

Due to Song's enormous population growth and the body of its appointed scholar-officials being accepted in limited numbers (about 20,000 active officials during the Song period), the larger scholarly gentry class would now take over grassroots affairs on the vast local level. Excluding the scholar-officials in office, this elite social class consisted of exam candidates, examination degree-holders not yet assigned to an official post, local tutors, and retired officials. These learned men, degree-holders, and local elites supervised local affairs and sponsored necessary facilities of local communities; any local magistrate appointed to his office by the government relied upon the cooperation of the few or many local gentry in the area. For example, the Song government—excluding the educational-reformist government under Emperor Huizong—spared little amount of state revenue to maintain prefectural and county schools; instead, the bulk of the funds for schools was drawn from private financing. This limited role of government officials was a departure from the earlier Tang dynasty (618–907), when the government strictly regulated commercial markets and local affairs; now the government withdrew heavily from regulating commerce and relied upon a mass of local gentry to perform necessary duties in their communities.

The gentry distinguished themselves in society through their intellectual and antiquarian pursuits, while the homes of prominent landholders attracted a variety of courtiers, including artisans, artists, educational tutors, and entertainers. Despite the disdain for trade, commerce, and the merchant class exhibited by the highly cultured and elite exam-drafted scholar-officials, commercialism played a prominent role in Song culture and society. A scholar-official would be frowned upon by his peers if he pursued means of profiteering outside of his official salary; however, this did not stop many scholar-officials from managing business relations through the use of intermediary agents.

Law, justice, and forensic science

The Song judicial system retained most of the legal code of the earlier Tang dynasty, the basis of traditional Chinese law up until the modern era. Roving sheriffs maintained law and order in the municipal jurisdictions and occasionally ventured into the countryside. Official magistrates overseeing court cases were not only expected to be well-versed in written law but also to promote morality in society. Magistrates such as the famed Bao Zheng (999–1062) embodied the upright, moral judge who upheld justice and never failed to live up to his principles. Song judges specified the guilty person or party in a criminal act and meted out punishments accordingly, often in the form of caning. A guilty individual or parties brought to court for a criminal or civil offense were not viewed as wholly innocent until proven otherwise, while even accusers were viewed with a high level of suspicion by the judge. Due to costly court expenses and immediate jailing of those accused of criminal offenses, people in the Song preferred to settle disputes and quarrels privately, without the court's interference.

Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays argued against traditional Chinese beliefs in anatomy (such as his argument for two throat valves instead of three); this perhaps spurred the interest in the performance of post-mortem autopsies in China during the 12th century. The physician and judge known as Song Ci (1186–1249) wrote a pioneering work of forensic science on the examination of corpses in order to determine cause of death (strangulation, poisoning, drowning, blows, etc.) and to prove whether death resulted from murder, suicide, or accidental death. Song Ci stressed the importance of proper coroner's conduct during autopsies and the accurate recording of the inquest of each autopsy by official clerks.

Military and methods of warfare

The Song military was chiefly organized to ensure that the army could not threaten Imperial control, often at the expense of effectiveness in war. Northern Song's Military Council operated under a Chancellor, who had no control over the imperial army. The imperial army was divided among three marshals, each independently responsible to the Emperor. Since the Emperor rarely led campaigns personally, Song forces lacked unity of command. The imperial court often believed that successful generals endangered royal authority, and relieved or even executed them (notably Li Gang, Yue Fei, and Han Shizhong).

Although the scholar-officials viewed military soldiers as lower members in the hierarchic social order, a person could gain status and prestige in society by becoming a high-ranking military officer with a record of victorious battles. At its height, the Song military had one million soldiers divided into platoons of 50 troops, companies made of two platoons, battalions composed of 500 soldiers. Crossbowmen were separated from the regular infantry and placed in their own units as they were prized combatants, providing effective missile fire against cavalry charges. The government was eager to sponsor new crossbow designs that could shoot at longer ranges, while crossbowmen were also valuable when employed as long-range snipers. Song cavalry employed a slew of different weapons, including halberds, swords, bows, spears, and 'fire lances' that discharged a gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel.

