生平

早年

邓艾早年丧父，家境清寒，长期居于今河南省境内。邓艾自小已有口吃毛病；曾于汝南（今河南上蔡）牧牛一时。12岁随母迁居颍川时，见到已故太丘长陈寔碑文上写著「文为世范、行为士则」，便自行取名为邓范，字士则。后来有一个族人跟他同名，遂改为邓艾。

邓艾早年凭其才学获举荐为典农都尉，然而因为口吃未能迁升，因而就任与农业相关的稻田守丛草吏一职。邓艾酷爱军事，每到高山大泽，定必测量绘制地形，规划扎营布防。时人常取笑邓艾，然邓艾并不在意。

积粮垦荒

邓艾在地方任职十数年后，担任上计吏，前往京都洛阳向太尉司马懿汇报地方工作时，因司马懿赏识，邓艾总算被提拔，成为太尉府掾属；后升任尚书郎。

由正始元年（240年）起，魏国准备在淮河两岸展开大规模屯田，以积备军粮。邓艾获派往视察，及后还著《济河论》以阐明具体方案。他认为：「昔破黄巾，因为屯田，积谷于许都以制四方。今三隅已定，事在淮南，每大军征举，运兵过半，功费巨亿，以为大役。陈、蔡之间，土下田良，可省许昌左右诸稻田，并水东下。令淮北屯二万人，淮南三万人，十二分休，常有四万人，且田且守。水丰常收三倍于西，计除众费，岁完五百万斛以为军资。六七年间，可积三千万斛于淮上，此则十万之众五年食也。以此乘吴，无往而不克矣。」

司马懿对此非常满意，决定采纳施行，由黄河引水注入两淮，并在两淮每五里设一军屯营，每营六十人，为稳定东南形势，提供坚实的后勤保障。

251年司马懿去世，由长子司马师继承父职。邓艾先任汝南太守，后又任兖州刺史，加振威将军。邓艾每到一处就屯田垦荒，「艾所在，荒野开辟，军民并丰」。

曲城之战

249年秋，蜀汉姜维出师进攻雍州（今陕西关中及甘肃东部），欲拉拢羌胡归蜀。司马昭派郭淮、陈泰统兵抵御，邓艾也参与其中。邓艾进围曲城（今甘肃岷县东百里），切断交通及水源，曲城蜀军困窘不堪。姜维迅速撤回。魏国把邓艾留守白水(今甘肃白龙江)北岸屯兵，以防蜀军反攻。不久姜维派廖化率兵复返，在白水南岸扎营，与邓艾对峙。邓艾分析姜维在派廖化驻守白水南岸时，欲从北面洮城（今甘肃临潭西南）偷袭。邓艾乃即时抢占洮城。后姜维果然率兵攻洮城，见邓艾抢先一步，只好撤军，魏兵得以不败。邓艾因此功被赐爵关内侯，加讨寇将军。

254年曹髦即位，邓艾进爵方城亭侯，后参与镇压毌丘俭之乱，因此又进封方城乡侯，行安西将军。

狄道之战

正元二年（255年）司马师病危，蜀国姜维乘机派数万人伐魏，进攻陇西，向狄道（今甘肃临洮）进军。魏将陈泰死命抵抗，仍被姜维成功包围狄道。同年八月辛未日（10月9日），司马昭命邓艾出任安西将军、假节、领护东羌校尉，跟陈泰等并力抗蜀。陈泰与邓艾军会合后，分三路进至陇西，避开蜀军，出其不意地绕过高城岭（今甘肃渭源西北），进至狄道东南山上，燃火击鼓与城内联络，守军见援军至，士气大振。姜维即督军沿山进攻，被魏军击退。这时陈泰扬言截断蜀军退路，九月甲辰日（11月11日），姜维遂撤军退走钟堤（今甘肃临洮南）。

段谷之战

255年姜维伐魏失败，退守锺堤。邓艾认为姜维会再次来犯，所以加紧防备。256年，六月，姜维与蜀将胡济约定在上邽（今甘肃天水）会合。姜维率先出兵祁山，邓艾有备，乃改从董亭（今甘肃武山南）攻南安（今甘肃陇西东南）。邓艾军抢占武城山（今甘肃武山西南）据险拒守。姜维见地利已失，强攻难克，于是夜渡渭水东进，沿山进取上邽。两军战于段谷（今甘肃天水西南）。胡济失期未至，蜀军交战不利，死伤甚众。魏国因此封邓艾为镇西将军、都督陇右诸军事，进封邓侯，分五百户，封子邓忠为亭侯。

不战而胜

257年魏将诸葛诞联合东吴在淮南起兵反司马昭。司马昭调关中兵力东下讨伐诸葛诞。姜维乘机攻魏秦川（渭水流域）。当时魏在长城（今陕西周至南）积存大量军粮，但防守薄弱。邓艾与魏将司马望恐姜维袭夺长城，立即合军据守。姜维军进至芒水（今陕西周至黑水），依山为营。司马望、邓艾军近水筑寨。蜀军多次挑战，魏军坚守不出，两军长期对峙。次年（258年）诸葛诞败亡，姜维闻讯，只得引军而还。邓艾不战而胜，因而再升任征西将军，前后共增食邑六千六百户。

262年姜维再起兵伐魏，攻入洮阳境。邓艾抓住姜维悬师远征，战线长，给养困难，难以持久的弱点，抢占有利地势，在洮阳以东的侯和（今卓尼东北）设阵，以逸待劳，阻击蜀军。双方激战后，邓艾发起反击，蜀军大败，损失严重。

偷渡阴平

263年秋，大将军司马昭策划大举伐汉，命邓艾率三万馀人纠缠屯田沓中的姜维，雍州刺史诸葛绪率三万馀人断其归路，锺会统十馀万众进攻汉中，廷尉卫瓘监军。钟会攻破汉中，姜维退守剑阁，相持不下。十月，邓艾挑选精锐，从阴平小路无人之地隐蔽前进。山高谷深，粮食将尽，在生死存亡的紧急关头，邓艾用毛毡裹住自己，翻滚著下山，于是将士们也都攀缘山崖树木，鱼贯而进。奇兵出现在江油，蜀汉守将马邈投降。邓艾率军迅速攻破涪陵及绵竹，蜀汉卫将军、诸葛亮之子诸葛瞻战死。不久，刘禅投降，蜀汉灭亡，之后邓艾在绵竹修筑京观。

功高自傲

伐蜀胜利之后，邓艾擅自拜刘禅为骠骑将军，恢复其它蜀国官员的职位，重操旧职。他曾对蜀国的官员说：「诸位因为有我，所以才有今天。如果你们碰到吴汉这样的人，你们早已灭亡。」又说：「姜维自是英雄一时，与我相遇，所以穷途末路。」向来与其不睦的钟会藉此向司马昭诬称邓艾谋反，而邓艾在处置投降的蜀汉君臣时没有遵从司马昭的指示，也加深司马昭的疑忌，遂命钟会收捕邓艾送长安。钟会谋反失败被诛后，邓艾部将欲追还邓艾，卫瓘为了自身安危，派遣田续在绵阳西杀死邓艾、邓忠父子。邓艾在洛阳的诸子也被杀。

由于邓艾长期镇守陇右，司马昭担心边境会出现状况，于是派遣唐彬前往当地查看状况。唐彬考察后返回洛阳告诉司马昭，邓艾待人刻薄、无礼，不喜欢听不同意见，经常辱骂下属，而且他还在陇右当地大兴徭役，陇右人非常反感。唐彬示意司马昭不用担心边境会出事。泰始九年（273年），晋武帝司马炎下诏「艾有功勋，受罪不逃刑，而子孙为民隶，朕常愍之」，遂拔擢其孙邓朗为郎中。

轶事

• 诸葛恪包围合肥新城不成而撤退，当时邓艾向司马师预测说诸葛恪会身亡名裂，果然诸葛恪最后被孙峻诬陷身亡，但没想到自身在十年后历史重演，也为锺会等人陷害身亡。

• 邓艾出兵蜀汉前，曾梦见自己席坐于山上，眺望著流水，于是找来殄虏护军爰邵，问梦境的暗示。爰邵算出邓艾为蹇卦，以「即使能取胜蜀汉，恐怕将军也难以返国」相告，后来果然一如所料。

• 《世说新语·言语篇》中有一则关于邓艾机敏的故事，记曰邓艾有口吃，每次说话提到自己时老是「艾、艾」连呼，司马昭故意戏弄他，便问：「你老是说『艾、艾』，究竟有多少个『艾』啊？」邓艾回答：「楚狂接舆曾在孔子旁唱道『凤兮凤兮』，其实只有一凤而已啊。」(原文：邓艾口吃，语称「艾艾……」晋文王戏之曰：「卿云『艾艾』，定是几艾？」对曰：「『凤兮凤兮』，故是一凤。」)。此与西汉有口吃的周昌被后世结合为成语「期期艾艾」。

• 唐代李翰所撰《蒙求》中有「邓艾大志」一语。

• 前蜀天汉元年（917年）（其时国号为汉）正月追封邓艾为彰顺王。

• 宋代欧阳修、宋祁等撰写的《新唐书·卷十五·志第五·礼乐五·吉礼五》中提到，唐代时礼仪使颜真卿曾经向皇室建议，追封古代名将六十四人，并为他们设庙享奠，当中就包括「魏太尉邓艾」。同时代被列入庙享名单的只有张辽、关羽、张飞、周瑜、吕蒙、陆逊、陆抗、羊祜而已。

• 同样，元代脱脱等撰写的《宋史·卷一零五·志第五十八·礼八·吉礼八》提及宋代宣和五年时，皇室依照唐代惯例，为古代名将设庙，七十二位名将中亦包括邓艾。

• 中国河南省周口市商水县有一道「邓城猪蹄」，据称是邓艾于此地驻屯时，由军中厨子烹调的菜肴，名传至今。

评价

• 曹髦：「逆贼姜维连年狡黠，民夷骚动，西土不宁。艾筹画有方，忠勇奋发，斩将十数，馘首千计；国威震于巴、蜀，武声扬于江、岷。」（《三国志·王毌丘诸葛邓锺传》）

• 曹奂：「艾曜威奋武，深入虏庭，斩将搴旗，枭其鲸鲵，使僭号之主，稽首系颈，历世逋诛，一朝而平。兵不逾时，战不终日，云彻席卷，荡定巴蜀。虽白起破强楚，韩信克劲赵，吴汉禽子阳，亚夫灭七国，计功论美，不足比勋也。」（《三国志·王毌丘诸葛邓锺传》）