Military strategy and military training were treated as sciences that could be studied and perfected; soldiers were tested in their skills of using weaponry and in their athletic ability. The troops were trained to follow signal standards to advance at the waving of banners and to halt at the sound of bells and drums.

The Song navy was of great importance during the consolidation of the empire in the 10th century; during the war against the Southern Tang state, the Song navy employed tactics such as defending large floating pontoon bridges across the Yangtze River in order to secure movements of troops and supplies. There were large ships in the Song navy that could carry 1,000 soldiers aboard their decks, while the swift-moving paddle-wheel craft were viewed as essential fighting ships in any successful naval battle.

In a battle on January 23, 971, massive arrow fire from Song dynasty crossbowmen decimated the war elephant corps of the Southern Han army. This defeat not only marked the eventual submission of the Southern Han to the Song dynasty, but also the last instance where a war elephant corps was employed as a regular division within a Chinese army.

There was a total of 347 military treatises written during the Song period, as listed by the history text of the Song Shi (compiled in 1345). However, only a handful of these military treatises have survived, which includes the Wujing Zongyao written in 1044. It was the first known book to have listed formulas for gunpowder; it gave appropriate formulas for use in several different kinds of gunpowder bombs. It also provided detailed descriptions and illustrations of double-piston pump flamethrowers, as well as instructions for the maintenance and repair of the components and equipment used in the device.

Arts, literature, and philosophy

The visual arts during the Song dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting. The gentry elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar-official, including painting, composing poetry, and writing calligraphy. The poet and statesman Su Shi and his associate Mi Fu (1051–1107) enjoyed antiquarian affairs, often borrowing or buying art pieces to study and copy. Poetry and literature profited from the rising popularity and development of the ci poetry form. Enormous encyclopedic volumes were compiled, such as works of historiography and dozens of treatises on technical subjects. This included the universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian, compiled into 1000 volumes of 9.4 million written Chinese characters. The genre of Chinese travel literature also became popular with the writings of the geographer Fan Chengda (1126–1193) and Su Shi, the latter of whom wrote the 'daytrip essay' known as Record of Stone Bell Mountain that used persuasive writing to argue for a philosophical point. Although an early form of the local geographic gazetteer existed in China since the 1st century, the matured form known as "treatise on a place", or fangzhi, replaced the old "map guide", or , during the Song dynasty.

The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. Emperor Huizong was the eighth emperor of the Song dynasty and he was a renowned artist as well as a patron of the art and the catalogue of his collection listed over 6,000 known paintings. A prime example of a highly venerated court painter was Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145) who painted an enormous panoramic painting, Along the River During the Qingming Festival. Emperor Gaozong of Song initiated a massive art project during his reign, known as the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute from the life story of Cai Wenji (b. 177). This art project was a diplomatic gesture to the Jin dynasty while he negotiated for the release of his mother from Jurchen captivity in the north.

In philosophy, Chinese Buddhism had waned in influence but it retained its hold on the arts and on the charities of monasteries. Buddhism had a profound influence upon the budding movement of Neo-Confucianism, led by Cheng Yi (1033–1107) and Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Mahayana Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through its concept of ethical universalism, while Buddhist metaphysics deeply affected the pre–Neo-Confucian doctrine of Cheng Yi. The philosophical work of Cheng Yi in turn influenced Zhu Xi. Although his writings were not accepted by his contemporary peers, Zhu's commentary and emphasis upon the Confucian classics of the Four Books as an introductory corpus to Confucian learning formed the basis of the Neo-Confucian doctrine. By the year 1241, under the sponsorship of Emperor Lizong, Zhu Xi's Four Books and his commentary on them became standard requirements of study for students attempting to pass the civil service examinations. The neighbouring East Asian countries of Japan and Korea also adopted Zhu Xi's teaching, known as the Shushigaku (朱子学, School of Zhu Xi) of Japan, and in Korea the Jujahak (주자학). Buddhism's continuing influence can be seen in painted artwork such as Lin Tinggui's Luohan Laundering. However, the ideology was highly criticized and even scorned by some. The statesman and historian Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) called the religion a "curse" that could only be remedied by uprooting it from Chinese culture and replacing it with Confucian discourse. The Chan sect experienced a literary flourishing in the Song period, which saw the publication of several major classical koan collections which remain influential in Zen philosophy and practice to the present day. A true revival of Buddhism in Chinese society would not occur until the Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty, with Kublai Khan's sponsorship of Tibetan Buddhism and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa as the leading lama. The Christian sect of Nestorianism, which had entered China in the Tang era, would also be revived in China under Mongol rule.