• 司马炎：「征西将军邓艾，矜功失节，实应大辟。然被书之日，罢遣人众，束手受罪，比于求生遂为恶者，诚复不同。」「艾有功勋，受罪不逃刑，而子孙为民隶，朕常愍之。」（《三国志·王毌丘诸葛邓锺传》）

• 陈寿：「邓艾矫然强壮，立功立事，然暗于防患，咎败旋至，岂远知乎诸葛恪而不能近自见，此盖古人所谓目论者也。」「艾所在，荒野开辟，军民并丰。」（《三国志·王毌丘诸葛邓锺传》）

• 段灼：「艾心怀至忠而荷反逆之名，平定巴蜀而受夷灭之诛，臣窃悼之。惜哉，言艾之反也！艾性刚急，轻犯雅俗，不能协同朋类，故莫肯理之……昔姜维有断陇右之志，艾修治备守，积谷强兵。值岁凶旱，艾为区种，身被乌衣，手执耒耜，以率将士。上下相感，莫不尽力。艾持节守边，所统万数，而不难仆虏之劳，士民之役，非执节忠勤，孰能若此？故落门、段谷之战，以少击多，摧破强贼。先帝知其可任，委艾庙胜，授以长策。艾受命忘身，束马县车，自投死地，勇气陵云，士众乘势，使刘禅君臣面缚，叉手屈膝。艾功名以成，当书之竹帛，传祚万世。七十老公，反欲何求！艾诚恃养育之恩，心不自疑，矫命承制，权安社稷；虽违常科，有合古义，原心定罪，本在可论……忠而受诛，信而见疑，头县马巿，诸子并斩，见之者垂泣，闻之者叹息……今天下民人为艾悼心痛恨，亦犹是也。」（《三国志·王毌丘诸葛邓锺传》）

• 唐彬：「邓艾忌克诡狭，矜能负才，顺从者谓为见事，直言者谓之触迕。虽长史司马，参佐牙门，答对失指，辄见骂辱。处身无礼，大失人心。又好施行事役，数劳众力。陇右甚患苦之，喜闻其祸，不肯为用。」（《晋书·唐彬传》）

• 袁准：「今国家一举而灭蜀，自征伐之功，未有如此之速者也。方邓艾以万人入江由之危险，钟会以二十万众留剑阁而不得进，三军之士已饥，艾虽战胜克将，使刘禅数日不降，则二将之军难以反矣。故功业如此之难也。国家前有寿春之役，后有灭蜀之劳，百姓贫而仓禀虚，故小国之虑，在于时立功以自存，大国之虑，在于既胜而力竭，成功之后，戒惧之时也。」

• 虞预：「王基、邓艾、周秦、贾越之徒，皆起自寒门，而著绩于朝。」

• 王安石：「昔邓艾不赖蔡河漕运，故能并水东下，大兴水田。」（《宋史·河渠志》）

• 梁周瀚：「亚夫则死于狱吏，邓艾则追于槛车……凡此名将，悉皆人雄，苟欲指瑕，谁当无累，或从澄汰，尽可弃捐。」（《宋史·梁周瀚传》）

• 尉元：「进无邓艾一举之功，退无羊祜保境之略。」（《魏书·尉元传》）

• 成淹：「至如邓艾怀忠，矫命宁国，赤心皎然，幽显同见，而横受屠戮，良可悲哀。」（《魏书·慕容白曜传》）

• 李商隐：「或谑张飞胡，或笑邓艾吃。豪鹰毛崱屴，猛马气佶僳。」

• 刘克庄：「十里稀逢寸地平，且无木影荫入行。凫飞难学王乔舄，鱼贯全如邓艾兵。」

• 杨巨源：「天低荒草誓师坛，邓艾心知战地宽。鼓角迥临霜野曙，旌旗高对雪峰寒。」

• 魏靖：「傥使平反者数人，众共详覆来俊臣等所推大狱，庶邓艾获申于今日，孝妇不滥于昔时，恩涣一流，天下幸甚。」（《旧唐书·刑法志》）

• 李士谦：「邓艾为牛。」（《北史·李士谦传》）

• 洪咨夔：「蜀庸无与守，魏吃浪成名。血已洿砧机，魂犹饕酒牲。柏溪融雪泻，玉案倚云横。潴剃莫留迹，山川方气平。」（《毁邓艾庙》）

• 李新：「高鸟无馀弓自除，由来名盛不堪居。易挥道左降王缚，难弭朝端谤箧书。更欲平吴功未就，可怜出蜀智何疏。凤台山月知冤魄，夜夜停光照故墟。」（《赋邓士载祠》）

• 孟知祥：「奈何躁愤，自毁功庸，入此槛车，还为邓艾，深可痛惜，谁肯愍之！」（《旧五代史·唐书·康延孝传》）

• 何去非：「观艾之为将也，急于智名而锐于勇功喜激前利而忘顾后患者也。艾常以是胜敌矣，而卒结祸于其身者，亦以此也。始钟会以十万之劲而趋剑阁。姜维以摧折之师，惫于奔命，虽能拒扼，而终非坚敌也。艾为主帅，不务以全策縻之，乃独以其兵万人，自阴平邪径而趋江油，以袭刘禅。盖出其不意，而行无人之境七百馀里，凿山险，治桥阁，岩谷峻绝，士皆攀缘崖木，投堕而下。又粮运不继，而艾至于以毡自裹，转运而下。呜乎！可谓危矣。士皆殊死决战，仅获破诸葛瞻之师，而刘禅悸迫，即时束手。使禅独忍数日之不降，以待援师之集，则艾为以肉齿饿虎矣。艾一不济，则钟会十万之师，可传呼而溃矣。艾以其身为侥幸之举者，乃求生救则之计，非所谓取乱侮亡之师，而亦非大将自任之至数也。是役也，非艾无以取胜于速，而其胜也有出于幸。使其不幸而至于溃败者，亦艾致也。夫奇道之兵，将以掩覆于其外，必有以应听于其内，然后可与胜期而功会也。」

• 陈亮：「又二百馀年，遂为三国交据之地，诸葛亮由此起辅先主，荆楚之士从之如云，而汉氏赖以复存于蜀；周瑜、鲁肃、吕蒙、陆逊、陆抗、邓艾、羊祜皆以其地显名。」（《宋史·陈亮传》）

• 陈元靓：「赫赫皇魏，时生宝臣。忠卫社稷，志静烟尘。荡平巴蜀，恢庙咸秦。英锐不泯，激后之人。」

• 项忠：「昔马援薏苡蒙谤，邓艾槛车被徵。功不见录，身更不保。」（《明史·项忠传》）

• 陈普：「刘葛元非百世雠，缘崖攀木作猿猴。瞻崇艾会谁芳臭，死国沉身各二头。」「灭吴不解诛宰嚭，拜假何须便不咨。受任两无曹与马，槛车破了欲何之。」

• 黄道周：「艾凡遇境，规度其宜。不知者笑，知者惊奇。魏蓄田谷，破吴用之。田无水利，将何以滋。艾请开导，妙论皆施。偕淮拒蜀，揣度姜维。当渡不渡，袭洮无疑。急往先备，方不受欺。计蜀五利，料难直驰。阴平斜径，腹心所依。拼死涉险，舍命成危。裹毡死战，方得济师。其功异绩，成于一时。惜居不善，身首皆夷。算人妙矣，苦不自知。」（《广名将传》）

• 罗贯中：「当年邓艾袭西川，曾把阴平石径穿。 越岭雄兵齐贯索，临岩大将自披毡。五丁破路应难及，三国论功合让先。汉祚将终须换主，直饶山向上摩天！」「自幼能筹画，多谋善用兵。凝眸知地理，仰面识天文。马到山根断，兵来石径分。功成身被害，魂绕汉江云。」

• 卢弼：「邓艾耄年，裹毡履险，报国精忠，允宜彰表。」「艾随时随事，皆有经国远猷，竟为钟、卫所忌，惨死毒手，千秋而下，惜此美才。」（《三国志集解》）

艺术形象

动漫游戏

• 《真三国无双系列/无双OROCHI系列》（光荣公司开发，小原雅人配音）

• 《三国志姜维传》

• 《三国杀》

• 漫画《火凤燎原》（陈某）：于赤壁之战篇登场，为张辽之手下，并随张辽伪装成荆州难民突袭驻守海昏的太史慈。

影视

• 中国中央电视台电视剧《三国演义》（1994年）：王洪光

• 中国电视剧《大军师司马懿之军师联盟》（2017年）：刘凌志

Early life and career

Deng Ai was from Jiyang County (棘阳县), Yiyang Commandery (义阳郡), which is around present-day Xinye County, Henan. He was born towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and lost his father at a young age. When the warlord Cao Cao conquered northern Jing Province in 208, Deng Ai moved to Runan Commandery (汝南郡; in present-day southern Henan), where he lived as a farmer and raised cattle. When he was 11 years old, he and his mother passed by Chen Shi's tomb in Yingchuan Commandery (颍川郡; around present-day Xuchang, Henan). He read two lines engraved on Chen Shi's tombstone: "his writings became examples of excellent prose; his conduct served as a role model for scholar-officials" (文为世范，行为士则). He was so inspired that he wanted to change his given name to Fan (literally "(role) model") and his courtesy name to Shize (literally "for scholar-officials to emulate"). However, since the names Fan and Shize were already used by members of his extended family, he could not change his names as such because it would violate the naming taboo.

Deng Ai later became an academician under the Commandant of Xiangcheng (襄城; present-day Xiangcheng County, Henan). However, he was not too successful in his career because he stuttered in his speech. He then switched his job to an agricultural officer in charge of grain and fodder. The locals pitied him for his poor family background and often provided him with financial aid. Deng Ai initially did not show any form of gratitude towards them. Whenever he saw mountains and lakes, he started gesturing and pointing out how and where he believed army camps should be laid out, but was scorned by others. Later on, he was promoted to a clerical position which put him in charge of maintaining records of agricultural output.

Deng Ai had an acquaintance, Shi Bao (石苞), who was about the same age as him. They were quite close to Guo Xuanxin (郭玄信), who served as an Internuncio (谒者). When Ji Ben, an imperial physician, started a rebellion in Xu (许; present-day Xuchang, Henan) in 218, Guo Xuanxin was implicated and initially placed under house arrest until an officer came to escort him to the imperial capital for trial. Deng Ai and Shi Bao were among the escorts. While travelling for about ten li, Guo Xuanxin chatted with them along the way and remarked that the two of them would become very capable officials in the future. Deng Ai was later promoted to the rank of an Agricultural Officer of Merit (典农功曹).