Cuisine and clothing

Sumptuary laws regulated the food that one consumed and the clothes that one wore according to status and social class. Clothing was made of hemp or cotton cloths, restricted to a color standard of black and white. Trousers were the acceptable attire for peasants, soldiers, artisans, and merchants, although wealthy merchants might choose to wear more ornate clothing and male blouses that came down below the waist. Acceptable apparel for scholar-officials was rigidly defined by the social ranking system. However, as time went on this rule of rank-graded apparel for officials was not as strictly enforced. Each official was able to display his awarded status by wearing different-colored traditional silken robes that hung to the ground around his feet, specific types of headgear, and even specific styles of girdles that displayed his graded-rank of officialdom.

Women wore long dresses, blouses that came down to the knee, skirts, and jackets with long or short sleeves, while women from wealthy families could wear purple scarves around their shoulders. The main difference in women's apparel from that of men was that it was fastened on the left, not on the right.

The main food staples in the diet of the lower classes remained rice, pork, and salted fish. In 1011, Emperor Zhenzong of Song introduced Champa rice to China from Vietnam's Kingdom of Champa, which sent 30,000 bushels as a tribute to Song. Champa rice was drought-resistant and able to grow fast enough to offer two harvests a year instead of one.

Song restaurant and tavern menus are recorded. They list entrees for feasts, banquets, festivals, and carnivals. They reveal a diverse and lavish diet for those of the upper class. They could choose from a wide variety of meats and seafood, including shrimp, geese, duck, mussel, shellfish, fallow deer, hare, partridge, pheasant, francolin, quail, fox, badger, clam, crab, and many others. Dairy products were rare in Chinese cuisine at this time. Beef was rarely consumed since the bull was a valuable draft animal, and dog meat was absent from the diet of the wealthy, although the poor could choose to eat dog meat if necessary (yet it was not part of their regular diet). People also consumed dates, raisins, jujubes, pears, plums, apricots, pear juice, lychee-fruit juice, honey and ginger drinks, spices and seasonings of Sichuan pepper, ginger, soy sauce, oil, sesame oil, salt, and vinegar.

Economy

The Song dynasty had one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world. Song Chinese invested their funds in joint stock companies and in multiple sailing vessels at a time when monetary gain was assured from the vigorous overseas trade and domestic trade along the Grand Canal and Yangtze River. Prominent merchant families and private businesses were allowed to occupy industries that were not already government-operated monopolies. Both private and government-controlled industries met the needs of a growing Chinese population in the Song. Artisans and merchants formed guilds that the state had to deal with when assessing taxes, requisitioning goods, and setting standard workers' wages and prices on goods.

The iron industry was pursued by both private entrepreneurs who owned their own smelters as well as government-supervised smelting facilities. The Song economy was stable enough to produce over a hundred million kilograms (over two hundred million pounds) of iron product a year. Large-scale Deforestation in China would have continued if not for the 11th-century innovation of the use of coal instead of charcoal in blast furnaces for smelting cast iron. Much of this iron was reserved for military use in crafting weapons and armouring troops, but some was used to fashion the many iron products needed to fill the demands of the growing domestic market. The iron trade within China was advanced by the construction of new canals, facilitating the flow of iron products from production centres to the large market in the capital city.