Sometime between 235 and 239, he was sent as a messenger to the capital, Luoyang, where, by chance, he met Sima Yi, who was then serving as the Grand Commandant (太尉) under the Wei government. Sima Yi felt that Deng Ai was an extraordinary person so he recruited him and promoted him to the position of a Gentleman of Writing (尚书郎).

Agricultural and irrigation projects

Around the time, the Wei state was planning to promote agriculture and stockpile food resources in preparation for military campaigns against its rival states, Shu and Wu. Deng Ai was sent to survey the lands from the east of Chen and Xiang (项) commanderies (around present-day Zhoukou, Henan) to Shouchun (寿春; around present-day Shou County, Anhui), and assess their suitability for agriculture. He saw that the lands were fertile but lacked moisture, so they were not fully utilised. He suggested digging irrigation channels to irrigate the land, and open up new canals for transporting goods by water.

Deng Ai wrote a proposal, the Ji He Lun (济河论; Discussion on the River), to explain his ideas: Sima Yi agreed with Deng Ai's proposal and implemented his ideas.

In 241, the agricultural projects were complete. Whenever there were battles in the southeast between Wei and Wu, the Wei forces could sail down the river towards the Huai River region to counter the enemy. This was because they had plenty of food supplies stockpiled upstream and had the water pathways to their advantage. Deng Ai received credit for his proposal.

Battle of Tao River

Deng Ai later became a military adviser to the Wei general Xiahou Xuan and served as the Administrator of Nan'an Commandery (南安郡; around present-day Longxi and Wushan counties, Gansu). In 249, he followed Xiahou Xuan's successor Guo Huai to resist an invasion led by the Shu general Jiang Wei. After the Shu forces were repelled, Guo Huai advanced west to attack the Qiang tribes. Deng Ai cautioned him: "The enemy did not retreat far. They might turn back to attack us again, so we should split up our forces in case they attack us again."

Guo Huai then ordered Chen Tai, Xu Zhi and Deng Ai to lead Wei forces to attack the fortresses at Qushan and cut off their food and water supplies. Ju An and Li Xin led their men to taunt Deng Ai to attack them, but Deng Ai ignored them. As time passed, the two fortresses gradually ran out of supplies. Jiang Wei led his troops from Mount Niutou (牛头山; west of present-day Zhaohua District, Guangyuan, Sichuan) to reinforce the fortresses. They encountered Chen Tai and his troops along the way. Chen Tai said: "The Art of War says that the best way to win a battle is to win without fighting. If we manage to occupy Mount Niutou, Jiang Wei's return route will be sealed off and he can be easily captured by us." He then ordered his troops to build forts to resist Jiang Wei's forces but refrain from engaging the enemy. At the same time, he also wrote to Guo Huai and requested his help in attacking Mount Niutou. Guo Huai did so and led his troops across the Tao River in preparation for attacking Mount Niutou.

Deng Ai remained behind and garrisoned at the north of Baishui County. Three days later, Jiang Wei sent Liao Hua to lead a force to approach Deng Ai's camp from the south of Baishui. Deng Ai told his officers: "Jiang Wei has turned back to attack us. We have few troops. Ideally, we should cross the river and not build a bridge. I believe Jiang Wei must have sent Liao Hua to hinder us so that we are forced to remain here, while he would attack Taocheng (洮城) from the east." Taocheng was located north of the river and was about 60 li away from Deng Ai's position. Deng Ai immediately dispatched troops to travel overnight to Taocheng to defend the fortress. As he expected, Jiang Wei crossed the river to attack Taocheng, but failed to capture the fortress because Deng Ai had already strengthened its defences. For his achievements, Deng Ai was enfeoffed as a Secondary Marquis, awarded the rank of General Who Attacks Rebels, and subsequently appointed as the Administrator of Chengyang Commandery (城阳郡; around present-day Zhucheng, Shandong).

Military advisor service

Around the time, the Xiongnu prince Liu Bao, who was nominally a vassal under the Wei government, unified the Five Divisions of Xiongnu in Bing province and was building up his military force. Deng Ai wrote a memorial to the Wei imperial court:

Deng Ai also suggested: "We should gradually segregate those Han Chinese living with barbarians, inculcate moral values such as integrity in them, so as to prevent them from resorting to unlawful actions." Sima Shi, the General-in-Chief who had recently taken over the reins of power as the regent of Wei, accepted Deng Ai's suggestions. He also appointed Deng Ai as the Administrator of Runan Commandery (汝南郡; in present-day southern Henan), where Deng lived in his younger days. Upon arriving in Runan to take office, Deng Ai sought a man who generously helped his father before because he wanted to repay that man for his kindness. However, he was disappointed to learn that the man had already died, so he sent his subordinates to pay respects at the man's tomb on his behalf. He also gave many gifts to the man's mother and recruited the man's son to be an accounting officer under him. During his tenure, Deng Ai developed wastelands in Runan and ensured that his soldiers and the common people had their basic needs fulfilled.

When the Wu regent Zhuge Ke retreated after a failed attempt to capture the Wei-controlled fortress at Hefei, Deng Ai approached the Wei regent Sima Shi and said: As Deng Ai foresaw, Zhuge Ke was ousted from power not long after he returned to Wu and was killed along with his family.