The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 reached roughly six billion coins. The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world's first government issued paper-printed money, known as Jiaozi (see also Huizi). For the printing of paper money, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi. The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day.

The economic power of Song China can be attested by the growth of the urban population of its capital city Hangzhou. The population was 200,000 at the start of the 12th century and increased to 500,000 around 1170 and doubled to over a million a century later. This economic power also heavily influenced foreign economies abroad. The Moroccan geographer al-Idrisi wrote in 1154 of the prowess of Chinese merchant ships in the Indian Ocean and of their annual voyages that brought iron, swords, silk, velvet, porcelain, and various textiles to places such as Aden (Yemen), the Indus River, and the Euphrates in modern-day Iraq. Foreigners, in turn, affected the Chinese economy. For example, many West Asian and Central Asian Muslims went to China to trade, becoming a preeminent force in the import and export industry, while some were even appointed as officers supervising economic affairs. Sea trade with the South-west Pacific, the Hindu world, the Islamic world, and East Africa brought merchants great fortune and spurred an enormous growth in the shipbuilding industry of Song-era Fujian province. However, there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures. In order to reduce the risk of losing money on maritime trade missions abroad, wrote historians Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais:

Science and technology

Gunpowder warfare

Advancements in weapons technology enhanced by gunpowder, including the evolution of the early flamethrower, explosive grenade, firearm, cannon, and land mine, enabled the Song Chinese to ward off their militant enemies until the Song's ultimate collapse in the late 13th century. The Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044 was the first book in history to provide formulas for gunpowder and their specified use in different types of bombs. While engaged in a war with the Mongols, in 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his Kezhai Zagao, Xugaohou that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron-cased bombshells a month, dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time. In turn, the invading Mongols employed northern Chinese soldiers and used these same types of gunpowder weapons against the Song. By the 14th century the firearm and cannon could also be found in Europe, India, and the Middle East, during the early age of gunpowder warfare.

Measuring distance and mechanical navigation

As early as the Han dynasty, when the state needed to accurately measure distances traveled throughout the empire, the Chinese relied on a mechanical odometer. The Chinese odometer was a wheeled carriage, its gearwork being driven by the rotation of the carriage's wheels; specific units of distance—the Chinese li—were marked by the mechanical striking of a drum or bell as an auditory signal. The specifications for the 11th-century odometer were written by Chief Chamberlain Lu Daolong, who is quoted extensively in the historical text of the Song Shi (compiled by 1345). In the Song period, the odometer vehicle was also combined with another old complex mechanical device known as the south-pointing chariot. This device, originally crafted by Ma Jun in the 3rd century, incorporated a differential gear that allowed a figure mounted on the vehicle to always point in the southern direction, no matter how the vehicle's wheels turned about. The concept of the differential gear that was used in this navigational vehicle is now found in modern automobiles in order to apply an equal amount of torque to a car's wheels even when they are rotating at different speeds.

Polymaths, inventions, and astronomy

Polymath figures such as the scientists and statesmen Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Su Song (1020–1101) embodied advancements in all fields of study, including botany, zoology, geology, mineralogy, metallurgy, mechanics, magnetics, meteorology, horology, astronomy, pharmaceutical medicine, archeology, mathematics, cartography, optics, art criticism, hydraulics, and many other fields.

Shen Kuo was the first to discern magnetic declination of true north while experimenting with a compass. Shen theorized that geographical climates gradually shifted over time. He created a theory of land formation involving concepts accepted in modern geomorphology. He performed optical experiments with camera obscura just decades after Ibn al-Haytham was the first to do so. He also improved the designs of astronomical instruments such as the widened astronomical sighting tube, which allowed Shen Kuo to fix the position of the pole star (which had shifted over centuries of time). Shen Kuo was also known for hydraulic clockworks, as he invented a new overflow-tank clepsydra which had more efficient higher-order interpolation instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time.

Su Song was best known for his horology treatise written in 1092, which described and illustrated in great detail his hydraulic-powered, tall astronomical clock tower built in Kaifeng. The clock tower featured large astronomical instruments of the armillary sphere and celestial globe, both driven by an early intermittently working escapement mechanism (similarly to the western verge escapement of true mechanical clocks appeared in medieval clockworks, derived from ancient clockworks of classical times). Su's tower featured a rotating gear wheel with 133 clock jack mannequins who were timed to rotate past shuttered windows while ringing gongs and bells, banging drums, and presenting announcement plaques. In his printed book, Su published a celestial atlas of five star charts. These star charts feature a cylindrical projection similar to Mercator projection, the latter being a cartographic innovation of Gerardus Mercator in 1569.

The Song Chinese observed supernovae, including SN 1054, the remnants of which would form the Crab Nebula. Moreover, the Soochow Astronomical Chart on Chinese planispheres was prepared in 1193 for instructing the crown prince on astronomical findings. The planispheres were engraved in stone several decades later.

Mathematics and cartography

There were many notable improvements to Chinese mathematics during the Song era. Mathematician Yang Hui's 1261 book provided the earliest Chinese illustration of Pascal's triangle, although it had earlier been described by Jia Xian in around 1100. Yang Hui also provided rules for constructing combinatorial arrangements in magic squares, provided theoretical proof for Euclid's forty-third proposition about parallelograms, and was the first to use negative coefficients of 'x' in quadratic equations. Yang's contemporary Qin Jiushao (c. 1202–1261) was the first to introduce the zero symbol into Chinese mathematics; before this blank spaces were used instead of zeroes in the system of counting rods. He is also known for working with the Chinese remainder theorem, Heron's formula, and astronomical data used in determining the winter solstice. Qin's major work was the Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections published in 1247.

Geometry was essential to surveying and cartography. The earliest extant Chinese maps date to the 4th century BCE, yet it was not until the time of Pei Xiu (224–271) that topographical elevation, a formal rectangular grid system, and use of a standard graduated scale of distances was applied to terrain maps. Following a long tradition, Shen Kuo created a raised-relief map, while his other maps featured a uniform graduated scale of 1:900,000. A squared map of 1137—carved into a stone block—followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each gridded square, and accurately mapped the outline of the coasts and river systems of China, extending all the way to India. Furthermore, the world's oldest known terrain map in printed form comes from the edited encyclopedia of Yang Jia in 1155, which displayed western China without the formal grid system that was characteristic of more professionally made Chinese maps. Although gazetteers had existed since 52 CE during the Han dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps (Chinese: ) since the Sui dynasty, the illustrated gazetteer became much more common in the Song dynasty, when the foremost concern was for illustrative gazetteers to serve political, administrative, and military purposes.

Movable type printing

The innovation of movable type printing was made by the artisan Bi Sheng (990–1051), first described by the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088. The collection of Bi Sheng's original clay-fired typeface was passed on to one of Shen Kuo's nephews, and was carefully preserved. Movable type enhanced the already widespread use of woodblock methods of printing thousands of documents and volumes of written literature, consumed eagerly by an increasingly literate public. The advancement of printing deeply affected education and the scholar-official class, since more books could be made faster while mass-produced, printed books were cheaper in comparison to laborious handwritten copies. The enhancement of widespread printing and print culture in the Song period was thus a direct catalyst in the rise of social mobility and expansion of the educated class of scholar elites, the latter which expanded dramatically in size from the 11th to 13th centuries.

The movable type invented by Bi Sheng was ultimately trumped by the use of woodblock printing due to the limitations of the enormous Chinese character writing system, yet movable type printing continued to be used and was improved in later periods. The Yuan dynasty scholar-official Wang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333) implemented a faster typesetting process, improved Bi's baked-clay movable type character set with a wooden one, and experimented with tin-metal movable type. The wealthy printing patron Hua Sui (1439–1513) of the Ming dynasty established China's first metal movable type (using bronze) in 1490. In 1638, the Peking Gazette switched their printing process from woodblock to movable type printing. Yet it was during the Qing dynasty that massive printing projects began to employ movable type printing. This includes the printing of sixty-six copies of a 5,020 volume long encyclopedia in 1725, the Gujin Tushu Jicheng (Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times), which necessitated the crafting of 250,000 movable type characters cast in bronze. By the 19th century the European style printing press replaced the old Chinese methods of movable type, while traditional woodblock printing in modern East Asia is used sparsely and for aesthetic reasons.