Deng Ai was appointed as the Inspector of Yan Province (兖州刺史) and promoted to General Who Inspires Might. He wrote a memorial to the Wei imperial court:

Suppression of Second Shouchun rebellion

Deng Ai was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Fangcheng Village (方城亭侯) after Cao Mao became the new Wei emperor in 254. In the following year, when the Wei generals Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin started a rebellion in Shouchun (寿春; around present-day Shou County, Anhui), they sent messengers to other areas to incite the people to join their rebellion. Deng Ai arrested and executed the messengers, and then led troops to suppress the rebellion. His force occupied Yuejia (乐嘉; present-day Xiangcheng, Henan) and started building pontoon bridges. When the main Wei army led by Sima Shi showed up, Deng Ai rendezvoused with him and they advanced towards Shouchun together. The rebels were subsequently defeated. Deng Ai pursued the fleeing Wen Qin to Qiutou (丘头; southeast of present-day Shenqiu County, Henan), but Wen Qin still managed to escape and defect to Wei's rival state, Wu.

The Wu general Sun Jun led thousands of troops and crossed the Yangtze to support the rebels. The Wei general Zhuge Dan ordered Deng Ai to resist the enemy at Feiyang (肥阳), but Deng saw that if he was stationed in Feiyang he would be in a disadvantageous position, so he relocated his troops to a neighbouring village. He then sent Zhuge Xu to attack the remaining rebels and Wu forces at Lijiang Village (黎浆亭; southeast of present-day Shou County, Anhui), where they defeated the enemy.

In the same year, Deng Ai was promoted to Colonel of Changshui (长水校尉). Later on, for his contributions in suppressing the rebellion, he was further promoted to acting General Who Stabilises the West and his marquis rank was increased by one grade to Marquis of Fangcheng District.

Defending Wei territory

Around 255, the Shu general Jiang Wei led forces to attack Wei and besieged Wang Jing, the Inspector of Yong Province, in Didao (狄道; southwest of present-day Lintao County, Gansu). The Wei imperial court appointed Deng Ai as General Who Stabilises the West and Colonel Who Protects the Eastern Qiang to lead troops to lift the siege. By then, Jiang Wei had withdrawn to Zhongti (锺提; south of present-day Lintao County, Gansu), so many of Deng Ai's subordinates thought that Jiang Wei was exhausted and would not attack Didao again. However, Deng Ai held a different opinion and he said: As Deng Ai predicted, Jiang Wei led his forces to attack Mount Qi later but were repelled by the defences set up by Deng. Jiang Wei retreated to Dong Village (董亭; south of present-day Wushan County, Gansu), while Deng Ai stationed his troops at Mount Wucheng (武城山). Jiang Wei tried to seize control of the mountainous terrain from Deng Ai, but was driven back. That night, Jiang Wei attempted to cross the Wei River to attack Shanggui (上邽; present-day Tianshui, Gansu). Deng Ai intercepted Jiang Wei at Duan Valley (段谷; southwest of present-day Tianshui, Gansu) and defeated him.

In 256, the Wei imperial court issued an edict as follows:

In the following year, Jiang Wei advanced to the Mang river in his attempt to attack the position of Deng Ai and Sima Wang. However, both Wei generals refused to engage and held their position.

Deng Ai defeated Jiang Wei in battle again along the Great Wall and forced him to retreat back to Shu. He was further promoted to General Who Attacks the West, and had the number of taxable households in his marquisate increased to 6,600.

In 262, he defeated Jiang Wei in battle at Houhe (侯和). Jiang Wei retreated to Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu) and garrisoned there.

Conquest of Shu

Strategic planning and opening moves

In the autumn of 263, the Wei imperial government started mobilising troops in preparation for a campaign against Shu. Sima Zhao, who oversaw the campaign, ordered Deng Ai to lead 30,000 troops to Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu) to harass Jiang Wei and keep him occupied, while Zhuge Xu, the Inspector of Yong Province, would lead forces to block Jiang Wei's retreat route back to Shu. Before Deng Ai embarked on the campaign against Shu, he dreamt of himself sitting on a mountaintop with water flowing near him. He asked an official, Yuan Shao (爰邵), who was well-versed in the Yijing, to explain to him what his dream meant. Yuan Shao told him that he would successfully conquer Shu, but would not return to Wei. Deng Ai felt gloomy after hearing this.

Deng Ai sent Wang Qi (王颀) to lead troops attack Jiang Wei's camp directly, with Qian Hong leading another force to clear the path, and Yang Xin to attack the enemy positions at Gansong (甘松; around present-day Songpan County, Sichuan).

When Jiang Wei received news that another Wei army led by Zhong Hui had occupied Hanzhong Commandery, he led his troops from Tazhong back further into Shu territory, but was pursued by Yang Xin to Qiangchuankou (强川口; the intersection of the Bailong and Jialing rivers), where he was defeated. Jiang Wei learnt that Zhuge Xu had blocked his retreat route at the bridge of Yinping, so he led his men through Konghan Valley (孔函谷; south of present-day Xigu District, Lanzhou, Gansu) to the northern road in an attempt to bypass Zhuge Xu's position. When Zhuge Xu heard about it, he retreated back by 30 li. By then, Jiang Wei and his troops had travelled about 30 li on the northern road when they heard that Zhuge Xu had lifted the blockade at the bridge. Jiang Wei ordered his troops to quickly turn back and cross the bridge. Zhuge Xu tried to turn back to block Jiang Wei again but arrived at the bridge one day too late. After crossing the bridge, Jiang Wei moved to the mountain pass of Jiange and garrisoned there. Zhong Hui attacked Jiang Wei at Jiange several times but was unable to breach the defences.