Hydraulic and nautical engineering

The most important nautical innovation of the Song period seems to have been the introduction of the magnetic mariner's compass, which permitted accurate navigation on the open sea regardless of the weather. The magnetized compass needle known in Chinese as the "south-pointing needle" was first described by Shen Kuo in his 1088 Dream Pool Essays and first mentioned in active use by sailors in Zhu Yu's 1119 Pingzhou Table Talks.

There were other considerable advancements in hydraulic engineering and nautical technology during the Song dynasty. The 10th-century invention of the pound lock for canal systems allowed different water levels to be raised and lowered for separated segments of a canal, which significantly aided the safety of canal traffic and allowed for larger barges. There was the Song-era innovation of watertight bulkhead compartments that allowed damage to hulls without sinking the ships. If ships were damaged, the Chinese of the 11th century employed drydocks to repair them while suspended out of the water. The Song used crossbeams to brace the ribs of ships in order to strengthen them in a skeletal-like structure. Stern-mounted rudders had been mounted on Chinese ships since the 1st century, as evidenced by a preserved Han tomb model of a ship. In the Song period, the Chinese devised a way to mechanically raise and lower rudders in order for ships to travel in a wider range of water depths. The Song arranged the protruding teeth of anchors in a circular pattern instead of in one direction. David Graff and Robin Higham state that this arrangement "made them more reliable" for anchoring ships.

Structural engineering and architecture

Architecture during the Song period reached new heights of sophistication. Authors such as Yu Hao and Shen Kuo wrote books outlining the field of architectural layouts, craftsmanship, and structural engineering in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively. Shen Kuo preserved the written dialogues of Yu Hao when describing technical issues such as slanting struts built into pagoda towers for diagonal wind bracing. Shen Kuo also preserved Yu's specified dimensions and units of measurement for various building types. The architect Li Jie (1065–1110), who published the Yingzao Fashi ('Treatise on Architectural Methods') in 1103, greatly expanded upon the works of Yu Hao and compiled the standard building codes used by the central government agencies and by craftsmen throughout the empire. He addressed the standard methods of construction, design, and applications of moats and fortifications, stonework, greater woodwork, lesser woodwork, wood-carving, turning and drilling, sawing, bamboo work, tiling, wall building, painting and decoration, brickwork, glazed tile making, and provided proportions for mortar formulas in masonry. In his book, Li provided detailed and vivid illustrations of architectural components and cross-sections of buildings. These illustrations displayed various applications of corbel brackets, cantilever arms, mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, and diagrams showing the various building types of halls in graded sizes. He also outlined the standard units of measurement and standard dimensional measurements of all building components described and illustrated in his book.

Grandiose building projects were supported by the government, including the erection of towering Buddhist Chinese pagodas and the construction of enormous bridges (wood or stone, trestle or segmental arch bridge). Many of the pagoda towers built during the Song period were erected at heights that exceeded ten stories. Some of the most famous are the Iron Pagoda built in 1049 during the Northern Song and the Liuhe Pagoda built in 1165 during the Southern Song, although there were many others. The tallest is the Liaodi Pagoda of Hebei built in 1055, towering in total height. Some of the bridges reached lengths of , with many being wide enough to allow two lanes of cart traffic simultaneously over a waterway or ravine. The government also oversaw construction of their own administrative offices, palace apartments, city fortifications, ancestral temples, and Buddhist temples.

The professions of the architect, craftsman, carpenter, and structural engineer were not seen as professionally equal to that of a Confucian scholar-official. Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years in China, in many cases from a father craftsman to his son. Structural engineering and architecture schools were known to have existed during the Song period; one prestigious engineering school was headed by the renowned bridge-builder Cai Xiang (1012–1067) in medieval Fujian province.

Besides existing buildings and technical literature of building manuals, Song dynasty artwork portraying cityscapes and other buildings aid modern-day scholars in their attempts to reconstruct and realize the nuances of Song architecture. Song dynasty artists such as Li Cheng, Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, Zhang Zeduan, Emperor Huizong of Song, and Ma Lin painted close-up depictions of buildings as well as large expanses of cityscapes featuring arched bridges, halls and pavilions, pagoda towers, and distinct Chinese city walls. The scientist and statesman Shen Kuo was known for his criticism of artwork relating to architecture, saying that it was more important for an artist to capture a holistic view of a landscape than it was to focus on the angles and corners of buildings. For example, Shen criticized the work of the painter Li Cheng for failing to observe the principle of "seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large" in portraying buildings.

There were also pyramidal tomb structures in the Song era, such as the Song imperial tombs located in Gongxian, Henan province. About from Gongxian is another Song dynasty tomb at Baisha, which features "elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction, from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets, that adorn interior walls." The two large chambers of the Baisha tomb also feature conical-shaped roofs. Flanking the avenues leading to these tombs are lines of Song dynasty stone statues of officials, tomb guardians, animals, and legendary creatures.

Archaeology

In addition to the Song gentry's antiquarian pursuits of art collecting, scholar-officials during the Song became highly interested in retrieving ancient relics from archaeological sites, in order to revive the use of ancient vessels in ceremonies of state ritual. Scholar-officials of the Song period claimed to have discovered ancient bronze vessels that were created as far back as the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), which bore the written characters of the Shang era. Some attempted to recreate these bronze vessels by using imagination alone, not by observing tangible evidence of relics; this practice was criticized by Shen Kuo in his work of 1088. Yet Shen Kuo had much more to criticize than this practice alone. Shen objected to the idea of his peers that ancient relics were products created by famous "sages" in lore or the ancient aristocratic class; Shen rightfully attributed the discovered handicrafts and vessels from ancient times as the work of artisans and commoners from previous eras. He also disapproved of his peers' pursuit of archaeology simply to enhance state ritual, since Shen not only took an interdisciplinary approach with the study of archaeology, but he also emphasized the study of functionality and investigating what was the ancient relics' original processes of manufacture. Shen used ancient texts and existing models of armillary spheres to create one based on ancient standards; Shen described ancient weaponry such as the use of a scaled sighting device on crossbows; while experimenting with ancient musical measures, Shen suggested hanging an ancient bell by using a hollow handle.

Despite the gentry's overriding interest in archaeology simply for reviving ancient state rituals, some of Shen's peers took a similar approach to the study of archaeology. His contemporary Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze which pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archaeology. During the 11th century, Song scholars discovered the ancient shrine of Wu Liang (78–151 CE), a scholar of the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE); they produced rubbings of the carvings and bas-reliefs decorating the walls of his tomb so that they could be analyzed elsewhere. On the unreliability of historical works written after the fact, the epigrapher and poet Zhao Mingcheng (1081–1129) stated "... the inscriptions on stone and bronze are made at the time the events took place and can be trusted without reservation, and thus discrepancies may be discovered." Historian R.C. Rudolph states that Zhao's emphasis on consulting contemporary sources for accurate dating is parallel with the concern of the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), and was in fact emphasized by many Song scholars. The Song scholar Hong Mai (1123–1202) heavily criticized what he called the court's "ridiculous" archaeological catalogue Bogutu compiled during the Huizong reign periods of Zheng He and Xuan He (1111–1125). Hong Mai obtained old vessels from the Han dynasty and compared them with the descriptions offered in the catalogue, which he found so inaccurate he stated he had to "hold my sides with laughter." Hong Mai pointed out that the erroneous material was the fault of Chancellor Cai Jing, who prohibited scholars from reading and consulting written histories.