Capture of the Shu capital

Deng Ai proposed:

Zhong Hui approved Deng Ai's idea and even ordered his subordinate Tian Zhang (田章) to join Deng Ai on the expedition. Some time between 18 November and 17 December 263, Deng Ai led a strike force from Yinping through the shortcut, bypassing the west of Jiange and heading straight towards Jiangyou. The shortcut covered a distance of more than 700 li and cut across mountainous terrain. Deng Ai and his men had to construct several bridges along the way. The mountains were high and the valleys were deep, which made the journey extremely dangerous. After some time, they were completely cut off from their supply train. Deng Ai wrapped himself in a large piece of felt and rolled down the mountain. His men climbed trees and scaled cliffs in single file. Along the way, they encountered three groups of Shu ambushers, defeated them and destroyed their camps. Deng Ai let Tian Zhang lead the vanguard and clear the path. Deng Ai and his vanguard showed up at Jiangyou. Ma Miao, the Shu-appointed administrator of Jiangyou, gave up resistance and surrendered to Deng Ai.

The Shu general Zhuge Zhan led an army from Fu County to Mianzhu, where they engaged Deng Ai and his troops in battle. Deng Ai ordered his son Deng Zhong (邓忠) to flank the enemy from the right, and Shi Zuan (师纂) to flank the enemy from the left. Both Deng Zhong and Shi Zuan were driven back by Zhuge Zhan, and they told Deng Ai: "The enemy cannot be defeated.". Deng Ai sternly replied: "This battle will determine whether we live or die. What do you mean when you say the enemy cannot be defeated?" He wanted to execute them, but they turned back and hastily readied their troops for battle again. They defeated the Shu forces and killed the enemy officers Zhuge Zhan, Zhuge Shang and Zhang Zun.

Deng Ai and his men then pressed on further to Luo County (雒县; north of present-day Guanghan, Sichuan). Liu Shan, the Shu emperor, sent an emissary to present his imperial seal to Deng Ai and indicate his wish to surrender.

Managing post-war Shu

When Deng Ai arrived in Chengdu, Liu Shan tied himself up and led an entourage of over 60 people to officially surrender. Deng Ai freed Liu Shan from his bonds and treated him kindly. He also forbid his soldiers from plundering and pillaging the city, and ordered that daily activities in the city resume as per normal. Many former Shu officials were so impressed with Deng Ai that they willingly submitted to him; the people of Shu also praised Deng Ai for his kindness. Deng Ai used his acting imperial authority granted by the Wei government to appoint Liu Shan as acting General of Chariots of Cavalry and grant titles to many former Shu nobles and officials; some of them became his subordinates. Deng Ai also appointed Shi Zuan as the Inspector of Yi Province and put Qian Hong in charge of overseeing the former Shu commanderies. A memorial was constructed at Mianzhu to glorify Deng Ai's victory over Zhuge Zhan, and the fallen Wei soldiers were buried alongside their Shu counterparts.

Deng Ai became arrogant about his achievements in conquering Shu. He once bragged to the former Shu officials: "All of you are lucky to have encountered me, which is why you are where you are today. If you encountered someone like Wu Han, you would have been destroyed." He also said: "Jiang Wei is a short-lived hero. He pales in comparison with me." Some people scorned him for his boastfulness.

On 8 February 264, the Wei imperial court issued an edict praising Deng Ai for his successful conquest of Shu and comparing him to famous generals such as Bai Qi, Han Xin, Wu Han and Zhou Yafu. Deng Ai was promoted to the position of Grand Commandant (太尉) in the imperial court and had the number of taxable households in his marquisate increased by 20,000. His two sons were made village marquises (亭侯) and given 1,000 taxable households each in their marquisates.

Downfall and death

Correspondence between Deng Ai and Sima Zhao

Deng Ai wrote to Sima Zhao, suggesting that they let the weary troops rest and recuperate while concurrently making preparations for a future campaign against Wei's other rival state, Wu. He also proposed that Liu Shan be treated generously by making him a prince and showering him with luxuries. The purpose of doing so was to induce and tempt Sun Xiu, the Wu emperor, into voluntarily surrendering to Wei. He wrote:

Sima Zhao sent Wei Guan to reply Deng Ai that his proposal would be submitted to the Wei imperial court for further deliberation before it could be implemented. Deng Ai grew impatient and argued that they would be wasting time if they had to wait for further instructions from the imperial court before taking action. He quoted lines from the Spring and Autumn Annals and The Art of War to hint that he was justified in ignoring standard protocol and acting autocratically as long as what he did was to Wei's benefit. He wrote:

Zhong Huis role in Deng Ais arrest

Zhong Hui, Hu Lie (胡烈), Shi Zuan (师纂) and others accused Deng Ai of showing disrespect for the Wei imperial court's authority, and claimed that he was likely to start a rebellion. The Shiyu mentioned that Zhong Hui was skilled in imitating people's handwriting. After getting his hands on a letter written by Deng Ai to Sima Zhao, he edited it to make it sound arrogant and demanding. At the same time, he also destroyed a letter from Sima Zhao to Deng Ai to increase Sima's suspicions towards Deng.

Sometime in late February or early March 264, the Wei imperial court then issued an edict ordering Deng Ai to be arrested and transported back to the capital, Luoyang. Wei Guan and Zhong Hui went to Deng Ai's camp, where they used Sima Zhao's letter to order Deng Ai's men to put down their weapons. Deng Ai was arrested and placed in a prison cart for his journey to Luoyang. When he was arrested, Deng Ai exclaimed: "I am a loyal subject, yet I meet with such a fate! Whatever that happened to Bai Qi in the past has just happened to me in the present."

Death

After Deng Ai was escorted away, Zhong Hui started a rebellion against Wei in Chengdu on 1 March 264, but the rebellion failed when some Wei officers, who were unwilling to participate, mutinied against Zhong Hui and killed him on 3 March 264. After Zhong Hui's death, Deng Ai's subordinates caught up with the convoy escorting their general, freed him, and brought him back to Chengdu. When Wei Guan heard about it, he ordered Tian Xu to lead troops to attack Deng Ai.

Tian Xu had initially served under Deng Ai during the campaign against Shu. During an earlier battle at Jiangyou, Deng Ai wanted to execute Tian Xu for delaying his advance against the enemy, but spared him eventually. When Wei Guan sent Tian Xu to attack Deng Ai, he told Tian, "You can now take revenge against Deng Ai for how he humiliated you at Jiangyou."

Tian Xu and his soldiers intercepted Deng Ai at the west of Mianzhu and killed him along with his son, Deng Zhong (邓忠), and Shi Zuan. After Deng Ai's death, his other son(s) in Luoyang was/were also rounded up and executed, while his surviving family members were exiled to the Western Regions.

When the Wei general Du Yu heard about what Wei Guan told Tian Xu, he remarked that Wei Guan, as a man of high social status, should not behave in such a petty and spiteful manner. When Wei Guan heard about Du Yu's remarks, he immediately went to meet Du Yu to thank him.

Posthumous rehabilitation

In 266, after the Jin dynasty replaced the Wei regime in February, Sima Yan (Emperor Wu) issued an imperial edict to pardon Deng Ai's descendants and allow them to return from exile. He noted that Deng Ai was fairly punished for his arrogance and audacity, but the "redeeming" factor was that Deng Ai did not resist arrest and willingly resigned to his fate.

When Deng Ai was stationed in Yong and Liang provinces, he strengthened the parapets in the area and had some forts constructed for defensive purposes. During the mid-Taishi era (265–274) in Emperor Wu's reign, the Qiang tribes in Yong Province rebelled against Jin rule and killed the Inspector of Liang Province. The surviving officials and local residents found safety in the forts built by Deng Ai about a decade earlier.

Legacy

Family and descendants

Deng Ai had at least two sons. Two of his sons – one of whom was Deng Zhong (邓忠) – held village marquis titles and owned marquisates of 1,000 taxable households. Deng Zhong was killed along with his father. Deng Ai's other sons who were in Luoyang were arrested and executed in the aftermath of their father's death. Deng Ai's surviving family members were exiled and allowed to return only in 266 after Emperor Wu of the Jin dynasty issued an imperial edict pardoning them.

In 273, Emperor Wu appointed Deng Ai's grandson, Deng Lang (邓朗), as a langzhong (郎中). Deng Lang served as the Prefect of Danshui County (丹水县; around present-day Xichuan County, Henan) and then as the Prefect of Dingling County (定陵县; around present-day Qingyang County, Anhui). He had at least one son, Deng Tao (邓韬). During the Yongjia era (307–313) in the reign of Emperor Huai, Deng Lang was appointed as the Administrator of Xindu Commandery (新都郡; around present-day Guanghan, Sichuan). However, before he left to assume office, he died in a fire in Xiangyang Commandery along with his mother, wife and children. Only his grandson Deng Xing (邓行), Deng Tao's son, survived the fire.

Deng Qianqiu (邓千秋), another grandson of Deng Ai, was recruited to serve under Wang Rong, a prominent Jin dynasty official. He died before Deng Lang while his two sons also perished in the Xiangyang fire.

Appraisal

Chen Shou (233–297), who wrote Deng Ai's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on Deng Ai as follows: "Deng Ai was upright and strong. He achieved many successes, but failed to protect himself from hidden pitfalls and dangers, which resulted in his eventual downfall. He could envision what would happen to Zhuge Ke, yet ironically could not foresee his own fate. This was probably what the ancients called 'lack of self-awareness and narrow-mindedness'."

In 267, Duan Zhuo (段灼) wrote a memorial to Emperor Wu of the Jin dynasty to speak up for Deng Ai. In the memorial, Duan Zhuo discussed Deng Ai's contributions to Wei and argued that Deng had no intention of rebelling against Wei, citing Deng's advanced age (Deng was nearing 70 at the time of his death) as one reason. He also mentioned that Deng Ai had been deeply misunderstood because of his boorish and uncouth behaviour, which made him likely to offend people easily. Duan Zhuo also compared Deng Ai to Bai Qi and Wu Zixu, two generals in the Spring and Autumn period who made great contributions to their respective states but were forced to commit suicide.

During the mid-Xianning era (275–280) in Emperor Wu's reign, Fan Zhen (樊震), a general who previously served under Deng Ai during the Wei campaign against Shu, had an audience with the emperor. When Emperor Wu asked about Deng Ai, Fan Zhen became very emotional and he recalled that Deng Ai was a very loyal subject of Wei.

In popular culture

Deng Ai is first introduced as a playable character in the seventh instalment of Koei's Dynasty Warriors video game series. In the games, he is anachronistically associated with the Jin dynasty faction; historically, he died one year before the Jin dynasty was established.